The location of interlocutors and partners at tables of various types. Communication as interaction

Communication is the interaction of people, which includes 3 parties.

a) The communicative side - as an exchange of information;

b) Interactive side - as an interaction;

c) The perceptual side - as the perception of a person by a person.

The communicative side of communication. In the foreground - "what is said?", and not "by whom" and "how".

There are the following types of communication:

Cognitive communication is the receipt and transmission of information.
Expressive communication is the exchange of emotions, opinions, and views.
Persuasive communication is to get the person to do something useful for us.
Socio-ritual communication - in order to maintain norms and customs.

Means of communication.

Speech (verbal means) is the most universal means of communication, because with its help information is transmitted most accurately with the least loss.

Non-verbal (non-verbal) means - facial expressions, pantomime, postures, gestures, distance between partners

There are also 2 special subgroups.

Extralinguistics - laughter, tears, sniffling, etc.

Paralinguistics is the sounds that accompany speech.

With the help of speech, a person conveys information, and with the help of non-verbals - his attitude to it. In case of contradiction between verbal and non-verbal expressions, people tend to trust non-verbal ones.

As we have already said, the distance of communication - the distance between partners - is a non-verbal factor. There are 4 communication zones

Intimate zone - 0 - 45 cm.
Personal (personal) zone - 45 - 120 cm.
Social zone - 120 - 350 cm.
Public area - from 350 cm and above.

It should be noted that the size of these zones varies in different cultures. In the Middle East, these zones are closer, in the West - farther.

The interactive side is communication as the interaction of people. Entering into interaction, people can be guided by various motives.

The motive for maximizing the overall gain. (Cooperation)
The motive for maximizing one's own gain. (Selfishness)
The motive is to maximize the gain of others. (Altruism)
The motive of maximizing one's own payoff while minimizing the payoff of others. (Competition)
The motive for minimizing the gain of others
The motive for minimizing payoff differences. (Equality)

Communication is successful if the motives of the parties coincide.

Positions of partners in communication.

Zero position - the position of rejection.

Attachment "from above" - dominance over a partner in communication.

The extension "next to" - the attitude towards the partner as an equal.

Attachment "from below" - voluntary submission of oneself to a partner.

Write an example from your life on the handout next to each of these definitions.

Communication levels.

Conventional - the most humane level of communication with the extension "nearby".
Primitive - a person is treated not as a person, but as a thing, either necessary or not. In relation to the lower ones, an extension is carried out “from above”, and in relation to the higher ones, a voluntary extension is carried out “from below”.
Manipulative - a game that must be won. Winning means gain, either material or psychological. Psychological benefit - the possibility of an extension "from above" for the unpunished application of psychological injections to a partner.
Business - the conventional level in business cooperation.
Game - similar to conventional, but surpasses it in the subtlety of content and richness of shades. The purpose of such communication is the desire to help another person get rid of shortcomings and better understand themselves. Let's say in groups of psychotherapy and between close people.
The formal level of communication is the contact of masks.
Spiritual - in relation to charismatic personalities

The perceptual side of communication reflects the perception and understanding of people by each other. The main mechanism of this side of communication is social perception - the perception of external signs of a person while simultaneously evaluating another person, his attitude towards us, as well as predicting his behavior.

The main types of social perception.

Identification is the ability to put yourself in the place of a communication partner and look at the situation through his eyes.
Empathy - "feeling" in the state of another
Attraction is the experience and formation of a primary relationship to a person as the basis for cognition of this person.

stereotypes of perception.

The halo effect is the tendency to judge positive character traits based on the perception of appearance. Attributing negative properties is the antihalo effect.
Attitude - an unconscious desire to think in a certain way about a person or relate to him under the influence of someone else's opinion or own experience.
Causal attribution is the attribution of behavioral motives based on attitudes.

In order to get rid of stereotypes or patterns of perception, it is important to have reflection - to be able to reflect yourself.

stages of communication.

Communication or conversation will be effective or successful when

a) People are satisfied with it;

b) Found and adopted a decision with which everyone agrees.

Thus, the conclusion is that in order for communication to be effective, it is necessary to go through four stages of communication.

Contact.
Orientation.
Finding a joint solution
Decision-making.

Contact. This stage is very important, since it is at this moment that a trusting contact is established, which helps to quickly come to a common understanding of the situation, and then to solve the problem. The contact stage can last from a few seconds to several hours. For example, when the interlocutors greet each other and get down to business, then the contact stage is very short. But sometimes people first talk for a long time on abstract topics and only after that they get down to business - then the stage of contact can be larger than the rest of the communication.

Orientation. At this stage, it is necessary to orient in the interlocutor, in his problem and orient the interlocutor in his understanding of the problem.

Search for a joint solution. Here the main emphasis is on the compatibility of the solution, that is, both interlocutors as partners must come to a single solution.

Decision making - in order to emphasize the significance of the decision. It happens that people have talked, and everyone has the impression that everything seems to be decided, but it is not clear what the decision is and who is responsible. Therefore, at this stage, the most important thing is to clearly state the decision made and make sure that it is understood in the same way.

Also important is the exit from contact or the ritual of farewell.

Stage "Contact". "Angle Rule" Behind the back of any person there is a corner into which it is easy to drive him, but there is no worthy way out of the corner. There are only two unworthy ones. The first is to try to win through aggression. But still lose. The second is to agree, give in, and then feel negative emotions, that is, immediately lose. Thus, there are two rules of the corner: do not drive the other into a corner, i.e. do not condemn him without sufficient reason, and do not go into this corner yourself, i.e. don't be offended.

It is impossible to solve the problem without establishing a contact!

Contact rules.

The first rule is hello. Three components: addressing a person by name, a smile, a handshake.

The second rule is that eye contact should be maintained 10-15% of the time of communication.

The third rule is to reduce social distance.

The fourth is to tell the person about his significance.

Fifth - do not conduct serious conversations on the go.

Orientation stage. To orient the person in your understanding of the problem and orient yourself in how your interlocutor understands the problem:

You need to be able to speak;

You need to be able to listen;

Pay attention to nonverbal expressions.

Reality map. Dogs. Generalization, omission, distortion.

People think in terms of images, sounds, and sensations.

Any spoken or read word evokes an image in them.
Everyone has their own dog in their head.
Internal pictures and images are combined in the head into whole films. It is these films that are remembered as memories of what was said or read.
Words are buttons, a trigger that starts the process of imagination.

There are three processes involved in creating a space of internal representations in a person.

generalization;
Omission;
Distortion.

Generalization. Generalizations help us learn quickly. Generalizations can limit our world.

Omissions. We can turn off one or another channel of perception and not perceive all the information that is around us at the moment.

Distortion. Without the process of distortion, the world could not change and develop. But this process also has its downsides. For example, through the process of distortion, people develop fears.

The biggest mistakes people make.

People often think that others think just like them.
People often believe that in any situation there can be only one true perception and only one interpretation of events - their interpretation.
People often assume that when they say a word, such as "doggy", other people mean and see the same thing as they do.

How to achieve the most complete understanding with others? Several things need to be done.

Firstly, it is to realize the subjectivity of human perception of the surrounding world.
Secondly, learn to listen and hear a person.

To do this, you need to master several techniques. One of them is active listening.

There are three types of listening:

Negative assessment, ignoring and egocentrism.
Questioning, remarks about the course of the conversation are passive listening techniques. With their help, you can show your partner that "I'm listening to you," but in reality, listening does not help.
Active listening techniques.

Active listening techniques

involve the following actions (verbalizations):

pronunciation. The interlocutor literally repeats the partner’s statements, while he can start with a phrase: “As I understand you, ....”, “In other words, ...”, etc.
Paraphrasing. The interlocutors reproduce the partner’s statement in an abbreviated and generalized form, briefly formulates the most essential in his words. “Your main ideas, as I understand it, are…”; "So, .."
Idea development. The interlocutor is trying to deduce a logical consequence from the partner’s statement: “Based on what you said, it turns out that ...”

Verbalizations perform the following functions:

Allows you to collect information.
Allows you to display the most important information.
Helps to clarify whether you have understood your partner correctly.
Helps to remember information better.
Helps to make sense of information.
Helps to sum up.
Helps to stay in line with the problem.
It is a means of targeting a partner.
Helps you better understand your problem.
Help to reinforce the partner's point of view.
Gives you time to think.
Verbalization helps to use the pause mechanism.

The stage of “search for a joint solution”. It is also often called the argumentation stage, since here it is necessary to argue your point of view and work with the partner's arguments.

What should be done with the arguments that your interlocutor has already expressed? Some of them need to be given counterarguments, some arguments should be disassembled, considered from different points of view.

There are two main strategies of argumentation - ascending and descending.

Stage "Decision Making"

The fourth stage is the stage of making a decision and getting out of contact. The success of the passage and completion of this stage depends on how effective the communication was, that is, whether it met both criteria for effectiveness. It is very important to pay attention to ensuring that a single decision is made, and that all participants understand this decision in the same way. The second important point is that all participants in the communication should be satisfied with both the decision itself and the decision-making process, and, consequently, with each other. In such a situation, the way out of contact occurs naturally, it is easy for everyone to say pleasant words to each other.

manipulative communication

Manipulation. - hidden control of human behavior, performed for the sake of any benefit of the one who controls. A person who, in his own interests, controls the behavior of another against his will, is called a manipulator. Manipulation of consciousness is present in all spheres of public life.

A manipulator is a kind of puppeteer who, with the help of "threads", controls others. Such threads can be human complexes, ambitions, public opinion, spiritual and moral values. Who uses manipulation and why?

Manipulation is used in cases where the purpose of manipulation is an action or intention that is immoral in the eyes of society;
Individuals manipulate, for whom it is impossible to state their intentions or requests, due to the influence of various complexes (feelings of guilt, superiority, increased anxiety, anxiety about the future, and others);
Naturally, politicians manipulate, always. Just out of habit, so as not to lose shape;
Unequivocally manipulated by journalists, TV presenters, investigators, prosecutors, lawyers and other lawyers.
manipulated by doctors, teachers and psychologists.

The manipulative system can be defined as a manipulative or game stereotype. There are four main manipulative schemes.

The active manipulator attempts to control others through active methods. He avoids showing his weakness in relationships, taking on the role of full strength. Usually attracted by his social position.
The passive manipulator is the opposite of the active manipulator. He decides that since he cannot control life, he will give up his efforts and allow himself to be controlled by an active manipulator.
The competitive manipulator sees life as a state that requires constant vigilance, because here you can win or lose - there is no middle ground. It oscillates between the methods of the first or the second, so it can be considered as something in between.
The fourth form of the manipulative system is the indifferent manipulation system. The manipulator plays the role indifferently, hoping for nothing and trying to slip away. "I don't care" is his favorite phrase.

The first sign is that a person behaves unnaturally, insincerely and at the same time learnedly, i.e. plays the most convenient role for him at the moment. False notes in the voice, exaggerated or vice versa, unnaturally suppressed emotions are also a sign of manipulation. Manipulation, in addition to all this, also has verbal manifestations - these are all kinds of verbal clichés, clichés, banal speech turns that do not carry a semantic load.

Metalanguage.

As we found out earlier, on average 60 - 80% of personal communication is carried out through non-verbal channels, but verbal communication is also extremely important. Like body language, metalanguage is based on "intuition", "premonition", "sixth sense" and the understanding that the words and thoughts of the interlocutor are not at all the same thing.

The most typical annoying metawords are "you know", "so to speak", "well" and the latest masterpiece of modernity - "as if". These phrases are most common among the poorly educated part of society, although they are very common in the media.

If you remove all meta-expressions from speech, then the conversation will become short, sharp and exclusively semantic. We will begin to seem rude, cruel and inconsiderate to each other. Metalanguage softens the blows that we deal to each other, allows us to manipulate the interlocutor, achieve our own goals and release emotions without causing mortal resentment.

Manipulation in business communication.

In business communication, it is very important to be able to recognize the psychological position of a partner and take one that will provide a constructive solution to the issue.

Manipulation methods	Protection methods
1. Imposing a role. Having guessed the desires of a person, the manipulator begins to impose the role of an irreplaceable worker, a disinterested employee, adored by everyone, irresistible, etc. For example, “Verochka, we all know perfectly well that if you don’t do it, no one will do it ...”	Relinquishing a role.
2. They make you a friend. The manipulator confidentially tells about himself, and then makes some burdensome request: “I see that you sympathize with me so much ... thank you ... I think you will not refuse ...”	Ignore hints, do not show excessive participation
3. Well-wisher. Extremely kindly and kindly asks about personal matters, difficulties, then makes a request, which after such a conversation is difficult to refuse.	Do not be frank with a person who is not a friend, do not feel obliged for showing participation.
4. "We are friends against a common enemy." The manipulator confidentially reports how badly a manager or colleague spoke about you. It arouses hostility towards the “ill-wisher”, pushing for certain actions.	"Why would he open up?"
5. You are made a colleague in a common cause. For example, a visitor confidentially, with the expectation of understanding and sympathy, devotes you to his wonderful project of reorganizing the work of the company. And then it is his papers that he asks to show to the director in the first place.	Do not succumb to the pathos of the interlocutor. Evaluate the essence of the project yourself.
6. Foggy hints. The manipulator does not express his request directly, but beats around the bush.	Interrupt his statements with the question “What are you talking about?”
7. Starves you out. The manipulator with a charming smile repeats the same request over and over again, which you cannot or do not want to fulfill.	"Broken Record"

According to E. Berne's theory of I-states, people in the process of communication take one of three manipulative positions, peculiar roles: Child, Adult, Parent. The name of the roles speaks for itself. A person who has taken the position of a child removes all responsibility for what is happening and shifts it to others. The parent exerts pressure and takes responsibility for making decisions. An adult is the most constructive position, based on respect for the interlocutor and awareness of one's responsibility. For the most constructive dialogue, it is necessary to transfer it to the position Adult - Adult. For this you need:

When communicating with the Child, remind him of his importance and responsibility.
For example: "I don't make the decisions"
“if not you, (deputy for procurement, head of the procurement department), then who?”

When communicating with the Parent, wait out the flow of emotions, ignore it and bring the interlocutor to the position of an adult, continuing communication from the position of common sense. We will return to this later.

No conflict

Location of interlocutors and partners at tables of various types

There are general rules for the interaction of participants in business conversations and commercial negotiations, depending on what place they occupy at the table. Let us first consider the location of the participants in a study at a standard rectangular table with four positions of your interlocutor: 1) corner location, 2) business interaction position, 3) competitive-defensive position and 4) independent position.

This arrangement of the interlocutors contributes to the fact that each side will adhere to its point of view. The table between them becomes a kind of barrier. People take this position at the table when they are in a competitive relationship or when one of them is reprimanding the other. If the meeting takes place in the office, then such an arrangement also indicates a relationship of official subordination.
Whatever business you are in, you should know that a competitive-defensive position makes it difficult to understand the point of view of the interlocutor, does not create a relaxed atmosphere. Greater mutual understanding will be achieved in a corner position and in a position of business cooperation than in a competitive-defensive position. The conversation in this position should be short and specific.
There are times when it is very difficult or inappropriate to take a corner position when presenting your material. Suppose you need to present a sample, diagram, or book for consideration to a person sitting across from you at a rectangular table. First put what you want to present on the center line of the table. If he leans forward to get a better look at your material, but does not move it to his side, this means that your product is of little interest to him. If he moves your material to his side of the table, then this means that he has shown interest in it. This makes it possible to ask permission to go to his side and take either a corner position or a position of business cooperation. However, if he pushes away what you brought him, then the deal will not take place and you need to end the conversation as soon as possible.
People who do not want to interact at the table with each other take an independent position (Fig. 4).
Most often, this position is occupied by visitors to libraries, resting on a bench in a park, or visitors to restaurants and cafes. This position indicates a lack of interest. She should be avoided

question, while answering, look first at it, and then turn your head towards the silent interlocutor, then again towards the talkative one, and then again towards the silent interlocutor. This technique allows the reticent interlocutor to feel that he is also involved in the conversation, and you - to win the favor of this person. And this means that you can get support from him if necessary.
Thus, a square (or rectangular) standing, which is usually a desktop, is used for business conversations, commercial negotiations, briefings, and for chastising the guilty. A round table is most often used to create a relaxed, informal atmosphere and is great if you need to reach an agreement.
It is necessary not only to choose the right shape of the table, but also to be able to seat your interlocutor at it in such a way as to create the greatest psychological comfort. This is especially important when you invite him to a gala dinner at your home or restaurant.
Try to make sure that your guest sits with his back to the wall. Psychologists have proven that a person's breathing rate, heart rate and brain pressure increase if he sits with his back to open space, especially if there is constant walking behind him. In addition, tension increases when a person's back is turned towards the front door or window, especially if it is a ground floor window.

As a partnership, it is driven by an attempt to overcome the disadvantages of sole proprietorship. It is a contractual relationship established between several entrepreneurs for the purpose of joint ownership and management of the firm. This form of business organization allows each of them to get the desired profit through the exchange of results of activities expressed in material form. Partners combine their abilities in doing business and managing financial resources. In this way, risks are distributed, as well as profits and possible losses.

Main forms of partnership

As you participate in the activities of the firm, business partnerships can be different. Partners may play an active role in the management of the enterprise, or several participants may contribute their material resources, but do not take part in the conduct of business. Cooperation in business can pursue different goals for each of its participants, while distributing the level of responsibility. From this follow the forms of partnership:

A commercial. A membership-based organization whose purpose is to make a profit.
Non-commercial. In this case, the goal of a non-profit organization is to assist its members in achieving individual goals (social, cultural, scientific, charitable, etc.).
Full partnership. Members are jointly and severally liable.
Limited partnership. Members have limited liability.
Strategic. At the same time, one of the partners is more economically significant, that is, more powerful in the financial sense, capable of providing the other company with resources to achieve strategic goals.

Principles of partnership in business

Relationships between people, companies and other financial market participants constantly increase the value created for stakeholders. There are a number of principles on the basis of which a business partnership is built:

Voluntariness.
common purpose and interest.
Interdependence arising from the distribution of risks, income, powers.
Emergence (the emergence of new properties as a result of combining efforts).
Obligations and agreement on the share of partners.
Collaboration.
Sharing of resources and competencies.
Good communications.

Also very important for effective cooperation is the ethical side of the relationship. It lies in mutual respect and trust of partners.

Advantages of business cooperation

Due to its undeniable advantages, business partnerships are in great demand as an economic mechanism. The offer to cooperate is perceived today as an effective way to increase one's own profits. Moreover, the partnership is organized by signing a written agreement, without additional bureaucratic red tape.

It makes it possible to redistribute various risks, and also has the following advantages:

Consolidation of resources of participants provides new opportunities for business expansion. This not only improves the prospects for the campaign, but also makes the organization less risky for the bankers.
Business partnership provides motivation and interest in achieving high performance.
The partnership structure of the organization is more attractive to international investors.
High specialization in management.
Implementation of a communication exchange.
Ensuring the competitive advantages of participants and achieving a balance of competitive forces.

Of course, cooperation encourages the creation of a unique business idea. Partnership is thus a support for innovative sources. The internal potential of the organization is mobilized for the implementation of its own economic goals.

The main disadvantages of partnership

With all the positive opportunities, business partnerships also have certain disadvantages. They are primarily related to the problem of the division of power and the incompatibility of the views of the participants. An uncoordinated policy can turn into irreversible, negative results for both sides. Also, difficulties may arise in the formation of the business management structure.

Another negative point is the unpredictability of the partnership. Factors such as the death of one of the participants, the exit from the partnership, can lead to the reorganization of the company or its complete collapse.

Choosing a partner for further cooperation

The decision to engage a partner for joint activities is made for various reasons. In any case, it should ensure an effective business partnership.

The offer should be made only to market participants who are able to take responsibility and have serious potential.

The partner must be fully involved in all business processes and take an active part in its development. The participants in the partnership must share the vision of the enterprise management strategy. Only in this way will it be possible to avoid disagreements and the threat of premature termination of cooperation. A prerequisite is the documentary support of the partnership.

Rules for conducting a joint business

Only choosing the right approach and meeting certain requirements guarantees successful business cooperation. Partnership will be an excellent tool and a way to increase income if the following points are observed:

definition of a specific goal, objectives and desired results of cooperation;
initial distribution of powers, duties and incomes;
making a decision on the possibility of a partner's participation in another business;
indicators in the process of cooperation, which is the test of effectiveness.

All partnership conditions must be written in writing and legally confirmed.

Partnership in business in Russia

As such, the institution of partnership in Russia is quite young, although some enterprises use some of its elements in their activities. There are a number of domestic enterprises of this kind, as well as organizations with the participation of foreign partners.

For the economic prosperity of the state, it is very important to develop business and partnership. Russia cooperates with many states, while increasing investment capital.

More typical for our country is the interaction between the state and the private sector to solve socially significant problems. The so-called public-private partnership has a long history, including in Russia. However, special popularity and demand has reached only in recent decades.

Partnership between the state and private business

Stimulates the emergence of relations between the state and business several factors. First, difficulties in socio-economic life make it much more difficult for the state to perform its important functions.

Secondly, new investment objects are always interesting for business. Thus, PPP is an alternative to the privatization of publicly important public property.

However, the partnership between the state and business, unlike privatization, preserves a certain economic activity of the country. Such relations are most actively practiced in the following industries:

transport, including urban;
education and health care;
scientific sphere;
construction of public buildings;
financial sector.

At the same time, the state actively participates in the implementation of the production, administrative and financial activities of the enterprise, thus controlling the economic processes of the country.

partnership agreement template

Upon the occurrence of the fact of cooperation between the parties, a partnership agreement in business is drawn up. A sample of such a document may be as follows.

Partnership Agreement

[The date]

The organization [Organization Name], hereinafter referred to as Party 1, together with [Organization Name], hereinafter referred to as Party 2, have entered into this agreement as follows:

1) Subject of the agreement.

2) Responsibility of the parties.

3) Procedure for settlements and financial reporting.

4) The procedure for resolving disputes and force majeure.

5) Duration of the agreement.

6) Other terms.

7) Details and signatures of the parties.

Depending on the specific situation, the most appropriate form of contract is selected. They also use general provisions regulating activities and confirming coordinated cooperation in this area. In some cases, the order of change is disclosed and at the end of the document, the details are indicated and the signatures of the parties are put.

In psychology, such a concept as interaction is revealed as the actions of people directed at each other. Such actions can be considered as a set of certain actions aimed at achieving their goals, solving practical problems and implementing value orientations.

Basic types of human interaction

Different types of interaction are distinguished depending on the situation that caused it. This is what led to the emergence of their various classifications.

The most common classification is based on performance orientation.

Types of interaction in the process of communication

Cooperation- this is such an interaction in which its participants reach a mutual agreement on how to act to achieve common goals and try not to violate it, as long as their areas of interest coincide.
Competition- this is an interaction that is characterized by the achievement of one's personal or public goals and interests in the context of a confrontation of interests between people.

Types of interpersonal interaction often determine the nature of relationships between people. The division into types can be based on the intentions and actions of people, which indicate how each of the participants in the interaction understands the meaning of what is happening. In this case, 3 more types are distinguished.

Types and types of interaction

Additional. Such interaction, in which partners calmly and objectively relate to each other's position.
Intersecting. An interaction during which the participants, on the one hand, demonstrate an unwillingness to understand the position and opinion of other interaction partners. At the same time, on the other hand, they actively show their own intentions in this regard.
hidden interaction. This type includes two levels at once: external, expressed in a verbal way, and hidden, manifested in the thoughts of a person. It assumes either a very good knowledge of the participant in the interaction, or your receptivity to non-verbal means of communication. These include tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gestures, in general, everything that can give a conversation a hidden meaning.

Styles and types of interaction and their features

Cooperation. It is aimed at the full satisfaction of partners in the interaction of their needs and aspirations. Here one of the motives given above is realized: cooperation or competition.
Counteraction. This style involves focusing on one's own goals, without taking into account any interests of the other party involved. The principle of individualism is manifested.
Compromise. It is implemented in the partial achievement of the goals and interests of both parties.
Compliance. It involves sacrificing one's own interests in order to achieve the partner's goals, or abandoning petty needs in order to achieve some more significant goal.
avoidance. This style represents withdrawal or avoidance of contact. In this case, it is possible to lose your own goals to exclude winnings.

Sometimes activity and communication are considered as two components of the social existence of society. In other cases, communication is designated as a certain aspect of the activity: it is included in any activity and is part of it. The activity itself appears to us as a condition and basis for communication. Moreover, in psychology, the concept of "interaction" "communication" are on the same level as "personality" "activity" and are fundamental.

Types of interaction in psychology play a huge role not only in interpersonal communication, but also in the process of human development and, as a result, society as a whole. Without communication, human society would not be able to fully function, and we would never have reached such heights of socio-economic development as we do now.

Analysis of communication as interactions presents significant difficulties. In general, the separation of the three sides of communication - perception, communication and interaction is possible only as a method of analysis: with all diligence, it is impossible to single out "pure" communication, without perception and interaction, or "pure" perception. But if perception and communication in communication are still to some extent, with great reservations, but amenable to separation from the "whole", then the isolation of the "separate", interaction is practically impossible.

In communication, there is a constant reaction to the actions of another. In one case, for example, it seems to us that the partner is pushing us towards something and we are resisting, in the other - that our actions are "at the same time"; in the third - that the partner affects our interests, and we defend them, etc. Behind the words are actions, and turning, we constantly answer for ourselves the question "What is he doing?", and our behavior is based on

"of the received answer. What allows us to understand the meaning of the partner's actions?

One of the possible ways of understanding communication, which makes it possible to see the meaning and content of both one's actions and the actions of a partner, is perception of the position of partners, as well as their positions relative to each other. In any "conversation, conversation, public communication, the relative status of the partners is of great importance: who is the leader in this communication situation and who is the follower.

The approach to the analysis of the situation of communication from the positions occupied by partners is developing in line with transactional analysis, represented by the names E. Bern, T. Harris, D. Jongeville.

The scheme developed by E. Bern is widely known and most widely used, in which the main concepts are the state of the Self and transactions, i.e. units of communication. E. Bern divided the repertoire of these states into the following categories: 1

1 Byrne E. Games that people play.: Per. from English. - L .: Lenizdat, 1992. - S. 16.

1) states of I, similar to the images of parents;

2) states of the I, aimed at an objective assessment of reality;

3) states of the ego, still active from the moment of their fixation in early childhood and representing archaic survivals.

Informally, the manifestations of these states are called Parent, Adult and Child. Ego states are normal psychological phenomena. Each type of state is vital for a person in its own way. A child is a source of joy, intuition, creativity, spontaneous impulses. Thanks to the Parent, many of our reactions have long become automatic, which helps save a lot of time and energy. An adult processes information and takes into account the possibilities of effective interaction with the outside world. The Adult controls the actions of the Parent and the Child and is an intermediary between them.

The positions of partners in communication are determined by those states of the I that “at the moment of communication are interacting. This, it would seem, purely psychological scheme has been used in the development of recommendations on the psychology and technology of business communication. Thus, it is used by W. Singert and L. Lang in their work "Leader without conflicts".

Main characteristics of positions Parent, Adult, Child 1

1 See: Grammar of communication. P. 139. L.: LGU, 1990.

Communication as interaction can be considered from the standpoint of orientation to control and orientation to understanding.

Orientation to control involves the desire to control, manage the situation and the behavior of others, which are usually combined with the desire to dominate in interaction.

Comprehension orientation includes the desire to understand the situation and the behavior of others. It is associated with the desire to interact better and avoid conflicts, with ideas about the equality of partners in communication and the need to achieve mutual rather than one-sided satisfaction.

An analysis of the interaction in the selection of these two orientations reveals some interesting patterns of communication. So, "controllers" and "understanders" adhere to completely different communication strategies.

"Controller" strategy - the desire to force the partner to accept their plan of interaction, to impose their understanding of the situation, and quite often they really achieve control over the interaction.

"Employer" strategy - partner adaptation. It is significant that different orientations are associated with different distribution of positions in communication. Thus, "controllers" always strive for unequal interactions with subordinate and dominant positions of "vertical interaction". Orientation to understanding is more associated with equal horizontal interactions.

It should be noted that there are also reverse influences: for example, a person who "got" in communication at the very "upper" position will necessarily be a "controller" to a greater extent than if he was at the bottom: the position obliges. Therefore, it must regulate the interaction.

Since any communication is carried out about a particular subject, the nature of the interaction is determined by the openness or closeness of the subject position.

Openness of communication - this is the openness of the subject position in the sense of the ability to express one's point of view on the subject and the readiness to take into account the positions of others, and vice versa, closeness of communication means inability or unwillingness to disclose one's positions.

In addition to open and closed communication in its purest form, there are also mixed types;

One of the parties is trying to find out the position of the other, at the same time not revealing its own. In the extreme version, it looks like "I ask questions!";

Communication, in which one of the interlocutors reveals to the partner all his "obligations", counting on help, without being interested in the intentions of the other.

Both of these types of interaction are asymmetric, since communication is carried out from the unequal positions of partners.

When choosing a position in communication, all circumstances should be taken into account: the degree of trust in a partner, the possible consequences of open communication. And at the same time, as socio-psychological studies show, the maximum efficiency of business communication is achieved with an open character.

Let's move on to a more specific description of interactions in business communication. The process of communication can always be considered as a local act: a conversation with a certain interlocutor, a discussion of specific issues by a group of people, etc.

In an expanded form in communication, the following stages of communication can be distinguished:

1) establishing contact;

2) orientation in the situation (people, circumstances, etc.);

3) discussion of the issue, problem;

4) decision making;

5) exit from contact.

In business communication, this scheme can be either concise, brief, or complete, detailed.

It is the conscious isolation of these stages and their regulation that largely determines the effectiveness of business communication.

Every communication starts with contact. Quite often, the failure of business communication is predetermined from the very beginning: a failed contact (or rather, its absence) leads to a further chain of incorrect actions.

A task contact phase - encourage the interlocutor to communicate and create the maximum field of opportunities for further business discussion and decision-making. one

1 See: Practical methods of optimizing interpersonal communication. - M., 1987. - C. 2

According to psychologists, there are protective psychological mechanisms that prevent us from immediately accepting another person, letting him into the zone of our personal. The contact phase should blur the boundaries of this zone.

At establishing contact First of all, you need to demonstrate goodwill and openness for communication. This is achieved by a soft smile (if it is appropriate), a slight tilt of the head towards the interlocutor, an expression in the eyes. There is no need to hurry with the greeting, so that it does not interfere with the start of contact. It is necessary to look around and create a friendly atmosphere with this. Next - a verbal appeal, a greeting. After that, you must definitely pause. It is necessary to enable a person to respond, to engage in communication. Quite often, this pause is not maintained, they do not allow the other to answer, and after the greeting they bring down all the prepared information. This error is especially noticeable in telephone conversations, when they turn to the interlocutor, but they are not interested in his reaction. Waiting for a pause is necessary not only to make sure that contact is established, but also to find out how the partner responded to your behavior, appeal.

You should not make contact when the interlocutor is busy with certain matters (talks, combs his hair, etc.), address the interlocutor with the words "I", "Me", it is better to start the conversation with the words "You", "You" (" Don't you think..." "You couldn't..." etc.), "fill" the contact from the first words with your emotional state, mood. It is necessary even at the contact phase to determine the emotional state of the partner and, depending on this state and your goals, either enter the same tone yourself, or gradually and unobtrusively help your partner get out of an undesirable state for you. *

* Cm.: Practical methods of optimizing interpersonal communication. - M., 1987. - S. 4.

Stage orientation helps to determine the strategy and tactics of business communication, develop interest in it and involve the partner in the circle of common interests. At this stage, you need to immediately find out how long the conversation will be (contracted, clear and specific or detailed, detailed), and depending on this, build your tactics. The main tasks of the orientation stage:

Arouse the interest of the interlocutor in the upcoming conversation and involve him in the discussion;

Identify the self-esteem of the interlocutor and orient in the distribution of roles;

Start solving the main problem of communication.

Engage the interlocutor active discussion of the issue, when he may not have much desire, creating a relaxed atmosphere of communication is a kind of art. An appropriate joke is good here, but, unfortunately, it does not always come to mind. At this stage, it is extremely important to determine the psychological state of the interlocutor and correct it. If the interlocutor has a bad mood, it is desirable to increase his emotional tone. The most effective technique is to assign the desired quality to the interlocutor: "Knowing your diligence ...", "You are so persistent ...". No less effective is praise to the interlocutor, a reminder of pleasant events, and communication of interesting information.

To create a relaxed atmosphere of communication, you can include a person in the performance of physical actions: "Help, please", "By the way", "It's good that you are around" and then warmly thank you for it. The “share the difficulty” technique works well to include a partner in an active joint discussion.

It is necessary to identify the partner's self-esteem in order to subsequently raise or lower it to the desired level. To do this, it is useful to try to reincarnate into him, become his "mirror", enter his image:

repeat, reproduce his facial expressions, plasticity, posture, tone (but not mimicking);

put him in the role of an expert: "Your experience is extremely interesting in solving this problem," etc.

Proper distribution of roles on the principle of dominance - submission is also necessary to ensure successful business communication. In social psychology, there are three types of distribution of roles: "an extension from above", "an extension from below" and "an extension on an equal footing". In practice, these are gradations of using the so-called dominant technique of self-presentation, and the degree of dominance-subordination is established with the help of non-verbal techniques: posture, gaze, rate of speech.

A straightened posture with a chin parallel to the ground, with a hard, unblinking gaze (or in the absence of eye contact), slow speech with sustained pauses, imposing a certain distance on the interlocutor are the hallmarks of the classic dominance technique - " top extension." Opposite signs - a lowered posture, a constant movement of the eyes from the bottom up, a fast pace of speech, giving the initiative to a partner - " downstairs extension. Partnership interaction - synchronization of the tempo of speech, equalization of its volume, establishment of a symmetrical pattern of exchange of views - "addition on an equal footing".

In the event that an unspoken agreement on the distribution of roles is not reached, conflict is inevitable. If, for example, the interlocutor has chosen the role of a "wise mentor", then one must either accept the role of a "respectful student" or tactfully achieve the desired distribution of roles - two experts.

For stage discussing the problem and making a decision from a socio-psychological point of view, the effect of contrast and the effect of assimilation are characteristic.

Action contrast effect lies in the fact that, pointing out the difference between our point of view on possible joint activity and the point of view of a partner, we psychologically move away from him; emphasizing the similarity of positions, we draw closer to partners, in which the action is manifested assimilation effect. 1

1 See: Practical methods for optimizing interpersonal communication. - M., 1987. - S. 5.

To be successful in a business discussion, it is important to emphasize unity of position.

In case of disagreement, an obligatory rule for successful discussion is that contrasting phrases must be impersonal, otherwise they become irreversible and communication will fail. That is, it should be fixed that the interlocutor's position comes from objective reasons, is related to the weather, politics, etc., but in no case with his personality, his personal qualities 2 .

2 See: Practical Methods for Optimizing Interpersonal Communication. - M., 1987. - S. 6.

At the phase of discussion and decision-making, the focus on the partner is very significant, including him in the discussion, therefore, they must be fully manifested listening skills and persuasive skills.

Belief has a complex structure: it includes knowledge, emotions, volitional components. It is very difficult to convince another by the categoricalness of one's judgments, even if they are correct: psychological defense mechanisms work here. If you want to convince a person, you first need to understand him, in order to find out the reasons for disagreement, to involve him in a joint discussion so that the decision turns out to be common. If the general solution does not work out, then at least the points of view will be known, their deliberation, which allows further discussion. The most complete features of the methods of discussion and argumentation are considered in the previously mentioned book by P. Mitsich "How to conduct business conversations."

In psychology, the role first impression, which we produce on an interlocutor or a group of people. But also the role last impression no less great. It affects the image that will remain in the memory of the partner, and future business relationships. Therefore, one of the main commandments exit from contact - friendliness.

Review questions

1. Name the main aspects of communication and explain their relationship.

2. What are the functions of perception in the process of communication?

3. Describe non-verbal means of communication.

4. Name the main elements of verbal communication and describe them.

5. What is the role of feedback in the transfer of information?

6. Tell us how to and how not to listen.

7. What is the essence of the transactional analysis of the interaction process according to E. Bern?

8. Describe the interaction in terms of focus on control and understanding.

9. Name the main stages of business communication and give a brief description of them.

Literature

Atwater I. I I'm listening to you. - M.: Economics, 1984.