In the conditions of modern cities, in many cases it is advisable to develop them on a multi-level basis, including the widespread use of underground space. E. Utujyan, one of the pioneers underground urbanism, emphasizing the expediency of the wide development of multi-level construction, noted that "the use of underground structures will make it possible to revise the structure of cities and relieve them of factories, markets, stations, warehouses and all kinds of storage facilities, from highways, etc. These structures paralyze the city, and although everyday life is impossible without them, they are "soulless", therefore there is no reason to allocate for them outdoor spaces and volumes that can be used more rationally.If you get rid of structures on the surface of the earth that are not needed there and only spoil the landscape and poison the air, it is possible, due to them, to increase the area of ​​green spaces, lay out new parks and squares, build stadiums.All underground structures will be protected from external influences:

There will be no need to fear fires;

Noises and fluctuations in atmospheric conditions will cease to threaten people.

In the underground space of cities, it is advisable to widely place transport facilities(subway, railway and road tunnels and stations, garages, car depots), cultural and community service enterprises, spectaculare, sports and shopping facilities(especially in combination with underground passages and transport facilities), engineering structures and communications (pipelines, cables, collectors, electrical substations, transformer substations, pumping and pumping stations, central heating points, boiler houses, treatment facilities), warehouses(food, manufactured goods, fuel, refrigerators, etc.).

Calculations based on the totality of socio-economic, engineering-economic and urban planning factors show high efficiency in the use of the underground space of cities. Scientific and design developments in many cities confirm the reality and expediency of using the underground space of cities on a large scale. A lot of positive experience in underground construction has been accumulated (in our country, primarily in the construction of subways).

PLANNING ORGANIZATION OF A MODERN CITY

The most important principles of city design, which determine its planning organization, are:

Clear functional zoning of the territory;

Flexibility of the planning structure, ensuring the unimpeded development of the city;

Differentiation of transport routes;

Organization of an effective service system;

Creation of the ecological infrastructure of the city, including a unified system of green spaces and environmental protection measures;

Efficient and economical equipping of the city with all types of engineering services. A necessary condition is the fulfillment of the compositional requirements for the city plan: the development of the city center and the district public centers interacting with it, the creation of an attractive silhouette of the city and the provision of visual perception of its main natural and architectural dominants.

When designing a city, it is necessary to single out its "framework" - the territories of the most intensive development and the concentration of the most important functions. "Frame" is the most time-stable basis of the city's spatial-planning organization.

Industrial zones of the city (PZ) differ depending on the profile of the industrial production facilities located within them, which determine the size of these zones and the necessary sanitary gaps from them. The main requirements for the mutual location of the PP and residential areas:

1. one). Their territorial development should not contradict each other:

They should not be interlaced; industry should not block development opportunities residential areas(SZ), and vice versa; industry should be located so that it does not block the exit from the NW to the river or seashore; SZ is unacceptable to be located above mineral deposits.

2). PP must be developed with strict observance of sanitary and hygienic requirements (fulfillment of conditions related to the protection of the air basin:

Exclusion of leeward placement of SZ in relation to the source of emissions; ensuring the necessary gaps, taking into account the class of sanitary hazard of enterprises and their groups;

Mandatory removal of sanitary-harmful enterprises over a long distance;

Landscaping of the RoW and sanitary gaps between the RoW and NZ;

Ensuring the requirements for the protection of the water basin of the city, etc.

2. Mutual location of the PZ and SZ should be convenient for the organization of passenger connections between them and not interfere with the service of enterprises by urban transport (for example, one-sided placement of PZ and SZ in relation to each other is undesirable). PP must be designed in a complex way, it is possible to combine enterprises of different profiles in one zone. "Clean" industrial enterprises and scientific and technical centers are among the NWs. Residential area- occupies approximately 1/2 of the territory of the modern city. Gross residential development - 50% (net residential development areas are allocated from it - without common institutions, green spaces, driveways within microdistricts - 50% of the gross or 12-13% of the urban area); streets and squares - 15-20%; sections of urban common buildings and structures. - 15-20%; citywide green spaces - 10-15%. The size of the required SZ is 10 ha per 1000 inhabitants. The modern planning structure of the city is based on the progressive ideas of the mid-20th century. - differentiation of transport routes, isolation of places of resettlement from the flow of mass road transport, step-by-step organization of service, extensive landscaping around houses.

DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS

Among the forecasts that are most important for the design of settlements and cities, a special place is occupied by demographic projections.

When designing settlements and cities in the future, the following trends and problems should be taken into account:

1.Mosaic, demographic asymmetry. There is not and is unlikely to be the same demographic situation in different countries and regions of the world.

2. Forced migrations. The sudden collapse of the Soviet Union was a tragedy for millions of people who found themselves on different sides of state borders. Hundreds of thousands of people are leaving areas of ethnic conflict or areas of growing ethnic tension. Meanwhile, Russia is not ready now to accept such a huge number of migrants in the conditions of the economic crisis, the high cost of housing construction, and so on.

3. The need to manage migration processes. The extremely important tasks of migration policy that have arisen in recent years have been the regulation of migration flows rushing from the near abroad, from the north, where in a number of places too significant and inefficiently used labor resources are concentrated, the resettlement of demobilized military personnel, etc.

4. Changes in Population and Employment Structure. Consideration should be given to the expected large changes in the age structure of the population and in the structure of employment. These changes are most clearly focused on three fundamental trends. Firstly As life expectancy rises and pensions improve, an increasing proportion of the population will be older than working age. Secondly, with a reduction in the proportion of the working-age population, there will be a decrease in the number of people employed in production processes that can be mechanized and automated, and employment in the service sector, management, science and scientific services will expand. Thirdly, in the coming decades, the "labor cycle" of a person will radically change. These changes must be clearly assessed and foreseen in a timely manner in the process of forecasting and design, taking into account very significant regional characteristics.

5. The growing role of the rational use of qualifications and labor skills of the population. In addition to the general requirement that this factor be carefully taken into account when designing settlements and cities, it is important to use the existing clusters of qualified personnel and scientific and technical potential. When designing settlements and cities, a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the population and labor resources is required, as well as a thorough study of possible options for growth and change in the structure of the population.

1 SALARY AT THE SYMPOSIUM "MINER'S WEEK MOSCOW, ¦ MGGU, ¦ 31" - January - ¦ 4 ¦ February ¦ 2000 "- year

^ V. G. Lerner, E. V. Petrenko, I. E. Petrenko, 2000

V.G. Lerner, E. V. Petrenko, I. E. Petrenko O

Features of development of underground space Development of underground space in the planning and development of large cities is of great importance due to the lack of urban areas, constant population growth, and a sharp increase in gas pollution, and traffic flows on the streets, and insufficient development of urban infrastructure.

In almost all major cities of the world, the process of active development of underground space is underway to accommodate transport and engineering systems, trade and consumer services, warehouses and parking lots, and to solve various issues of the multifunctionality of megacities.

In fact, a new underground infrastructure of large cities is being formed, during which it is necessary to take into account a number of circumstances, and above all, the impact of technogenic processes on the ecology of the underground space, on the state of the hydrogeological environment, as well as the architectural and artistic design of the functional underground centers and objects under construction. During the development of underground space, almost all areas of modern underground construction, management and contracting practices are used. The integrated development of underground space is one of the most effective ways to solve territorial, transport and environmental problems of large cities developing as cultural, historical and commercial and industrial centers. At the same time, the environment is most fully preserved for the placement of parks and recreational areas, and pollution from automobile traffic is significantly reduced.

The process of organizing the development of urban underground space is characterized by the following features:

Internal orderliness, consistency, interaction of various subsystems of the underground infrastructure, due to the structure of the urban underground space -

A set of design processes, management, technologies for the construction of underground structures, leading to the formation and improvement of subsystems of the urban underground space and the relationships between them -

Methodical approaches, principles and methods of development of underground space -

A wide range of applied underground construction technologies -

Modern forms and methods of organizing the construction of underground structures and their functioning to solve the problems of meeting public needs and making a profit in the conditions of market relations -

Improvement of organizational and technological schemes, architectural and space-planning solutions -

Methodology for designing underground structures of a new generation based on non-traditional solutions, using the laws of subsoil development, high technologies, achievements of construction geo-

technologies taking into account mining and geological conditions of construction.

Current trends in the development of underground space In the 21st century, the role of the integrated development of the underground space of large cities will be aimed at changing life for the better.

The intensive development of underground space will be the main trend in the 21st century due to the lack of space for people to live, as well as the need to create a new living environment for people through empowerment and infrastructure improvement.

The main trends and directions of modern development of underground space are the integrated development of underground space (primarily megacities) through:

Creation of large underground infrastructures and underground structures, as city-forming and integrating large complex geosystems with built-in invariant technical and architectural solutions -

Construction of underground structures of a new generation using high technologies and new space-planning and architectural solutions -

Wider use of the properties of the rock mass and management of the properties of underground structures -

Use of achievements of management in underground construction -

Selection of cost-effective investment schemes for the construction of underground facilities and the introduction of new methods of financing -

Introduction of new accents, aspects and achievements in underground construction -

Search for new types of geosystems

Increase of safety in underground construction, including prevention of subsidence of a surface -

Implementation of geomonitoring and geo-mechanical studies of the structure and properties of host rocks -

Improving the quality of underground structures and improving people's lives -

The introduction of new mechanized complexes, combines and new vehicles

Stryan method of tunneling NATM-

Choosing a sound strategy for the development of underground space.

The flexibility of tunneling technologies, equipment and mechanization of tunneling is becoming an important criterion for the acceptability and progressiveness of technologies in modern conditions of underground construction.

Geomechanical studies of the rock mass and monitoring of the "support - host rock mass" system have become an integral part and the basis of the principles for managing the construction technology of underground structures, ensuring the safety of work and the stability of underground mine workings.

The introduction of global trends and the achievements of tunneling in the domestic practice of developing underground space will significantly improve the quality of underground structures and improve people's lives.

Great attention must be paid to maintaining the level of groundwater, protecting the environment, protecting archaeologically valuable soils, preserving existing architectural monuments, structures and geological conditions for the sustainable state of the underground space.

The use of underground space for public events requires the provision of safe exits and the involvement of architects to work on all projects of underground structures.

Development of the underground space of Moscow The underground space of the capital is being actively developed through the construction of multi-purpose underground complexes, transport and collector tunnels, garages and warehouses, and other facilities. The first in Russia underground shopping and recreation complex Okhotny Ryad was built on Manezhnaya Square.

Much attention is paid to the development of the city's infrastructure. In this row, the construction of the 3rd transport ring. One of the world's largest "walls in the ground" was built, enclosing the pit at the construction of the business center "Moscow City", the length of the wall is 1768 m, with a deepening of 10 m below the level of

a house with a foundation pit of the flowing Mo-skva-river.

In the construction of urban underground structures, various technologies for the impact of trench walls are used in combination with other building technologies. The improvement of technologies is studied on separate specific examples of the construction of underground structures.

The construction of a "wall in the ground" at the construction of a trade

of the recreational complex on Manezhnaya Square was made for the first time in the practice of Moscow construction by the method of soil milling. For the first time, a concrete mixture of grade 700 was also developed and applied with a water resistance of at least 16 units. with the use of micro-silica additives. In addition, protective measures were taken to fencing buildings and existing metro lines by installing more than 2,000 bored piles. To increase the reliability and durability of the underground structure, metal insulation was included in the reinforcing cage of the "wall in the ground", and the crushed rocks of the bottom were strengthened using the "jet-grouting" technology.

The walls of the deep part of the pit are made using the “walls in the ground” method with the installation of secant piles. In order to protect against groundwater, all external walls of the fuel dispenser are equipped with internal metal insulation. Under the foundation of the shallow space, a reservoir drainage was arranged with an outlet to the contour drainage. In order to improve the scheme of operation of the “wall in the ground”, it was decided to combine it with rows of protective piles with a foundation slab of shallow depth of the part of the fuel dispenser at the level of 130 m.

One of the most important tasks, the solution of which determines the efficiency of using the "wall in the ground" method, is the right choice of technology for developing a soil core during the construction of an underground structure. JSC "Mos-inzhstroy" with Moscow State Mining University introduced a new technology, the essence of which is that the central part of the rock mass inside the structure is first developed to a depth of one tier. At the same time, next to the vertical

nymi bearing structures are left undeveloped areas of the rock. This increases the bearing capacity of the rock mass. Under the protection of the abandoned rock sections, spacer structures are mounted, after the installation of which is completed, the rock sections left near the vertical load-bearing structures are developed, and the cycle is repeated at the next entry.

During the reconstruction of Leninsky Prospekt and st. Miklukho-Maklai, during the construction of two transport tunnels, the technology of building walls using the method of secant piles with a diameter of 1.0 m is provided, followed by excavation of the soil up to the level of the tunnel vault and concreting of the floors using concrete of class B 30, W 12. Subsequent excavation of the soil is carried out under the protection of the finished overlap with the restoration of the movement of ground transport.

At the construction of an underground parking lot on Revolution Square, a new technology was used to make a “wall in the ground” in separate grips 2.2 m long with an interaxal step of 4.1 m. of leading panels, connecting grips 2.2 m long were developed with cutting of concrete 0.15 m thick from the end edges of the leading panels, followed by installation of frames and concreting. This technology ensured the solidity of the "wall in the ground" and the absence of cold and mud joints at the joints of the panels.

The development of the soil core in the pit was carried out in two stages. The maximum combination of work on the installation of frames, formwork, construction of waterproofing and concreting was used due to the production of these works, simultaneously at several levels. The use of inventory formwork with plywood flooring in combination with shuttle technology made it possible to reduce the construction time for building structures of the underground car park by almost two times compared to the design ones. At this construction site, the original connection of the flat ceiling of each tier with the walls was used.

The loads from floors and future loads from the weight of cars are not completely transferred to the walls, but partly due to the special design of the reinforcing cages, which enter with their protrusions (“heels”) into the niches of the walls, made in advance in the “wall in the ground” structure. The rest of the load falls on the closed structures of the additional walls. A similar design of a multi-level underground car park and the method of its construction can also be used for other social, cultural and technical facilities.

At the construction of the depository of the Museum of A. S. Pushkin, a new solution was applied to excavate a pit 11 m deep under the protection of one floor at ground level without any additional temporary wall support, made of secant piles.

It should be noted the high technological capabilities of Bessac shields, especially their ability to carry out sediment-free penetration in water-saturated soils. This complex is planned to be used in the construction of a sewer tunnel with a length of 950 m and a diameter of 4.3 m in combination with a lining of high-precision reinforced concrete tubing.

Starting from 1997, Krot and Co. of Mosinzhstroy has been introducing shield tunneling with a complex with a diameter of 4.0 m with a monolithically pressed lining, which is at least 20% cheaper than building a tunnel with a prefabricated lining. The shield is equipped with a sliding formwork.

New technology and equipment for the construction of urban utility tunnels using mechanized shields and shield complexes with a diameter of 2.6–5.6 m, equipped with excavator working bodies, and mechanized self-propelled complexes for concreting the secondary lining of tunnels, made it possible to increase the pace of construction, improve working conditions and its safety, to ensure the construction in Moscow for more than 10

km per year of communication tunnels.

Modern technologies for conducting underground mine workings using mechanized shields, microshields, new tunneling equipment, monolithically pressed concrete lining, high-precision tubing in combination with various technical and technological solutions make it possible to activate the integrated development of the underground space of the capital.

As a result of the experimental use of ground penetrating radars, devices, methods and technology for sounding enclosing rocks by ground penetrating radars were created as an integral part of the technology for mechanized underground mining. The use of ground penetrating radars will make it possible to prevent a number of negative consequences of underground construction, such as collapses and collapses of rocks in the faces. The search and timely detection of underground voids and possible anomalies in the host rock mass by georadar will prevent shutdowns and accidents in many cases of collector tunnels in Moscow.

Conclusion The described building technologies and technical solutions make it possible to carry out construction in cramped conditions of urban development with a minimum amount of excavations, without interfering with traffic. In difficult hydrogeological conditions, these methods are used in combination with special types of work: dewatering, freezing, chemical fixation of soils, etc. The use of the "wall in the ground" method is carried out in combination with secant piles to enclose the excavation, the installation of curtains and various technologies for excavating the earthen core of the excavation . A set of various technologies and technical solutions makes it possible to increase the reliability and safety of the construction of specific underground structures. The development of central regions in many large cities is planned due to the passage of public passenger transport and vehicles underground. In the future, it is necessary to pay more attention to the study of engineering and geological conditions of construction in order to select appropriate technologies for the construction of underground structures.

The future process of development of underground urban space should take place with the application of new ideas in the field of underground construction in several directions, first of all:

In the direction of creating universal tunneling complexes, as well as expanding the scope of the new Austrian method of sinking NATM-

Financing schemes under the BOT scheme

Implementation of rock scanning systems in order to detect weakened zones both in host rocks and ahead of the face.

Wider will be:

Used systems for spray-concrete, drilling holes and installing anchor fastening of the roof and walls of mine workings-

New materials for hydraulic load of shield complexes -

Polymers for injection of firming solutions -

Materials for facing of tunnels -

Devices for measurement and control of various processes and operations.

In the 21st century, a person becomes the head of the problem of developing the underground space of large cities. At the same time, the development process should be considered as a single whole, when all its elements, human and mechanical, are fully controlled and necessarily combined into a common program of action. It requires well-coordinated work of the team, mutual, very correct and clearly coordinated actions of people at all levels of decision-making.

Lerner V.G. first knead.and. junior.and.note of the director, Mosinzharoy JSC. Petrenko E.V. Technical Sciences, Professor, Academy of Scientific Sciences Ph.

Petrenko I.E. Candidate of Yukhnichs Sciences, Moscow Tsudarstenny Yury Uniksrsii!

→ Use of space

Experience of using underground space in cities

The high level of urbanization, the growth of cities and a number of other factors determine the high degree of development of underground space in cities. This allows to free up scarce territories to a large extent, as well as improve the state of the urban environment. In this regard, it is necessary to consider the experience of using this type of resources and the possibility of its use in the creation of civilian facilities.

Underground space is often considered as natural or artificially created cavities in the bowels of the earth, used for economic or other purposes.

The author proposes to define it as a type of subsoil resources used as an environment for living, placing objects or running processes, then its sources are natural or artificially created cavities in the bowels of the earth, as well as subsoil areas in which cavities can be created. Subsoil is a part of the earth's crust located below the soil layer, and in its absence - below the earth's surface and the bottom of reservoirs and watercourses, extending to the depths that are available for geological study and development.

In its natural state, underground space can be occupied by a solid, liquid or gaseous substance. Subsurface areas not filled with solid matter, but surrounded by it, are called underground cavities. They are divided into natural and artificial (anthropogenic).

Natural cavities include large cavities (caverns), small cavities and cracks in the rock mass.

The main characteristics of the sources of underground space are the depth from the surface of the earth, volume and shape, the properties of the surrounding massif, territorial location, stability (the ability to maintain its shape over time), the ability to access from the surface of the earth, etc. The properties of the surrounding rock mass include such indicators, such as the stress state of a rock mass, their hardness, cohesion, plasticity, moisture capacity and water permeability, density, porosity, electromagnetic properties (electrical resistivity, relative dielectric constant), abrasiveness, thermal properties (thermal conductivity coefficient, specific heat capacity, coefficient linear thermal expansion), loosening coefficient (after explosion), granulometric composition (in the destroyed state), etc.

Usually, the following prerequisites for the development of underground space are distinguished: social, mining and technical, geological, economic (saving energy costs) and defense.

The social prerequisites for the development of underground space are population growth and ongoing demographic changes, inevitable man-made environmental changes, the need to preserve land funds and improve the recreational opportunities of people and the sanitary and hygienic conditions of their work. An increase in the number of created areas in the underground space makes it possible to reduce the withdrawal from the use of agricultural land.

It is believed that the use of underground space is expedient in areas with high population density, fertile soils, developed mining industry, favorable engineering and geological conditions for underground construction. It is profitable to build underground warehouses in the North. Moving underground businesses with high fire and noise levels is also good for the environment.

Mining and technical prerequisites are that, in the ideal case, for the use of underground space, rocks should be strong, monolithic, stable and at the same time easily developed, resistant to oxidative processes, water-free and not emitting toxic gases, inert with respect to the materials stored in them. , non-porous, do not contain aggressive solutions. However, modern technologies in most cases make it possible to eliminate the effects of all these factors.

The geological prerequisites for the development of underground space lie in the need for a sufficiently detailed study of the upper layers of the earth's crust, which would allow objective decisions to be made on the choice of the location of the underground facility and the technologies for its creation.

Saving energy costs as a prerequisite for the development of underground space is explained by the fact that underground space allows you to reduce seasonal fluctuations in energy consumption, because. rocks serve as an accumulator of solar energy, have low thermal conductivity and are able to retain heat. In this regard, underground cavities can be used as heat accumulators. In the Nordic countries, the energy issue has a great influence on the choice of underground housing, and underground housing is increasingly being used.

Defense factors as a prerequisite for the use of underground space are based on the need to protect people, material values, and production from military operations, including a nuclear explosion.

French scientists P. Duffaut and G. Marin believe that the natural demand for subsoil space resources is caused by the following reasons: the preservation of perishable products (cellars and cellars); mining; religious purposes (for example, for ritual burial); protecting the population from attack; seeking relative comfort in extreme temperature conditions.

It is also believed that underground structures, with minor additions, have high seismic resistance, stable temperature and humidity, cleanliness of the premises, i.e. those parameters for which an additional 25-40% of the volume of construction and installation work is required on the surface.

In Sweden, in underground construction, approximately 1-2% of the costs go to substantiate the geological possibilities of underground construction, and to ensure long-term sustainability - 4-70% of the costs.

The reliability and durability of underground structures is much higher than that of surface structures. The service life of multi-storey buildings is 100 years, residential buildings of special capital - 125 years, fruit storage - 28 years. The period of operation of underground structures is much longer. For example, for tunnels, these norms are 500 years. There are also many cases where underground structures have been preserved for thousands of years. The cost of repairing underground structures is lower than aboveground ones, because they are not subject to climatic factors. For the natural destruction of rocks, tens and hundreds of thousands of years are required.

The author believes that the main useful property of the underground space is their ability to contain any objects or processes. However, unlike other spatial resources, underground space has some other useful characteristics: it has relatively stable climatic characteristics (temperature and humidity conditions); isolated from various kinds of surface influences, such as noise, vibration, radioactivity, etc.; relatively airtight, and also able to retain heat and other forms of energy. In addition, the impact of any facility located underground on the environment is much lower and can be better controlled; underground buildings often do not require significant costs for exterior finishing, they last much longer and require lower operating costs than surface ones; underground space is in some cases easier to develop than surface space, since it does not depend on topography and fragmentation into private areas.

The authors attribute the following to the advantages of buried civil buildings: aesthetic (relationships with the surrounding landscape); more rational use of land; noise and vibration reduction; reduction of operating costs (for building repairs, hydro- and thermal insulation, etc.); fire safety (the spread of fire is limited); seismic resistance; protection from a nuclear explosion and radioactive fallout; protection from storms and tornadoes; energy saving.

However, along with the advantages of using underground space, there are some difficulties due to the properties of this resource. For example, the experience of underground construction in Kansas City (USA) shows that there are three problems in the use of underground space: technical, legal and psychological.

The psychological problem lies in the subjective opinion of people that the conditions of stay in the underground space should be worse than on the surface. The technical problem includes difficulties with water drainage, sewerage, drainage and ventilation. The legal problem is most characteristic of the United States and other countries, where historically land ownership includes ownership of underground space.

The main disadvantages of the underground space compared to the surface include high natural humidity, lack of daylight, impossibility of free access from the surface of the earth, because. descent and ascent is carried out through certain workings (in some cases this is an advantage), the presence of rock pressure and the possibility of rock movement due to the creation or use of underground voids, higher capital costs when building a building underground than on the surface.

Underground cavities have been used by people since ancient times. There is evidence that in the last century in France and Russia underground wine storage facilities were built. The first underground hydroelectric power plants were built in Germany (1907) and Sweden (1910). During the First World War in Germany, an attempt was made to place warehouses underground. In 1917, an underground plant for the production of precision instruments was built in Germany.

During the Second World War in Germany, factories, power plants, warehouses for food, equipment, fuel, chemical production, and storage of cultural values ​​were located in the underground space. By the end of the 1950s, there were already underground industrial enterprises in 50 countries of the world. In the early 1970s, there were almost 450 underground facilities in NATO countries alone. In the 1980s, their number increased 3 times compared to the 1960s. The area of ​​some underground factories has reached 800 thousand m2 or more, and the volume is more than one million m3.

The broadest classification of directions for the use of underground space for its intended purpose is proposed in the work. Underground structures are created in the following industries and areas of activity: mining, urban construction, energy and oil and gas industries, the agricultural sector, transport, science, medicine, etc. Thus, the number of the most common areas of resource use is more than 30.

According to the expediency of placing underground objects can be divided into the following groups: traditionally underground structures; structures for which placement underground has a number of technological advantages, and structures located underground in order to save the territory of the earth's surface and improve the state of the environment.

Underground structures not related to mining are built at a depth of 15-300 m. However, individual hydrocarbon storage facilities are located at a depth of 1 km or more.

The construction of urban underground structures is currently developing very rapidly. The need to create and increasingly actively use underground space in modern cities is due to the following factors: - the desire to decompress the historically established building and improve the old parts of cities; - an increasingly tangible shortage of free urban land suitable for new development, as well as the threat of liquidation of the best agricultural areas adjacent to cities, with partial, and in some cases complete destruction of the natural environment; - the need for a radical streamlining of urban traffic with the most complete separation of intersecting traffic flows, as well as pedestrian and transport flows, with the creation of continuous and high-speed systems, including off-street rail communication, and with a compact solution of interchange nodes; - further development of systems of cultural, community and communal services with the placement of relevant facilities in the most needed places (including at points of mass gatherings of the population) with a simultaneous increase in the profitability of these institutions; - preservation of architectural monuments and ensembles of cultural and historical value, and capital supporting urban development; - the development of various means of public, special and individual transport, for the storage and maintenance of which large areas are required; - development of engineering equipment for the city, utilities and storage facilities. The author describes the following reasons for the development of underground construction in cities: lack of land and the impossibility of occupying new ones (due to the environmental consequences of urban expansion); more rational use of urban areas; transport tasks and security; expansion of the network of services; preservation of architecture; development of engineering equipment of the city (communications, etc.); civil defense.

Among the advantages of the construction of urban underground facilities, it is noted that it makes it possible to economically use the land area, helps to streamline transport services for the population and improve road safety, reduces street noise and air pollution from vehicle exhaust gases, and improves the artistic and aesthetic qualities of the urban environment.

Urban underground structures are characterized by a relatively small depth, binding to specific surface objects and territories, a special spatial organization, a specific temporary mode of use, etc. Therefore, special underground cavities are created for them, meeting the requirements in each specific case. The range of directions for the use of urban underground space is practically unlimited.

One example of the modern level of development of underground construction is the capital of France, Paris. The areas of underground premises here in the 80s amounted to: buildings - 43 billion m3; metro lines and expressways - 16; drainage channels, sewerage, networks, collectors - 8; currently unused voids - 6; National Society of Railways - 3; underground parking - 2.5; shopping centers - 1.5; underground communication services - 1.1; various technical galleries - 0.6. There is also the intention of the authorities to place roads in Paris underground and leave the surface only for pedestrians.

The paper provides an analysis of the possibilities of saving energy by creating underground facilities. In particular, it is indicated that in the United States 37% of energy raw materials are used in the sector of residential and commercial buildings, and their placement underground will reduce the energy needs of these buildings by 36-60%. So, in the state of Minnesota, seasonal temperature fluctuations are 75, and underground - 11 degrees, and in the event of a sudden power outage, the loss will be no more than 1 degree per day. In this regard, the US Department of Energy is working on the construction of underground residential and commercial buildings. In 1980, more than 3,000 earth-sheltered residential and more than 100 commercial buildings were built in the United States. Moreover, rather wealthy people live in these houses.

In urban underground construction, cases of secondary use of underground cavities are known. So, the French author A.R. Boiler describes an example of the use of tunnels created during the construction of metro tunnels for city telephone networks, parking lots and other purposes. The United States has the greatest experience in the secondary use of mine workings, where in Kansas City, out of more than 20 million m2 of limestone mine workings there, about 2 million m2 (about 10%) are used. Underground space in Kansas City is being developed 10 times faster than it is being created from limestone mining, due to the high demand for it. At the same time, 85% is used for warehouses for various purposes and refrigerators, 7% - for production facilities, 5% - for offices, 3% - for service enterprises. It houses instrumentation and TV assembly plants, a city industrial park, two international trade zones, storage facilities for valuable documents, complex storage facilities - refrigerators and granaries.

Depending on the purpose and nature of use, the following groups and types of underground or semi-underground urban structures, premises and devices are distinguished: - engineering and transport structures - pedestrian and transport tunnels, running tunnels and subway stations, light rail and urban railway sections, parking lots and garages , tunnels and stations of moving sidewalks and other promising continuous transport, separate premises and stations; - trade and public catering enterprises - trading floors and auxiliary and auxiliary premises of cafe-buffets, canteens, snack bars and restaurants, trade kiosks, shops, separate premises or sections of department stores, shopping centers and markets; - entertainment, administrative and sports buildings and structures - ordinary cinemas and halls of the chronicle, exhibition and dance halls, billiard rooms, separate rooms of theaters and circuses, meeting rooms and conference rooms, book depositories, archives, storerooms of museums, shooting ranges, halls of games and attractions , swimming pools; - objects of communal services and communications - reception points, ateliers and workshops of consumer services, hairdressers, baths and swimming pools, laundries, post offices, - savings banks, automatic telephone exchanges; - warehouse facilities - food and manufactured goods warehouses, vegetable stores, refrigerators, pawnshops, various types of tanks for liquids and gases, warehouses for fuels and lubricants and other materials; - industrial and energy facilities - individual laboratories, workshops and productions (especially those that require protection from dust, vibration, temperature changes and other external influences), thermal and hydroelectric power plants, industrial boilers, industrial warehouses and storage facilities; - objects of engineering equipment - pipelines for water supply, sewerage, heat supply, gas supply (up to milk pipelines of dairy plants or kerosene pipelines at airports), drains and storm drains, cables for various purposes, garbage chutes, common collectors of underground networks, electric traction substations, household appliances - ventilation and calorific chambers, boiler and boiler rooms, gas control points and gas distribution stations, wastewater pumping stations, transformer substations, treatment and water intake facilities.

Constructive and space-planning solutions for underground and semi-underground structures are largely determined by the depth of their laying from the surface of the earth. In this regard, the following are known: - deep-laying structures (at elevations I below 10-15 m from the ground level), the construction of which is usually carried out by closed tunnel methods (without opening the surface). Deep-laying structures are usually calculated for significant rock pressure; - shallow structures (at elevations above 10-15 m from the ground level), erected with full 1 or partial opening of the surface, as well as in a closed way; - closed structures formed by large-area ceilings and devoid of natural light and ventilation. Such semi-underground structures include objects located on the surface of the earth or partially buried. According to the space-planning scheme, one-level and multi-level underground structures are distinguished: - one-, two-span, of the simplest type; - structures created according to complex planning schemes (including curvilinear in plan); - hall (multi-span); - buildings of combined types.

Depending on the functional and compositional relationship with other buildings, the following are known: - underground structures and underground parts of buildings, solved as separate structures; - complexes of underground structures and underground parts of buildings for various purposes; - developed complexes of underground structures for various purposes, connected by a single space-planning solution with their ground volumes and being an integral part of public, administrative, cultural, educational and other buildings or their complexes.

In accordance with the conditions of location in the city, the following can be distinguished: - underground structures located under city streets and squares, express roads, rail transport routes and various kinds of driveways; - underground structures located under undeveloped areas, including squares and boulevards; - underground structures and underground parts of buildings located directly under residential, administrative and public buildings or their complexes; - separate underground structures or parts of structures that are part of developed complexes for engineering and transport purposes, which can be located under city streets, squares and buildings for various purposes.

In the future, the creation of new environmentally friendly construction technologies that meet the requirements for protecting the geological environment will make it possible to place in Moscow below the earth's surface up to 70% of the total volume of garages, 60% of warehouses, 50% of archives and storage facilities, 30% of institutions of cultural and public services. The underground space under Manezhnaya Square in Moscow has become a complex multi-purpose facility. It includes an archaeological museum and offices, a shopping center and catering establishments (bars, restaurants, cafes, etc.), car parks and garages. On the surface there is a pedestrian zone, and the landscaped space merges with the Alexander Garden. The total building area of ​​the complex is approximately 70 thousand m2. It includes a network of underground structures (collector of the Neglinka River, three metro lines, underground pedestrian crossings).

The list of objects located in the urban underground space is determined on the basis of sanitary and hygienic and psychophysiological requirements. So, the works give the following time spent by people in buildings: concert halls, theaters, museums, libraries - 3-4 (up to 5) hours; shops, cafes, restaurants, cinemas - 1-2 hours; transport facilities - a few minutes; a number of structures (warehouses, auxiliary, etc.) are operated with minimal human participation.

As principles for the construction and organization of urban underground structures, the author identifies the following: all underground structures should in the future constitute a single spatio-temporal system; more complex zoning compared to surface buildings, their interconnections in space, the need for communications, taking into account obstacles and topographic and geological conditions, etc.

One of the main problems in the use of urban underground space is that, with a high density of its use, there is a danger that the processes of construction and operation of underground structures will influence each other and surface objects. For urban underground structures, it is not always possible to create a significant surface complex and therefore all the necessary processes must be located underground.

Let us consider in detail the main directions of the use of urban underground space.

Among the underground structures of cities, the engineering communications network (utility networks) is one of the most important. The main engineering communications that provide normal conditions for everyday life in the modern largest city are the following: drinking water supply lines; economic (industrial) water supply lines; household sewerage; storm sewer; gas pipelines; heating pipelines; hot water pipelines; cables and communication lines; electrical lines of various voltages; pneumatic mail pipelines; pipelines for pneumatic removal of debris; fuel lines; traffic control cables; cables of electrified railways; lighting cables, etc.

Sometimes other systems of underground communications can also be found, mainly in industrial and even agricultural enterprises, in particular, kerosene pipelines or milk pipelines.

Underground engineering communications are usually built separately, most often at different times in separate trenches, at different depths from the surface, depending on the nature of the previously laid communications, certain physical properties of the soil, groundwater level, climatic and other conditions.

Cross-sections, throughput, or power of underground utilities are also different. The so-called main pipelines (main cable, large water conduit, main collector, etc.) serve, as a rule, large areas. Distribution pipelines depart from them, which, in turn, branch out again and are laid near the individual buildings and structures they serve and feed them through separate inputs.

Most of the underground utilities, with the exception of domestic and storm sewers, are usually located at a shallow depth - up to 3 m.

For transport purposes, tunnels are created: pedestrian, automobile, railway, navigable and subway tunnels. They are carried out to overcome mountains, reservoirs and other obstacles in the places where transport routes pass. Currently, there are sufficiently developed tunneling technologies that make it possible to ensure the stability of these structures to the effects of rock pressure, water inflow and other factors for millennia.

For the largest cities of our country, off-street, mainly underground passenger rail transport is the most promising. Lines of high-speed off-street rail transport in cities can be classified according to the types of vehicles used, according to the concept of the development of routes, according to the nature of operation, depth of laying, space-planning solution of stations, vestibules and other premises.

According to the types of vehicles used, there are subways and high-speed trams, and in some cases - urban railways, express (high-speed) subway lines and monorails. Corresponding networks may have underground and semi-underground sections.

Depending on the concept of the development of off-street rail transport, its lines can be traced in the form of one or more diameters (or chords), united by circular or semicircular lines. In cities developing in length, lines of off-street rail transport are laid mainly in the longitudinal, the most loaded direction in terms of transport.

In accordance with the nature of operation, networks of off-street rail transport are distinguished with independent (closed) movement of trains along separate, unrelated lines (in Moscow and Leningrad), with the transition of part of the trains from one line to another (in London and New York) and combined networks.

According to the space-planning solution of the stations, single-platform structures are known - with a central passenger platform of an island type, two-platform - usually with coastal platforms and multi-platform, most often found only in interchange hubs or in underground railway stations.

The features of underground transport facilities are their rigid binding to transport routes, as well as a specific elongated shape. This direction of using underground space is one of the most common and profitable in terms of making a profit.

In Moscow in 1998, about 300 underground pedestrian crossings, many transport (communication) tunnels were built, the length of metro lines was 240 km. The metro is being designed and built in Omsk, Chelyabinsk, Ufa, Kazan and Krasnoyarsk.

Transport tunnels in cities are classified according to purpose, length, configuration in terms of traffic organization and design scheme, depth, location in urban areas.

By purpose, tunnels are distinguished for mixed (road and rail) or only road traffic. In foreign practice, there are tunnels designed only for the movement of cars.

In terms of length, transport tunnels are divided into short ones with a length of the tunnel covered part up to 300 m and long ones (more than 300 m) that need forced-exhaust ventilation.

In accordance with the configuration in the plan, rectilinear, curvilinear, branching and mutually intersecting (at different levels) tunnels are distinguished; confluence of traffic flows or their intersection at the same level in transport tunnels is not allowed.

According to the organization of traffic, tunnels for one-way and two-way traffic (in opposite directions) are known, and according to the design scheme - single-span, double-span and multi-span; the number of lanes for safety in the tunnel must be at least two.

Depending on the depth of laying, shallow tunnels (up to 10-15 m deep) are known, usually created with an opening of the surface, and deep-laying tunnels (more than 10-15 m deep), carried out by underground mining methods.

According to the location in the city, tunnels of the usual type are distinguished, laid under the streets, driveways, buildings and squares, as well as mountain and underwater.

Transport tunnels can be presented in the form of separate structures, be part of the intersections of city streets and roads developed in plan and profile at several levels, or be elements of multi-level public transport and other complexes for various purposes.

The creation of the third motor transport ring of the capital is connected with laying part of the highway underground.

The need for an off-street, including an underpass, is determined either by the categories of streets and roads intersected, or by the quantitative ratios of pedestrian and vehicle flows. In all those cases when pedestrians are not able to cross the carriageway during permissive traffic signals, one should either reduce the volume of traffic at this node, or find the possibility of arranging a transport intersection at different levels or an off-street crossing.

Pedestrian crossings are classified according to a number of features: in relation to traffic flows and to the surface of the earth; planning scheme; the number of tiers and depth of laying; functional and compositional relationship with urban development; equipment of service establishments; devices for moving pedestrians vertically.

In relation to the flow of urban traffic and to the surface of the earth, pedestrian crossings are divided into street, traced at the level of the carriageway, and off-street, located under the level of the carriageway or above it. Depending on the location relative to the surface of the earth, off-street crossings can be ground, above-ground and underground.

According to the planning scheme, off-street crossings of the following types are distinguished: linear (corridor), single-span or two-span, of the simplest type; structures built according to developed planning schemes, including those that are curved in plan; hall (multi-span); structures of combined types, created according to relatively complex schemes.

Underground and semi-underground off-street passages can be designed in one, two or several tiers, both completely isolated by ceilings, and united by a common open space. The constructive and space-planning solution of the underground passage largely determines the depth of its foundation.

In this regard, the following are known: - deep underground structures, the construction of which is carried out by underground methods (without opening the surface); such structures are usually calculated for significant rock pressure from overlying rocks; - shallow underground structures, the construction of which is carried out with the opening of the surface; - closed structures formed by large-area ceilings and devoid of natural light and ventilation, as well as structures partially buried, for example, on relief differences.

Depending on the functional and compositional relationships with urban development, off-street crossings are distinguished, solved in the form of separate structures; crossings built in combination with other transport buildings and structures (intersections of streets and roads at different levels, metro entrances, stations for various purposes, etc.); transitions that are an integral element of public, administrative, residential and other buildings and their complexes.

According to the equipment of crossings by service establishments, crossings intended only for “transit” pedestrian traffic, crossings with separate institutions and associated service devices (phone booths, newspaper and book kiosks, theater ticket offices, etc.), crossings with a developed composition of associated service establishments are known. (trade, consumer services, public catering).

Depending on the devices and mechanisms used to move pedestrians vertically, there are transitions with stair and ramp exits, as well as transitions equipped with various types of escalators or continuous belt lifts.

One of the fastest growing areas of urban underground construction is the construction of underground garages. Thus, the paper describes a garage in Geneva (Switzerland) for 530 cars with an area of ​​3500 m2 and a depth of 25 m. The authors believe that, taking into account all costs, the cost of a place in an underground garage is approximately equal to the cost of a place in a garage on the surface.

Even in the most favorable climatic conditions, each car is in motion on average no more than 1-1.5 hours per day (300-400 hours per year). Consequently, each car is parked approximately 22-23 hours a day; this circumstance should be taken into account.

It is necessary to ensure such placement of garages for permanent storage of cars so that the maximum distance from the house to these structures does not exceed 600-800 m, i.e. the time spent on approaching them is not more than 8-10 minutes. Parking lots should be located at a distance of 200-250 m from the dwelling. Only such placement of car storage places eliminates the need to use transport vehicles. Bringing car storage areas closer to home is not only convenient for owners, but also economically justified. Otherwise, for each car, not one, but two places will be required: the first is a permanent one in a permanent garage, about 2-3 km from the house; the second - open parking directly at the dwelling, on the nearest streets, on intra-block passages or utility sites.

In foreign practice, ground-underground garages are often used. For example, in Budapest, on Martinelli Square, with a multi-storey office building, a ground-underground garage of a ramp type for 400 places is combined. The garage has eight ground and two underground tiers and was built in a very cramped place. The structure of the garage includes a built-in gas station and a semi-underground service station, designed mainly for servicing "city" cars entering the parking lot, as well as transit cars. For departmental vehicles, a special underground floor has been allocated with independent entry and exit.

Based on the need to save urban territory or preserve the existing nature of development, underground or semi-underground garages and parking lots can be provided for a certain part of the cars. At the same time, sanitary gaps to residential and public buildings are significantly reduced. The dimensions of the gaps in this case are calculated not from the outer walls, but from the places of emission of harmful emissions and noise sources, i.e. from entrances to garages and ventilation shafts. The upper tier (cover) of underground or semi-underground car parks can be used for landscaping or open storage of cars. For example, a one-storey underground garage for 180 cars and 80 motorcycles has been built according to this principle in the Cité-Model residential area in Brussels, along with numerous outdoor car parks with 830 spaces. This garage is connected by underground passages directly to the elevator halls of three large multi-storey residential buildings. The entrance to the garage is separated from the entrances to residential buildings by 20-25 m. In the same area, a separate petrol station and a service station have been built.

Underground garages and parking lots are becoming widespread in new high-rise residential complexes in the United States. So, in Los Angeles, in the new district of Century City, two 27-storey residential tower buildings with 308 apartments were built. Under them is an underground garage for 525 cars. In the same part of the city, two 20-storey residential buildings "Century Park Apartments" for 485 apartments were erected. An underground garage for 700 cars has been built under the houses.
The underground space can also accommodate parts of railway stations and other structures of main and suburban transport.

In accordance with the decision of the station square and the platform, the following types of stations can be identified: - single-tier, when the movement of passengers and vehicles on the platform is carried out at the same level (in this case, the station buildings themselves can be multi-storey); - multi-tiered, when the movement of passengers and vehicles on the platform is organized at different levels (overground and ground, ground and underground); in modern practice, predominantly multi-tiered solutions of large station complexes are common, including those using underground space.

Depending on the location of the passenger building in relation to the platform, railway stations of coastal, island and dead-end types are distinguished. The most common are coastal-type stations, which are characterized by the presence of island passenger platforms with exits to them through pedestrian tunnels. Such tunnels are arranged not only at large stations, but also at stations with medium or even low passenger traffic. In recent years, tunnels have also been used on suburban platforms. At a train speed of 120-160 km/h, following at minute intervals along several tracks (sometimes with a variable direction of movement), the construction of tunnels becomes practically necessary on all main railway lines, especially at stopping points with fairly powerful passenger flows. Tunnels for pedestrians are constructed both along the axis of the platforms and at their ends, depending on the main directions of the passenger approach routes.

Multi-tiered bus stations have been built in New York, Detroit and other US cities using the sandwich system. Typically, the upper tier of such stations is reserved for long-distance buses, the intermediate one is for passengers, and the lower one is for local buses. In this case, the lower tier is partially or completely buried.

The largest in Europe Moscow shopping and recreation complex Okhotny Ryad operates in Moscow. At the Moscow International Business Center "Moscow-City", which is under construction, a 3-storey deepening is envisaged, and the construction of a large underground facility on Konyushennaya Square in St. Petersburg begins. The largest underground construction site of the late XX century. in Moscow became the square of the Kursk station.

In many large cities of Western Europe and the United States, one can find complexes of multi-storey residential buildings with extensive use of underground space. In Paris, on Rue Flander, a group of residential three-story buildings was built on an area of ​​2 hectares. The first floors of the buildings are occupied by public premises (self-service shops, post office, savings bank, etc.). Three underground tiers with a total area of ​​about 20,000 m2 were built under the buildings and the yard, which are designed to accommodate an underground parking lot and service, technical and storage facilities.

In many large modern hotels, not only the underground part of the building itself is used, but also the underground part of the courtyard. The underground tiers house parking garages, commercial premises, warehouses, staff rooms, restaurant halls and other premises.

The building of the Mareki Hotel in Helsinki (Finland) uses several underground levels designed not only for utility rooms and parking lots, but also for accommodating small trading enterprises, restaurants, bars, snack bars, dance halls, etc. In this construction, the total usable area of ​​underground premises and devices exceeds the volume of the ground part.

Until 1975, underground trade enterprises with a total area of ​​more than 400 thousand m2 were built in the cities of Japan.

The main reasons for the underground placement of shops and catering establishments are the growing need for shopping facilities in cities, the need to bring them closer to consumers, the rise in price and lack of land in the central part of the city, the increase in human flows in the underground space, etc.

Many cultural objects do not need daylight and can be successfully placed underground.

Characteristic examples of building underground spaces are also successive extensions of infrastructure, which become necessary due to lack of space, environmental protection or ensuring the "inviolability" of the area. The expansion of universities, university quarters is increasingly motivated by growing needs. At the same time, by building underground spaces, an increase in the available usable areas can be achieved without prejudice to green areas, sports and playgrounds. This is how the University of Houston (Texas, USA) was expanded. At the same time, landscaped areas on the surface were not damaged. An underground facility with an area of ​​about 5,000 m2 was added to the old main building of the university, in which there are lecture halls, classrooms, a reading room, canteens, and laboratories. Thus, a characteristic university problem was solved. The need to expand universities is a globally observed phenomenon, and after all, each university has such green areas, sports grounds and courtyards, the development of which is possible only to the detriment of university life; below them, however, there is an unlimited possibility for building. The greatest reserve for expansion is the formation of underground space.

By placing sports facilities underground, a large amount of surface space for recreation and landscaping can also be saved. Residential areas under construction after the Second World War throughout Europe were very sparingly provided with sports facilities. The central and most representative sports facilities are for the most part intended only for sports competitions and are inaccessible to the vast majority of the population.

In the energy sector, underground space is used to build parts of power plants or energy storage facilities in various forms. Such objects are located, as a rule, either in places of energy production or in places of its consumption (ie, in cities). Their geometric characteristics and rock mass requirements are very specific.

Currently, the underground method of storing oil (petroleum products) and gas is becoming increasingly popular. It is noted that in the northern countries at present more than 50% of oil and gas storage facilities are underground.

The main purpose of organizing such storage facilities is to meet the needs of consumers of these products during periods of seasonal or other changes in demand or supply caused by other reasons. The paper indicates that in the northern states of the United States on cold winter days, demand for gas is 2-10 times higher than the norm. Thus, underground storage facilities make it possible to provide gas to the population and contribute to a more uniform operation of gas pipelines and, accordingly, reduce the costs of society. In this regard, underground storage facilities for petroleum products should be located in close proximity to the consumer, and their volume should correspond to the maximum difference between supply and demand for these products.

The use of underground space for agricultural purposes is carried out mainly for the production or storage of relevant products. The main prerequisites for this are the reduction of agricultural land and the growing needs of society for agricultural products (due to the growth of the population on the planet). On the other hand, underground cavities have relatively stable climatic characteristics, which makes it possible to produce and store food all year round. At present, cases of underground trout breeding, mushroom and vegetable cultivation, grain storage, livestock production, etc. are known. It is also believed that underground cultivation of trees for timber production is possible.

The main prerequisite for the creation of underground research laboratories is the protection of the underground space from various surface factors: mechanical, electromagnetic vibrations, etc. Therefore, studies are carried out in underground conditions that require a sufficiently high measurement accuracy, constancy of climatic characteristics, as well as those that may pose a danger to surface objects (for example, the acceleration of charged particles). This is a rather narrow and specific range of tasks. Structures of this kind are very rare and are created with great care.

The main reasons for placing water storage facilities in underground conditions are the prevention of withdrawal of land areas for reservoirs and the protection of water resources from the influence of anthropogenic factors and the environment. The advantages of underground water storage include higher safety of storage, constant water temperature, secrecy of storage, prevention of evaporation, low cost of maintenance of these facilities.

In urban areas, it is also possible to build underground warehouses. There are underground warehouses of active and passive storage. With active, systematically carried out warehousing, when a large amount of products and materials are processed daily, well-planned, large-sized unloading and loading areas and direct connection of warehouses with railway communications are necessary. A similar warehouse (with a useful area of ​​about 5 hectares) is located near Kansas City (USA). Part of the warehouse is used to store frozen products in the amount of 25,000 tons at temperatures up to -32 °C. The cost of building a warehouse was approximately 10% of the cost of an above-ground refrigerator of the same capacity.

Over the past two decades, in the largest cities of the world, more and more attention has been paid to the design and construction of not only individual public and administrative buildings, but also urban complexes. They include heterogeneous service establishments designed in close connection with transport facilities and, as a rule, requiring extensive use of underground (together with surface) space. Examples are Kursky, Manezhny, City complexes, elite houses with underground garage and shop complexes, etc.

Thus, the current intensive development of urban underground infrastructure is due to a number of factors. Classifications of underground structures according to various criteria are known. The experience of underground construction in our country and the world is significant.

Underground space - the city grows deeper

Each city is constantly growing, increasing its area. By providing a person with the opportunity to realize his abilities in the most profitable way, urban conditions create an incredibly large concentration of the population. At the same time, the standard of living and well-being is changing. Buildings, structures and infrastructure eventually become obsolete, not meeting the growing demands and needs of the urban population.

The growing concentration of the population requires more and more space for new buildings, roads, service facilities and everything that a person needs for life. Over time, the city becomes economically inefficient. Stretched transport communications increase the cost of production of urban enterprises. With the growth of the area, the costs of heating, garbage collection and water supply increase significantly.

In the development of the city, one day there comes a stage when its further growth requires a radical revision of the concept of using urban space. Even in ancient cities, squeezed by fortress walls, they began to build multi-storey buildings. At the same time, the volume of underground space was also used for various purposes.

Changes in air temperature affect the state of only the surface layer of the soil (only up to a depth of 0.3 m). Then begins the area in which any changes occur very, very slowly. For every 33 meters deep into the planet, the temperature rises by 1°C.

Underground structures are not aware of the impact of external factors: precipitation, snowstorms and hurricanes. There is always a stable humidity and temperature regime, favorable for storage, which is very easy to maintain within the required limits.

Over the millennia of development, human civilization has accumulated rich experience in the development and use of the underground environment. Mainly for the purpose of storing food and other property. There is hardly anything that would not be placed underground. Churches, military factories and arsenals, hospitals and hospitals, restaurants, hotels and even cemeteries.

Catacombs of Paris 18th century. The total length of underground facilities is 300 km, the area occupied is 800 hectares. They mined building stone and gypsum. Further development was prohibited only by Napoleon because of the threat of collapses. It was here that the dead were buried during epidemics. The catacombs were used for housing and wine cellars. In the days of the hippies, young people organized holidays and discos here, after which the city services closed all underground entrances.

From modern experience, the use of underground space in the city of Kansas City (USA) is most indicative. All limestone mines are developed with regard to the future use of the mined volume. Underground premises are rented out and sold as offices of firms and as production areas. Rocks have good vibration and acoustic insulation. Such conditions are the main requirement when locating the production of optical parts and high-precision devices. Calibration and adjustment work on the surface had to be carried out only at night due to traffic noise. For this reason, practical Americans lowered production to a depth of 183 meters.

The cost of excavated rock is only a small fraction of the cost of reclaimed space. For a while, proposals were even considered to dump the limestone into the river. The income from its sale is much lower compared to the profit from the operation of the premises.

During the Cold War, under major cities in China, a whole network of bomb shelters was created. It would seem that huge material and labor resources were wasted. However, after the start of reforms in China, these areas began to be used for commercial purposes. Restaurants located underground even celebrate weddings and anniversaries.

The use of underground space depends on the geological and seismic conditions in the city area. There are no particular difficulties in the development of cavities in rock and limestone. Belarus is characterized by flooded sedimentary soils and the main threat to underground structures comes from water. Nevertheless, the construction of the Minsk metro showed that, with the proper quality of work, a successful fight against this evil is possible.

The main purpose of the development of underground space is to save surface area in the city. This is especially impressive if we consider the problems of increasing the required space for parking lots.

It is not clear how, but historically it turned out that the basements of our high-rise buildings are not used as garages. We take this calmly and are accustomed to the discrepancy between the place of storage of the car and the place of residence of its owner. Sometimes the distance can be more than a kilometer. With this logic, an ordinary trip is a whole ritual. You need to get to the parking lot, and in any weather, pick up the car, drive it to the entrance, and only then take advantage of the benefits of universal motorization.

This state of affairs - the construction of detached garages with an acute housing problem is surprising. For each two-level garage, the same amount of building materials is required as for the foundation of a multi-storey building of the same area. Each new garage cooperative is a few foundations dug into the ground. It would be understandable if buildings with underground parking would be built at the same time, but this does not happen. This practice flourishes throughout the CIS.

In 1990, there was one car for every 17.9 people in the former USSR. At the same time, in Europe this figure was 2.9 people per 1 car, and in the USA 1.9 people. It is quite clear that there will be further saturation of the country with cars up to European standards. Someday their number will increase 6 times, and consequently, the area of ​​parking lots and garages will increase in the same way.

According to JSC Belpromproject specialists, the cost of building multi-storey buildings with an underground garage increases by only a few percent. Basically, these are the costs for the construction of the entrance, ventilation and additional sound insulation.

The most surprising thing is the absence of any restrictions on design and construction by building codes. There are no special obstacles on the part of firefighters. Restrictions begin if the number of garage floors is more than two. Then there are increased requirements for the reliability of evacuation routes for vehicles.

In practice, the existing situation is not explainable from the point of view of common sense. Storing cars outdoors leads to accelerated corrosion of the body and parts. In addition, starting a cold engine at a negative temperature is equivalent to wear at a run of 200 km. In turn, this leads to more frequent purchases of spare parts. And since we are increasingly acquiring foreign cars, much-needed currency is flowing out of the state.

In cold weather, it takes several minutes to bring the engine up to the required temperature. These few minutes at each start-thousands of tons of gasoline. And how many problems arise when the temperature drops below minus 30 ° C. For many, this becomes an insurmountable obstacle, and they are forced to use public transport. There are no such problems for the subway. His work is absolutely independent of external factors.

Together with the beginning of the construction of the metro, the possibility of serious development of the underground space of the city arose. The designers made their first serious experiment when designing the Oktyabrskaya station. In the underground passage to the supermarket "Central" placed the premises of cash desks for the advance sale of tickets. Based on this experience, in the subsequent design, they began to rely on expanding the possibilities of exploiting the advantages of underground areas.

According to G.A. Evsevyev, Chief Engineer of Minskmetroproekt, the subway should be considered as a zone for creating underground infrastructure to accommodate the city's social services and auxiliary premises. Integrated use of underground space saves ground space. This is an outlet for unloading the city center, where the cost of land is much higher than on the outskirts. This approach to the problem makes it possible to reduce the cost of building the subway itself.

The fact is that the Minsk metro has a shallow depth. The bearing capacity of the structures and, consequently, their cost determines the load created by the soil above the station. More depth - more soil weight, more load and higher costs for building structures. The desire to reduce this item of expenditure leads to the creation of premises above the station. The logic is simple - the weight of air is negligible compared to soil backfill.

With this approach, the cost of construction falls, the architecture of the stations can be made more delicate. The proceeds from the operation of the created underground facilities become an additional source of financing.

Based on such logical prerequisites, a section of distillation tunnels was built behind the Frunzenskaya metro station. Instead of backfilling, two underground floors with an area of ​​2,000 m2 each were designed and built. It was assumed that the upper one would be used for commercial premises. Warehouses for goods were to be located on the lower floor. It was possible to install freight elevators. Unfortunately, no buyers or tenants have yet been found for these areas. There have been proposals to use these premises as garages. The chief engineer of Minskmetroproekt treats this with restraint. In terms of trade, the place is very profitable. Sooner or later there will be a consumer.

The situation is better at the construction of the Partizanskaya station. Above the station is a trading floor measuring 21 by 105 meters. Approximately the same dimensions are planned for the underground complex under construction in front of the "Belarus" department store. With the metro station "Partizanskaya" and underground passages under the street. Zhilunovich and partisan avenue, the complex will also be connected by underground passages. It finances the work of Aresa-Service, which is also the owner of the complex under construction. A buyer for the premises above the station itself has not yet been found.

When completed, the city will have a significant shopping complex. It is formed by the station itself, as a transport system, the hotel "Tourist", the department store "Belarus" and underground shopping areas.

A similar larger project was prepared for the station square. As conceived by the designers, an underground floor with storage rooms, cafes and other services was to be located under it. Here they also wanted to equip underground parking lots and taxi ranks. Passengers could, without rising to the surface, leave the station building. The construction of this station complex has been delayed due to lack of funding.

The situation is easier with the creation and expansion of auxiliary places in underground passages. Commercial organizations quickly appreciated the opportunities and benefits of passing trade. Here is one of the advantages of underground space. In underground passages, frost and heat are not so terrible. The buyer and the seller do not care about rains or snowstorms on the surface.

Based on these advantages, a developed pedestrian crossing was built at the exit from the Pushkinskaya station. In addition to other retail outlets, there is also a pharmacy.

The combination of developed underground passages with the creation of underground floors above the stations will continue. Similar experience is used in the construction of stations on the continuation of the first stage of the metro in Uruchcha. In the same way, the Kamennaya Gorka station in the Zapad microdistrict and the Mogilevskaya station in the Angarskaya street microdistrict are being designed.

Metro builders have already mastered the city center with its dense historical buildings. Now it's the turn of residential neighborhoods. Of particular interest to designers is the technical zone of the subway. This is an area with a strip of 40 meters from the axis of each tunnel. According to existing rules, within these limits, any construction is prohibited at the time of underground work. The new residential neighborhoods are more free than in the city center.

These circumstances make it possible to create a developed underground infrastructure. It is planned to build underground garages and parking lots. At the same time, auxiliary structures and warehouses can be lowered underground. Technical capabilities allow such construction to be carried out - the question rests on the possibility of financing.

Trends in the world urban planning experience testify in favor of the development of underground infrastructure. It provides opportunities for dramatic architectural solutions that provide additional amenities to urban residents.

Errors in the construction of underground structures are much more difficult to correct. It should be borne in mind that in each specific case, the development of underground space is carried out taking into account local conditions, existing experience and the needs of the city. At the same time, production and technological potentials are developing. The use of the latest scientific and technological achievements can lead to a significant development of this area of ​​urban planning.

Viktor OSADCHY

Konyukhov D.S.

Use of underground space. Proc. allowance for universities. 2004.

The training manual provides a broad overview of the history of the development of underground space in various countries of the world, discusses in detail all existing types of underground structures, environmental aspects of the construction and use of underground structures. Much attention is paid to the reuse of previously built underground facilities and worked out mine workings. For students of construction and architectural universities and faculties.

FOREWORD

Engineering development of underground space is one of the most important areas that ensure the sustainability of the development of modern society. The textbook that you are holding in your hands is intended for students of higher educational institutions studying in the direction of training graduates 653 500 "Construction" (specialties: 290 300 "Industrial and civil construction", 291 400 "Building design") and bachelors in the direction 550 100 "Construction". It provides an overview of the history of the development of underground space in various countries of the world, including Russia, examines almost all types of underground structures currently existing in the world, and provides numerous examples of architectural and planning solutions for underground facilities built in recent years. Special attention is paid to the environmental aspects of the interaction of an underground facility with its natural and urban environment, the integrated use of underground space, as well as the reuse of previously built underground facilities for various purposes and worked out mine workings. The book deals with the problems of reliability and durability of underground structures and presents a modern theory of risks in relation to underground construction. The preparation and publication of this manual became possible largely due to the constant assistance and support of the Dean of the Faculty of Hydrotechnical and Special Construction, Head of the Department of Underground Construction and Hydrotechnical Works of Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Doctor of Engineering. Sciences, Professor M.G. Zertsalova. The author sincerely thanks the reviewers: Doctors of Engineering. sciences, professors I.Ya. Dorman and V.E. Merkin for valuable advice and comments during the preparation of the manuscript.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, in the planning and development of large cities and metropolitan cities all over the world, more and more attention has been paid to the problems of developing underground space, as well as the construction of underground facilities outside the city limits, which ensure the normal functioning of large population centers, especially industrial centers. Problems such as the lack of urban areas, the constant growth of the population of cities, the accumulation of large mass vehicles on the roads, the inability of urban infrastructure to cope with ever-increasing loads and the deterioration of the environmental situation require an increasingly active use of underground space, including for the placement of transport and engineering systems, objects of trade and consumer services, warehouses and parking lots, etc. According to modern research, in most cases, underground structures, despite the significant costs of their construction, are the most optimal solutions to many issues of the functioning of the city.

The underground space of the city is the space under the daytime surface of the earth, used as "one of the means of overcoming the trend of expanding the city, the subject of developing new concepts for creating and preserving the natural habitat, achieving priorities for environmental and economic well-being and sustainable development, creating conditions for people to live in extreme conditions" [RASE, 1996]. The underground space of the city includes: underground transport facilities, placement of industrial enterprises and public service enterprises, underground city networks and engineering equipment facilities, special purpose facilities. Integrated development of underground space (Fig. 1) is typical for large cities and metropolitan cities, mainly in the areas of the city center and the centers of municipal districts, in the areas of the most important transport hubs and intersections, in industrial and municipal warehouse areas. One of the aspects of the integrated development of underground space is the rational use of the land area, in particular:

construction of buildings and structures in conditions of cramped urban development;

preservation of the territory of green zones and recreation areas, arrangement of landscaped and landscaped areas in the existing building;

improving the artistic and aesthetic qualities of the urban environment, preserving the historically valuable territory;

preservation and restoration of unique objects of landscape architecture;

accessibility of the most important objects of urban importance and places of labor activity of citizens, saving time;

improving transport services, improving traffic safety, reducing street noise;

reduction of the length of engineering communications;

protection of the population during periods of possible natural and man-made accidents and disasters.

In all world capitals, active development of underground space is underway. Large cities of our country are no exception, primarily Moscow and St. Petersburg. In fact, before our eyes, a new underground infrastructure of large cities is being created, during the design and construction of which it is necessary to take into account a number of factors, and, above all, the impact of technogenic processes on the ecology of the underground space and the state of the hydrogeological environment.

The hyperconcentration of the population, infrastructure and industrial production leads to a huge overload of the geoecological and hydrogeological environments of large cities and causes irreversible changes in them. On the territory of Moscow, under the influence of technogenic factors, gravitational and dynamic compaction of rocks, displacement of rocks in the massif, hydrostatic weighing and compression of loose water-bearing rocks, mechanical and chemical suffusion develop. The impact of the city is most active in the surface layers of the earth's crust at depths of up to 60–100 m, however, in some cases, this impact can also manifest itself at depths of up to 1500–2000 m from the day surface*. The most significant impact on the geo-ecological environment is exerted by: the impact of the city's ground-based technosphere, the creation of underground workings, the pumping of groundwater, and the violation of the infiltration balance of groundwater. Violation of the natural balance of groundwater, for example, leads to a change in the stress-strain state of the rock mass and compaction of rocks within depression funnels formed during water drawdown. This, in turn, causes deformations of the earth's surface and becomes the cause of numerous emergencies. All of the above indicates that significant changes in the geological environment are taking place on the territory of Moscow and the natural resource potential is practically unable to ensure its self-recovery. Approximately 48% of the city's territory is located in areas of geological risk, 12% - in areas of potential geological risk, and only 40% of the territory is characterized as stable. At the moment, "the development of underground space is the key to the preservation of the environment, as well as a factor that has a beneficial effect on the preservation of the human environment in large cities" [Petrenko, 1998].

This beneficial effect can be achieved through:

- more complete use of underground space as a human habitat;

— expanding the scope of "environmentally friendly" methods of construction of underground structures;

- control over subsidence of the day surface and their prevention;

— non-standard architectural and planning solutions, taking into account environmental requirements when using underground space.

Among a large number of underground infrastructure facilities, a significant role is given to transport systems and structures. Among them it is customary to include:

objects of urban high-speed off-street passenger rail transport (metro, high-speed tram, city railway);

intersections of city streets and roads at different levels, transport tunnels, underwater tunnels, pedestrian underpasses, etc.;

facilities related to the storage and maintenance of motor vehicles (garages for permanent storage of vehicles, guest parking lots);

multifunctional, multi-level objects and complexes for various purposes, interconnected with ground buildings, as well as structures and devices for transport purposes with various forms of using underground urban space (railway stations, shopping centers, metro stations, etc.).

Subways prevail among the underground systems of specialized passenger transport in the cities of our country. Currently, subways are being operated and built in ten Russian cities: Yekaterinburg, Kazan, Krasnoyarsk, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Novosibirsk, Omsk, St. Petersburg, Samara, Chelyabinsk, and are being designed in Ufa. In recent years, there has been an increasing trend to create new transport lines designed to connect business, cultural, historical and shopping centers with each other and with areas of mass housing development located on the outskirts of large cities. This will increase the speed of communication and improve the quality of passenger service. These lines, first of all, include “mini-metro”, which have smaller tunnels and stations “in the light”, shorter distances between stations, and lower speeds of rolling stock. Complementing the already existing subway networks, "metro center" systems are being designed that allow creating more convenient connections for intra-centre transportation. It is also planned to create a network of express metro lines in Moscow. Such systems exist in many large cities of the world: Paris, London, New York and many others (Fig. 2). The integration of various off-street rail transport systems makes it possible to bring passengers closer to the most visited places in the city. The framework of the modern city is the street and road network, which is also interconnected with the problems of development and use of underground space. In Moscow, many transport crossings at different levels are solved with the use of tunnels. The use of multi-level intersections (in particular, tunnel type) streamlines the conditions for the movement of urban land transport, reduces the level of traffic noise and air pollution from vehicle exhaust gases, and reduces the number of traffic accidents.

Another urban planning problem is directly related to underground transport systems - the organization of permanent and temporary storage of motor vehicles. When solving this problem, it is necessary, by combining various methods and taking into account as much as possible the entire set of specific conditions, to apply new technologies for the use of underground space, which are especially promising for overconsolidated and reconstructed central areas of megacities.

The integrated use of underground space hinders further growth of the territories of large cities and makes it possible to jointly solve urban planning, transport, engineering and social problems, improve the architectural and planning structure of cities, free the surface of the earth from many auxiliary structures, rationally use urban areas for housing construction, create recreational areas for citizens, improve sanitary and the hygienic state of the city, while preserving architectural monuments - to efficiently place engineering equipment, etc.

1. HISTORICAL REVIEW OF ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERGROUND SPACE

1.1. Brief historical overview of underground construction in the world

Human exploration of the underground space began in ancient times. The prototype of underground structures can be considered natural caves and voids in rocks used by our ancestors. The cave became the first dwelling of man, protecting him from bad weather and predators. Approximately at

At the same time, man began to develop rocks underground in order to obtain various minerals. V.M. Slukin [Slukin, 1991] proposes a periodization of underground structures by epochs:

1) Late Paleolithic and Neolithic (until the 4th millennium BC);

2) the ancient world (4th millennium BC - IV centuries AD);

3) the Middle Ages (V-XI centuries);

4) new time (after the XII centuries).

The Russian Society for Speleostological Research has developed a “Cadastre of artificial caves and underground architectural structures on the territory of the Eurasian and African continents”*. Depending on cultural and civilizational factors, historical background, the main occupation of the population, and so on. in the "Cadastre" eight speleostological countries of the Old World are distinguished.

1. East Slavic. It is entirely located on the territory of the CIS and occupies a rather homogeneous territory, from the point of view of the culture of developing underground space: most of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, and the north of Kazakhstan. Since ancient times, underground objects of cultural and domestic purposes, places of worship, shelters, fortification underground passages, mines and quarries have been built on this territory.

2. Western European. It occupies the territory of Europe, the Baltic countries, North-Western Belarus, Transcarpathia. This territory is characterized by a wide and pragmatic use of underground space * for many millennia, underground workings, defensive structures, shelters, utility structures, necropolises have been used here.

3. Western Asian. Includes Bessarabia, Mountainous Crimea and the Caucasus. Since ancient times, this territory has been characterized by the complex use of large groups of underground objects for various purposes: residential, economic, defensive, transport, religious - included in cave cities and underground monasteries. On this territory there are underground cities-monasteries widely known in the world (Cappadocia, Turkey); large underground complexes for defensive and economic purposes.

4. Central Asian. It is located on the territory of the Central Asian states of the CIS, eastern Azerbaijan, Iran and Northern Afghanistan. The development of underground space here began with the construction of water supply systems in the foothills - kyariyaz, with a total length of tens of thousands of kilometers. Mining has been developing in mountainous regions since the 15th millennium BC. In addition, underground passages for defensive purposes, as well as Muslim and Buddhist cult caves are found in this area.

5. South Asian. It occupies the Indian subcontinent and adjacent areas. It is characterized by the development of mining, the presence of underground cisterns, groups of large underground temples with architectural elements carved into the rock - columns, sculptures, etc.

6. East Asian. Mostly located in China. The unique achievements of ancient and medieval Chinese science contributed to the creation of original and diverse underground structures: cave temples, necropolises, water conduits, transport communications. Housing construction was characterized by especially intensive development - and in our time, tens of millions of people live in the cave settlements of China.

7. North African. It is located on the territory of Ancient Egypt and the countries of North Africa. It is mainly characterized by underground structures for religious purposes: tombs and temples, as well as underground mining. In Libya and Algeria, mesh water-collecting underground systems resembling kariyaz have been preserved; in Ethiopia, the original underground temples. In the countries of North Africa, residents periodically built underground dwellings to protect themselves from the heat.

8. Equatorial African. On the territory of Black Africa south of the Sahara, to date, no signs of underground construction have been found. In East Africa, apparently as a result of cultural exchanges with India, Egypt and the Arab countries, minerals were developed underground. The first evidence of the construction of the tunnel, recorded in historical documents, dates back to 2150 BC. It was an underwater pedestrian tunnel with a length of 900 m and clear dimensions of 4 x 3.6 m under the Euphrates River in Babylon, connecting the royal palace with the temple of Jupiter. For the duration of the construction, the river bed, 180 m wide, was diverted to the side and all work was carried out dry in an open pit. The walls and arch of the tunnel consisted of brickwork on a bituminous binder.

Underground structures are repeatedly mentioned by the historian Herodotus. In particular, he describes the underground fragments of the Egyptian pyramids (about 2500 BC), the underground chambers of the Egyptian queen Nitocris (about 700 BC), a tunnel about 1600 m long on the island of Samos in the Aegean Sea, passed through limestone with hammers and chisels. Here is what Herodotus himself writes about this structure: “A through tunnel in a mountain 150 orgy high *, starting at its sole with exits on both sides. The tunnel is 7 stages long and 8 feet high and wide. Under this tunnel, along its entire length, they dug a canal 20 cubits deep and 3 feet wide, through which water was piped into the city ... The builder of this waterworks was Eupalius, the son of Naustrophus. For many centuries, this tunnel was considered unknown and was rediscovered only in 1882. During its examination, it was found that the tunnel route consists of two straight lines connected by reverse curves. By the first millennium BC. historians attribute underground cities to the territory of modern Georgia and Armenia. In Georgia, not far from the city of Gori, the ancient underground city of Uplistsikhe has been preserved (Fig. 1.1), which communicated with the river. Kuroi with the help of the tunnel. To collect ground and atmospheric water, a system of shafts was used, interconnected by underground passages laid at a depth of about 50 m from the earth's surface.

Underground workings were erected without lining and only in some cases were fixed with masonry. About 50 BC The Romans dug a tunnel about 5 km long to drain water from Lake Fucino. According to the historian Pliny, the tunnel was built within 11 years, the work was carried out by counter faces from about 40 shafts. At the beginning of the 1st century AD. the Romans built a tunnel 900 m long and 8 m wide on the Naples-Ponzuoli road. The tunnel was laid under the Posilipo hill, made of volcanic tufa. The height of the tunnel at the entrance and exit portal is 25 m, and towards the middle it gradually decreases.

It is assumed that the vertical funnels were intended to improve daylight illumination. Around 300 AD a tunnel was built on the territory of modern Turkey, which simultaneously served as a water pipeline and an underground navigation channel. Under Emperor Hadrian, the Romans built a tunnel to supply Athens with water. During the period of Turkish rule, the population of the city fell sharply, the tunnel was abandoned and put back into operation centuries later - in 1840. In 1925, the Athens aqueduct was expanded and reconstructed, as a result of which the old Roman tunnel continues to be operated to this day.

Ancient Slavs in the middle and second half of the 1st millennium AD semi-underground structures - dugouts (Fig. 1.2) were used as the main type of dwelling. Catacomb burials in Khazaria date back to the 8th-9th centuries. The basis of this burial structure was made up of catacombs dug in solid ground on the slopes of hills. Each catacomb consisted of two parts - a corridor entrance and a burial chamber.

In Georgia, on a rocky cliff 105 m high on the left bank of the river. Chickens in the XII-XIII centuries. Vardzia underground complex was carved. The complex consists of 8 floors of caves traversed in volcanic tuffs in a section about 500 m wide (Fig. 1.3). In the center of the cave complex is the Church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, which, according to the wall painting, dates back to 1184-1186. To the west of the church is the bell tower. Between them, as well as to the west and east, there are hundreds of public, religious and residential premises connected by corridors, platforms and stairs. To supply the complex with water, its builders pierced a tunnel 3.5 km long, along the bottom of which two pottery pipelines ran. Water flowed through them.

The throughput of this water pipeline was more than 160,000 l / day. Between the 400s and 1400s, historians note almost a thousand years of stagnation in European tunneling. It should be noted here that this temporary break applies, first of all, to the construction of public (industrial and civil) facilities. The construction of underground structures for defense and special purposes was almost never interrupted. This issue will be considered in more detail in the following sections, using the example of the development of underground space in Russia, the CIS countries and Moscow. Starting from the XIII century. in the southeast of the Netherlands, underground limestone mining for construction has become widespread. In total, about 250 quarries have been registered, mostly of a private nature, with an area from several tens of meters to 100 hectares (Breuls, 1998). Most of these workings, located at a depth of 20-25 m, are concentrated in the Siechen and Sassen valley, 10 km from Maastricht. When extracting stone, workers dug deep mines to the limestone layer. Upon reaching the seam, a separate passage was cut with steps leading to the kitchen, barn or outbuilding on the day surface. Upon completion of the construction, the workings were used as storage facilities, wells (when the groundwater level rose), and shelters for the duration of numerous wars. On the walls of the mines, there are drawings of riders and soldiers depicted in the uniforms of the armies of almost all countries of the world, who have passed through the territory of the Netherlands over the past 7 centuries. In 1450, construction began on a tunnel on the road between Nice and Genoa. Soon, work was suspended and resumed only after 300 years. However, in 1794, construction was completely stopped and a road was built over the unfinished tunnel.

At the end of the XV century. on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin, several water tunnels were laid with stonework lining. In the 16th century, during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, active underground construction was carried out in Moscow. In particular, in 1657, V. Aznacheev attempted to build an underwater tunnel under the river. Moscow. In the 17th century in Pskov and Veliky Novgorod, several underground passages were laid with a length of up to 200 m with wooden and stone fastening of the vault and walls.

In the XVII-XIX centuries. in France, several navigable tunnels were passed:

in 1679-1681 on the section of the Languedoc Canal, which connected the river. Garonne with the Mediterranean Sea, a tunnel 164 m long, 8.2 m high and 6.7 m wide, crossing the Malpas hill north of the Pyrenees (Malpassky tunnel, for the first time in the history of tunneling, was passed using gunpowder);

in 1784-1838, three navigable tunnels with a total length of about 1500 m and a width of 7 m were built in the dividing pool of the Nivernay Canal between the rivers Sane and Loire;

in 1787-1789, the Torcy Tunnel, 1276 m long, 2.6 m wide and 2.9 m high, was built on the Central Canal between the Loire and Seine rivers;

in 1802-1809, two tunnels were passed on the Saint-Quentin Canal between the Oise and Scheldt rivers: Riqueval, 5670 m long, and Tronqua, 1098 m long. The width of these tunnels is 8 m.

In general, by the beginning of the XIX century. about 40 shipping tunnels were built in France. England, its historical rival, did not lag behind France: in the period from 1766 to 1769, 5 navigable tunnels were passed on the canal connecting the coal mines with Manchester, the longest of which, Harcastle, had a length of 2632 m, a width of 2.7 m and a height of 3.7 m. In 1825-1827, another tunnel 2675 m long, 4.3 m wide and 4.9 m high was passed parallel to it. In total, over the same period of time as in France, in England were built about 60 shipping tunnels.

In the USA, the first navigable tunnel 137 m long, 6.1 m wide and 5.5 m high was built in 1818-1821 on the Shuykil Canal. In 1828, the Lebanon navigable tunnel was built in Pennsylvania, 223 m long, 5.5 m wide and 4.6 m high.

Second quarter of the 19th century can be considered the beginning of the era of industrial tunneling. Along with shipping tunnels, railway tunnels were actively built. The first of them was laid in 1826-1830 in England on the Liverpool-Manchester line, its length is 1190 m. At the same time, a railway tunnel was built in France on the Roanne-Andrezier line. In the United States, the first railroad tunnel was built between 1831 and 1833 on the Allegheny-Portage line in Pennsylvania. The length of the tunnel was 270 m, height 5.8 m, width 6.1 m.

The "father of tunneling" M. Brunnel in 1825 proposed the method of shield tunneling, with the help of which in soft rocks under the river. The Thames dug a tunnel 450 m long (Fig. 1.4). Construction was completed in 1832.

Engineers Barlow and Treithead in 1869 built a second underwater tunnel under the Thames with a length of 450 m and an internal diameter of 2 m. A circular cross-section shield lined with cast iron segments was used for its penetration. This shield is a prototype of modern tunneling shields.

An important stage in the formation of the era of industrial tunneling is the construction of the London Underground, opened to traffic in 1862. The first section was only 3.6 km long, but already in 1863, the parliamentary commission approved the construction of a 30-kilometer underground circular railway. It was put into operation in 1884 and, on one of its branches, included the Brunnel Tunnel, which turned out to be the oldest section of the London Underground. In 1890, electric traction was introduced on the underground section of the South London Line. Prior to this, trains were steam-powered and the tunnels were filled with locomotive smoke and soot.

The first methods of mechanization of tunneling operations were developed in the middle of the 19th century. during the construction of long alpine tunnels. The first of these was the double-track Mont Cenis tunnel between France and Italy with a length of 12,850 m. Work began in 1857, but progressed extremely slowly. To increase the speed of penetration, drilling machines powered by compressed air were designed, and in January 1861, mechanical drilling was first used here. The tunnel was opened to traffic on September 17, 1871.

The second Alpine tunnel - Saint Gotthard - began to be built in September 1871 (Fig. 1.5). The double-track tunnel, about 16,300 m long, passes through heavily disturbed granites, gneisses, shales, and other rocks. During its construction, gunpowder was first replaced by dynamite, hydraulic drilling machines and mechanical rock hauling were used. Construction was completed in 1882.

Further improvement in tunneling methods made it possible to pass the 10,270 m long double-track Alberg railway tunnel between the valleys of the Inn and Rhine rivers in four years: from 1880 to 1884.

The much grander Simplon Tunnel between Italy and Switzerland, 19,780 m long, was built between 1898 and 1906. The significant length of the structure forced its designers to abandon the double-track traffic scheme adopted for all other Alpine tunnels and replace it with two parallel single-track tunnels located at a distance of 17 m from one another.

In the same period of time, about 10 more Alpine tunnels were built with a length from 6100 m to 14 600 m. The construction of the Lötschberg tunnel caused the greatest difficulty. Construction began in 1906 and continued normally until July 1908. On July 24, 1908, there was a sudden breakthrough of water into the tunnel and a 150 m long section was filled with a liquid mass of sand, silt and rubble. During the survey, it was revealed that the tunnel crossed a tectonic fault filled with alluvial deposits. Water from the river passed through this fault. Corder, located at a height of 180 m above the tunnel route. The builders decided to bypass the place of the breakthrough, which increased the total length of the structure by 870 m.

A little earlier than the Lechberg Tunnel in northern Italy, the single-track Gatico Tunnel with a length of 3,310 m was passed. During its construction, vertical caissons were used for the first time for driving a section 344 m long in weak aquifers.

The first railway tunnels in Russia were built in 1859-1862 on the St. Petersburg-Warsaw railway.

In 1892, the construction of a four-kilometer tunnel through the Surami Pass was completed in Georgia. Construction in fractured rocks with high rock pressure was mainly carried out using the supported vault method. In this tunnel, for the first time in Russia, a hydraulic machine was used for drilling holes. The calculation of the vault, as an "elastic arch", was carried out at the suggestion of prof. L.F. Nicholas. At the end of the First World War in Italy, a railway tunnel with a length of 18,510 m was built on the Florence-Bologna line. In 1923-1927, a single-track Moffat tunnel with a cross section of 4.8x7.2 m and a length of 9,800 m was built in Colorado (USA). Started in 1922, almost simultaneously with it, the Shilizu Tunnel in Japan, with a length of 9,700 m, was completed only in 1931.

Under difficult hydrogeological conditions, the construction of the Tann Tunnel, 7,800 meters long, located on the Tokyo-Kobe railway, was carried out. Construction began in 1918 and completed in 1934. In 1936-1941, one of the world's first long underwater tunnels was built in Japan under the Simones Strait. Its length was 6330 m.

In 1939, apparently the world's first underground garage was built in Cardifor (USA). Buried under one of the squares of the city by 10.7 m, it was at the same time a refuge for the population for a special period. Since 1940, abandoned workings in lime quarries have been actively used in the USA as refrigerators for long-term storage of perishable food products. Studies conducted by American experts show that underground limestone workings maintain a constant temperature and humidity for a long time. If the cooling devices are turned off, the temperature in the underground storage facilities rises by 3 °C within 60 days.

And in 1948, one of the world's first underground oil storage facilities was built in Naantali (Finland). Until the start of World War II, intensive construction of underground plants was going on in Germany. For this we used:

existing mine workings with the expansion of individual sections to the required size;

horizontal mine workings within hills or mountains;

underground and semi-underground structures erected in deep pits (deep ravines, thalwegs and other natural depressions were often used).

One of the largest was the plant for the production of V-1 and V-2 rocket launchers in Nordhaus (Thuringia), located inside a large hill. The plant consisted of two parallel tunnels 2.3 km long and 12.5 m wide, located at a distance of 1.4 km from one another. The tunnels were connected to each other by 46 transverse workings. The total useful area of ​​the underground space was about 15 hectares. At the end of the Second World War, the construction of underground factories became widespread in the UK. For this, abandoned mine workings were usually used. For example, in one of the abandoned mines that existed back in the First World War, an underground factory for the manufacture of aircraft parts was located. The total useful area of ​​the plant was about 6 km2.

Speaking about the history of underground construction, one cannot ignore such an important aspect as the construction of underground hydraulic structures, which are more complex and labor intensive than industrial and civil facilities. Thus, the following comparison can be made: the cross-sectional area of ​​chamber workings for machine rooms, surge tanks and switchgears of underground hydroelectric power stations often exceed 1,000 m2, hydraulic tunnels - 200 m2, while the cross-sectional area of ​​distillation, subway tunnels is 20-25 m2 [Mostkov, Orlov and Stepanov, 1986]. As an example, let's take the project of the underground turbine hall of the Rogun HPP (Fig. 1.6). The underground turbine hall of the Rogun HPP, 320 m long, 27 m wide and 64 m high, is designed at a depth of 500 m from the ground. In the immediate vicinity of it is a room for power transformers 20 m wide, 38 m high and 180 m long, separated from the engine room by a rocky entirely 38 m wide. The total volume of underground workings at the Rogun hydroelectric complex is about 5.3 million m3, and their length is about 60 km.

...