Measurements in physical culture and sports. Training manual on sports metrology

M. A. Godik

SPORTS

METROLOGY

Approved by the USSR State Committee

on physical culture and sports as a textbook

for physical education institutes

"PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS"

BBK 75.1

Reviewers:

Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor A. N. LAPUTIN, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor I. P. RATOV

Godik M. A.

G59 Sports metrology: Textbook for physical institutes. cult. - M.: Physical culture and sport, 1988.-

192 p., ill.

IN The textbook outlines the metrological foundations of complex control in physical education and sports, the technology and methodology for recording measurement results in tests, measuring and assessing indicators of competitive and training activities of athletes, as well as their level of preparedness.

Metrological aspects of selection, forecasting and modeling in physical education are considered. sports

For students of physical education institutes.

PREFACE

When writing the textbook “Sports Metrology,” the author proceeded from the fact that coaches (teachers, physical education instructors, organizational workers) can effectively plan the content of their activities only if they have constant information about the athlete (athlete, sports team and his activities). Processing and analysis of this information allows you to select the main areas of work and draw up high-quality plans and training programs. Therefore, already in Chapter 1 this position is revealed using a specific example of the relationship between training loads and indicators characterizing the preparedness of athletes.

The key chapters in the textbook are chapters 2, 3 and 4, which outline issues of measurement accuracy, requirements for tests, and evaluation of their results. The theoretical and especially practical material of these chapters should form in students the following basic rules: 1) strive for the highest possible measurement accuracy, be able to determine the magnitude, type and causes of errors, learn to eliminate them; 2) from a huge number of tests, use only those that meet metrological requirements.

The student should be well aware that the variability of results of repeated measurements in any test is due to three reasons. The first is systematic and random errors in the operation of measuring equipment. The second is errors arising due to non-standard testing procedures. And finally, the third reason is the constant variability of the functional systems of the athlete’s body as a socio-biological object.

Elimination of errors caused by the first two reasons is mandatory. The third reason is an objectively existing reality, which characterizes the stability of the athlete’s actions and functions. It may indicate adaptation processes occurring during training. It is impossible to eliminate this cause using metrology, but it is imperative to know it and take it into account when planning.

Mastering this section is possible only if you have a good laboratory workshop, the content of which is formed on the basis of the material in Chapters 6 and 7. In addition to practical classes in sports metrology, classes at departments of specialization and biomedical departments, during which a wide variety of measurements should be carried out, will be useful.

the importance of operational control as a basis for constant correction of the load of training sessions. At the same time, the main provisions for monitoring technical and tactical skill, physical qualities, and loads are revealed using examples of groups of sports (as done in Chapter 9).

This textbook does not contain a section “Statistical methods for processing measurement results”, since in 1988 it is planned to release a special textbook on statistics in physical education and sports.

When presenting a number of sections of the course, indicators (tests, criteria) were used, the content and essence of which many first-year students are unfamiliar with. This applies primarily to biomechanical, physiological, and biochemical tests. Naturally, a detailed description of all of them will be given when studying the relevant disciplines. But since they are studied after sports metrology, we considered it appropriate to briefly, without delving into specific features, explain their essence as criteria for complex control. This explanation is given in the reference material at the end of the textbook.

To maintain the continuity of the course, some basic concepts and definitions are used here, the authors of which in the textbook “Sports Metrology” (1982) were Prof. V.M.Zatsiorsky and prof. V. L. Utkin. The structure of the previous textbook has also been largely preserved, since both of them reflect the content of the same program.

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO SPORTS METROLOGY

1.1. SUBJECT OF SPORTS METROLOGY

Sports metrology is the science of measurements in physical

skom education and sports. It should be considered as a specific application of general metrology, the main task of which, as is known, is to ensure the accuracy and uniformity of measurements. However, as an academic discipline, sports metrology goes beyond general metrology. This is due to the following circumstances.

Firstly, metrology specialists focus their main attention on the problems of the unity and accuracy of measurements of physical quantities. These include: length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, light intensity and amount of matter.

IN In physical education and sports, some of these quantities (time, mass, length, strength) are also subject to measurement. But most of all, specialists in our industry are interested in pedagogical, psychological, social, and biological indicators, which in their content cannot be called physical. General metrology practically does not deal with the methodology of their measurements, and therefore the need arose to develop special measurements, the results of which comprehensively characterize the preparedness of athletes and athletes.

Secondly, the curriculum of physical education institutes contains sections from other areas of knowledge (for example, the fundamentals of mathematical statistics, instrumental methods, expert assessments). The teaching volume of these sections is small, and in essence they are very close to the issues that metrologists in sports should deal with. It is inappropriate to introduce these sections of knowledge as special subjects into the curriculum and create corresponding departments. Therefore, they were included in the sports metrology course.

Thus, the subject of sports metrology is complex control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and athletes.

IN In the practice of physical education and sports, there is a fairly widespread idea that such control, during which pedagogical, psychological, sociological and other indicators are used, can be called complex. This approach, as a rule, is one-sided, since it does not allow the ultimate goal of control to be realized - to obtain reliable and reliable information for managing the process of physical education and sports training. Can be used

for example, all existing control methods evaluate only competitive (or only training) activity, and do not obtain a comprehensive assessment. Therefore, only such control can be called complex, during which various indicators of competitive and training activity, as well as the condition of athletes, are recorded. Only in this case is it possible to compare their values and establish cause-and-effect relationships between loads and results in competitions and tests. After such comparison and analysis, you can begin to develop programs and training plans.

There are three types of integrated control: stage-by-stage, current and operational. A general diagram illustrating the relationship between the areas and types of integrated control is presented in Table. 1.

1.2. MANAGEMENT OF THE PROCESS OF PREPARATION OF ATHLETES

Managing the process of training athletes includes five stages:

1) collecting information about the athlete, as well as the environment in which he lives, trains and competes;

2) analysis of the information received;

3) making decisions about training strategies and drawing up training programs and plans;

4) implementation of training programs and plans;

5) monitoring the progress of implementation, making necessary adjustments to planning documents and drawing up new programs

and plans.

It is known that the goal of any control is to transfer an object (system) from one state to another. In relation to the training of athletes, this translation is expressed primarily in increasing results in competitions. At certain stages of training, there may be more local tasks - increasing technical and tactical skills, the level of volitional and motor qualities. Ultimately, the decision of each of them will influence the achievement of higher results in competitions.

The transfer of an object from one state to another is carried out using influences. In the preparation of athletes, these should include performing various exercises, as well as the use of some other factors - the external environment (for example, mid-mountain conditions), special nutrition, etc. The effectiveness of the influences, and therefore the effectiveness of managing the training process, is determined by how real changes in the athletes' preparedness correspond to those planned by the coach.

These changes can be assessed by many indicators, but in practice the most significant or informative ones are used.

* It should be noted that specialists receive significant information about the preparedness of athletes during the monitoring of their competitive and training activities. However, the conditions under which competitions and training take place are difficult to standardize; in addition, their results provide an integral assessment. The coach often needs information about individual aspects of preparedness, which can only be obtained in specially organized standard conditions.

Collection of information (the first stage of the management process) must be considered as the most important stage of managing the training process. The content of decisions made on load planning depends on the reliability of the information.

As shown in Section 1.1, meaningful analysis requires information about competitive and training loads and the condition of athletes. Having it, the trainer will be able to analyze the initial data, placing the actual mathematics

Rice. 1. Dynamics of load volume and some physiological indicators in the annual training cycle of cyclists (according to V.M. Zatsiorsky et al.)

rial as shown schematically in Fig. 1. The figure shows how different load ratios lead to changes in the condition of athletes. For example, a constant increase in April-August in the volume of loads performed at a heart rate of 150-180 beats/min leads to an increase in physical performance (PWC 170 test) and anaerobic capacity (PANO test - anaerobic metabolic threshold).

When drawing up such schemes, the most crucial moment is the selection of specific indicators, the relationship of the dynamics of which will serve as the basis for managing the training process.

Theoretically, there can be a lot of such indicators, as can be clearly seen from the following example. Let's assume that we need to analyze information about the state of competitive and training activities of track and field sprinters *.

In competitive sprinting, the following indicators can be measured: reaction time; time to reach υ max, its retention and reduction, speed at various points of the distance; length and frequency of steps; fluctuations in the general center of mass and body segments, their speed and acceleration; time of the support and flight phases at various points of the distance; vertical and horizontal repulsive forces; energy costs, etc.

The training activity of sprinters is characterized by the following indicators: the number of training sessions; time spent on them; private volumes of exercises

* From this point of view, this sport is one of the simplest. Firstly, most of the indicators in it can be objectively measured. Secondly, there are much fewer of them than, for example, in games and martial arts.

personal orientation (running up to 80 m, over 80 m, exercises with weights, etc.).

The physical condition of sprinters, assessed under standard conditions, is characterized by:

- body build level (body length and weight, volume of muscle and fat tissue, length of body segments, etc.);

- health status (dozens of different medical indicators);

- the degree of development of motor qualities, measured under standard conditions (maximum aerobic and anaerobic capacity, power and efficiency; strength indicators of flexors and extensors of the legs, torso, etc.).

In addition, it is necessary to evaluate the mental qualities of athletes - there are dozens more indicators.

Thus, theoretically it is possible to measure hundreds (1) of different indicators, but in practice this cannot be done: firstly, it will take too much time; secondly, a lot of expensive equipment and maintenance personnel will be required; thirdly, and this is the most important thing, many of the indicators are not reliable and informative enough. Therefore, the main task in such a situation is to select the minimum number of indicators with the help of which you can obtain the maximum useful information and use it in managing the process of training athletes. How this is done will be discussed in subsequent chapters of the textbook.

FUNDAMENTALS OF MEASUREMENT THEORY

The measurement of a physical quantity is an operation that results in determining how many times this quantity is greater (or less) than another quantity taken as a standard. Thus, a meter is taken as the standard of length, and by taking measurements in competitions or in a test, we find out how many meters, for example, are contained in the result shown by an athlete in the long jump, in the shot put, etc. In the same way, we can measure the time of movements, the power developed during their execution, etc.

But such measurements are not the only ones that have to be performed in sports practice. Very often it is necessary to evaluate the expressiveness of performing exercises in figure skating or rhythmic gymnastics, the complexity of the movements of water divers, fatigue marathon runners, tactical skills of football players and fencers. There are no legal standards here, but these measurements are the most informative in many sports.

mative. In this case measurement will be called the establishment of correspondence between the phenomena being studied, on the one hand, and numbers, on the other.

The introduction of scientific and technological progress into physical education and sports begins with comprehensive control. Information,

obtained here serves as the basis for all subsequent actions of trainers, scientists and administrators. Thousands of coaches and specialists who evaluate certain indicators (for example, the endurance of sprinters or the effectiveness of boxers’ technique) must do this in the same way. For this purpose, there are measurement standards.

A standard is a regulatory and technical document that establishes a set of norms, rules, requirements for the object of standardization (in this case, for sports measurements) and approval

issued by the competent authority. The use of the standard increases the accuracy, efficiency and uniformity of measurements. To enhance

organizational, legal, methodological and practical foundations of this activity.

Management of work on metrology and standardization of implementation

a series of standardization and measurement business, prospects for their development, monitors the unity and correctness of any measurements in the country. All this is done in order to accelerate scientific and technological progress in all sectors of the national economy, improve the quality of products, and improve the organization and management of production.

Management of standardization in physical education and sports

Scientific Research Institute of Physical Education (VNIIFK). They set industry standards that are mandatory for all physical education and sports workers.

2.1. METROLOGICAL SUPPORT OF MEASUREMENTS IN SPORTS

Metrological support is the application of scientific and organizational foundations, technical means, rules and norms necessary to achieve the unity and accuracy of measurements in physical

physical education and sports. The scientific basis for this provision is metrology, and the organizational basis is the metrological service of the USSR State Sports Committee. The technical basis includes: 1) a system of state standards; 2) a system for the development and production of measuring instruments; 3) metrological certification and verification of measuring instruments and methods; 4) a system of standard data on indicators to be monitored during the training of athletes.

Metrological support is aimed at ensuring the uniformity and accuracy of measurements. Unity of measurements is achieved by the fact that their results must be presented in legal units and with a known probability of errors. Currently used international

Sports metrology is the science of measurement in physical education and sports. It should be considered as a specific application to general metrology, as one of the components of practical (applied) metrology

Subject of sports metrology are comprehensive control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and athletes.

Basic units are usually called units, the values of which are determined using special samples - standards

The word “quantity” is often used to express the size of a given physical quantity.

All parameters measured in sports science are divided into four levels:

- integral, reflecting the total (cumulative) effect of the functional state of various body systems (for example, sportsmanship);

- complex related to one of the functional systems of the athlete’s body (for example, physical fitness);

- differential, characterizing only one property of the system (for example, strength qualities);

- single, revealing one quantity (value) of a separate property of the system (maximum muscle strength).

Measurement is a set of operations performed using technical means that store a unit of value and allow the measured value to be compared with it.

The definition has become widespread: “Measurement is a cognitive process consisting of comparing, through a physical experiment, a given quantity with a known quantity taken as a unit of comparison.”

The standard provides a more concise definition, but containing the same idea: “Measurement is finding the value of a physical quantity experimentally using special technical means.”

Measurements based on the use of human senses (touch, smell, vision, hearing and taste) are called organoleptic .

Measurements performed using special technical means are called instrumental . These may include automated and automated ones.

According to the method of obtaining the numerical value of the measured value, all measurements are divided into four main types: direct, indirect, cumulative and joint .

Direct measurements- these are measurements in which the desired value of a quantity is found by direct comparison of a physical quantity with its measure. For example, when determining the length of an object with a ruler, the desired value (quantitative expression of the length value) is compared with the measure, i.e. ruler. Direct measurements include measuring temperature with a thermometer, electrical voltage with a voltmeter, etc. Direct measurements are the basis for more complex types of measurements.

Indirect measurements differ from direct ones in that the desired value of a quantity is established based on the results of direct measurements of such quantities that are associated with the desired specific relationship. Thus, using a known functional relationship, electrical resistance can be calculated from measurements of voltage drop and current. The values of some quantities are easier and simpler to find by indirect measurements, since direct measurements are sometimes almost impossible to carry out. For example, the density of a solid is usually determined from measurements of volume and mass.

Aggregate measurements are those in which the values of the measured quantities are found from data from repeated measurements of one or several quantities of the same name for various combinations of measures or these quantities. The results of cumulative measurements are found by solving a system of equations compiled from the results of several direct measurements.

Joint measurements- these are simultaneous measurements (direct or indirect) of two or more heterogeneous physical quantities to determine the functional relationship between them. For example, determining the dependence of body length on temperature.

According to the nature of the change in the measured quantity during the measurement process, they are distinguished statistical, dynamic and static measurements .

Statistical measurements are associated with determining the characteristics of random processes, sound signals, noise levels, etc.

Dynamic measurements are associated with quantities that undergo certain changes during the measurement process. For example, the efforts developed by an athlete during the support period when running long jumps.

Static measurements occur when the measured value is practically constant (long jump length, projectile range, cannonball weight, etc.).

According to the amount of measurement information, measurements are single and multiple .

Single measurements- this is one measurement of one quantity, i.e. the number of measurements is equal to the number of measured quantities. Since single measurements are always associated with errors, at least three single measurements should be carried out and the final result should be found as the arithmetic mean.

Multiple measurements characterized by an excess of the number of measurements of the number of measured quantities. Usually the minimum number of measurements in this case is more than three. The advantage of multiple measurements is a significant reduction in the influence of random factors on the measurement error.

In relation to the basic units of measurement, they are divided into absolute and relative . Absolute measurements are called those in which direct measurement of one (sometimes several) basic quantity and a physical constant are used. Thus, in Einstein’s well-known formula E=m*c, mass (m) is the basic physical quantity that can be measured directly (by weighing), and the speed of light (c) is a physical constant.

Relative measurements are based on establishing the ratio of the measured quantity to a homogeneous quantity used as a unit. It is clear that the desired value depends on the unit of measurement used.

In metrological practice, the basis for measuring a physical quantity is measurement scale - an ordered set of values of a physical quantity

Table 5. Characteristics and examples of measurement scales

Scale		Characteristics	Mathematical methods	Examples
Items		Objects are grouped and groups are designated by numbers. The fact that the number of one group is greater or less than another does not say anything about their properties, with the exception of that they differ	Number of cases. Fashion. Tetrachoric and polychoric coefficients correlations	Athlete number, role, etc.
About		The numbers assigned to objects reflect the amount of property they own. It is possible to establish a ratio of “more” or “less”	Median. Rank correlation. Rank criteria. Testing hypotheses non-parametric statistics	Results of ranking athletes in the test
Intervals		There is a unit of measurement with which objects can not only be ordered, but also numbers can be assigned to them so that equal differences reflect different differences in the amount of the property being measured. The zero point is arbitrary and does not indicate the absence of a property	All statistical methods except for determining ratios	Body temperature, joint angles, etc.
Attitude	Numbers assigned to items have all the properties of in- terval scale. On the scale there is absolute zero, which indicates complete lack of this property in object. The ratio of numbers when assigned to objects after changes rhenium, reflects the quantitative nal relations of the measured properties		All methods statistics	Length and body weight, strength of movement, acceleration etc.

When preparing and conducting high-precision measurements in metrological practice, the influence of:

Object of measurement;

Subject (expert, or experimenter);

Method of measurement;

Measuring instruments;

Measurement conditions.

The subjects of sports metrology as part of general metrology are measurements and control in sports. And the term “measurement” in sports metrology is interpreted in the broadest sense and is understood as establishing a correspondence between the studied phenomena and numbers

The main measured and controlled parameters in sports medicine, the training process and in scientific research on sports are physiological (“internal”), physical (“external”) and psychological parameters of training load and recovery; parameters of the qualities of strength, speed, endurance, flexibility and agility; functional parameters of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems; biomechanical parameters of sports equipment; linear and arc parameters of body dimensions.

Like any living system, an athlete is a complex, non-trivial object of measurement. An athlete has a number of differences from the usual, classic objects of measurement: variability, multidimensionality, quality, adaptability and mobility.

Variability - inconstancy of variables characterizing the athlete’s condition and his activities. All the athlete’s indicators are constantly changing: physiological (oxygen consumption, heart rate, etc.), morphoanatomical (height, weight, body proportions, etc.), biomechanical (kinematic, dynamic and energy characteristics of movements), psychophysiological, etc. Variability makes necessary multiple measurements and processing of their results using methods of mathematical statistics,

Multidimensionality- a large number of variables that need to be measured simultaneously in order to accurately characterize the athlete’s condition and activity. Along with the “output variables” that characterize the athlete, “input variables” that characterize the influence of the external environment on the athlete should also be controlled. The role of input variables can be played by the intensity of physical and emotional stress, oxygen concentration in the inhaled air, ambient temperature, etc. The desire to reduce the number of measured variables is a characteristic feature of sports metrology. It is due not only to the organizational difficulties that arise when trying to simultaneously register many variables, but also to the fact that as the number of variables increases, the complexity of their analysis sharply increases.

Quality- qualitative character, i.e. lack of an exact quantitative measure. The physical qualities of an athlete, the properties of the individual and the team, the quality of equipment and many other factors of sports performance cannot yet be accurately measured, but nevertheless must be assessed as accurately as possible. Without such an assessment, further progress is difficult both in elite sports and in mass physical education, which is in dire need of monitoring the health status and workload of those involved.

Adaptability- the ability of a person to adapt (adapt) to environmental conditions. Adaptability underlies learning ability and gives the athlete the opportunity to master new elements of movements and perform them in normal and difficult conditions (in heat and cold, under emotional stress, fatigue, hypoxia, etc.). But at the same time, adaptability complicates the task of sports measurements. With repeated studies, the athlete gets used to the research procedure (“learns to be studied”) and as such training begins to show different results, although his functional state may remain unchanged.

Mobility- a feature of an athlete, based on the fact that in the vast majority of sports, the athlete’s activity is associated with continuous movements. Compared to studies conducted with an immobile person, measurements in conditions of sports activity are accompanied by additional distortions in the recorded curves and errors in measurements.

Testing - indirect measurement

Testing replaces measurement whenever the object being studied is not accessible to direct measurement. For example, it is almost impossible to accurately determine the performance of an athlete's heart during intense muscular work. Therefore, indirect measurement is used: heart rate and other cardiac indicators characterizing cardiac performance are measured. Tests are also used in cases where the phenomenon being studied is not entirely specific.

Test(from the English test - sample, test) in sports practice is a measurement or test carried out to determine the condition or abilities of a person.

A lot of different measurements and tests can be made, but not all measurements can be used as tests. A test in sports practice can only be called a measurement or test that meets the following metrological requirements:

The purpose of the test must be defined; standardization (methodology, procedure and testing conditions must be the same in all cases of application of the test);

The reliability and information content of the test should be determined;

The test requires a scoring system;

The type of control (operational, current or stage-by-stage) should be indicated.

Test reliability is the degree of agreement between results when the same people are repeatedly tested under the same conditions. It is quite clear that complete agreement of results with repeated measurements is practically impossible.

Test consistency characterized by the independence of test results from the personal qualities of the person conducting or evaluating the test. If the results of athletes in a test conducted by different specialists (experts, judges) coincide, this indicates a high degree of consistency of the test. This property depends on the coincidence of testing methods among different specialists.

The informativeness of a test is the degree of accuracy with which it measures the property (quality, ability, characteristic, etc.) that it is used to evaluate. In the literature before 1980, instead of the term “informativeness,” the equivalent term “validity” was used.

Assessment - unified meter

sports results and tests

By assessment (or pedagogical assessment) is called a unified measure of success in any task, in a particular case - in a test.

The process of determining (deriving, calculating) estimates is called evaluation. It consists of the following stages:

1) a scale is selected that can be used to convert test results into grades;

2) in accordance with the selected scale, the test results are converted into points (points);

3) the points received are compared with the norms and the final grade is displayed. It characterizes the level of preparedness of the athlete relative to other members of the group (team, team).

four types of such scales found in sports and physical education.

First - proportional scale (A). When using it, equal increases in test results are rewarded with equal increases in points. So, in this scale, as can be seen from Fig. 7, reducing running time by 0.1 s is worth 20 points. They will be received by an athlete who runs 100 m in 12.8 s, and who runs the same distance in 12.7 s, and an athlete who improves his result from 12.1 to 12 s. Proportional scales are adopted in modern pentathlon, speed skating, cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, biathlon and other sports.

Second type - progressive scale(B). Here, as can be seen from the figure, equal increases in results are assessed differently. The higher the absolute increases, the larger the prefix in the assessment. So, for improving the result in the 100 m run from 12.8 to 12.7 s, 20 points are given, from 12.7 to 12.6 s - 30 points. Progressive scales are used in swimming, certain types of athletics, and weightlifting.

Third type - regressive scale (B). In this scale, like the previous one, equal increases in test results are also discounted differently, but the higher the absolute gains, the smaller the increase in assessment. So, for improving the result in the 100 m run from 12.8 to 12.7 s, 20 points are given, from 12.7 to 12.6 s - 18 points... from 12.1 to 12.0 s - 4 points. Scales of this type are accepted in some types of athletics jumping and throwing.

Fourth type - sieve (orS-shaped) scale (G). It can be seen that here gains in the middle zone are valued most highly, and improvements in very low or very high results are poorly encouraged. So, for improving the result from 12.8 to 12.7 s and from 12.1 to 12.0 s, 10 points are awarded, and from 12.5 to 12.4 s - 30 points. Such scales are not used in sports, but they are used in assessing physical fitness. For example, this is what the scale of physical fitness standards for the US population looks like.

Norms - the basis for comparing results

The norm in sports metrology, the limit value of a test result is called, on the basis of which athletes are classified

Suitability norms. Norms are drawn up for a specific group of people and are suitable only for that group

Another characteristic of the norms is representativeness. It reflects their suitability for assessing all people from the general population (for example, for assessing the physical condition of all first-graders in Moscow). Only norms obtained on typical material can be representative.

The third characteristic of norms is their modernity. It is known that results in competitive exercises and tests are constantly growing and it is not recommended to use standards developed long ago. Some standards established many years ago are now perceived as naive, although at one time they reflected the actual situation characterizing the average level of a person’s physical condition.

Quality is a general concept that can relate to products, services, processes, labor and any other activity, including physical education and sports.

Qualitative indicators are those that do not have specific units of measurement. There are many such indicators in physical education, and especially in sports: artistry, expressiveness in gymnastics, figure skating, diving; entertainment in sports games and martial arts, etc. To quantify such indicators, qualimetric methods are used.

Qualimetry is a branch of metrology that studies issues of measurement and quantification of quality indicators

Error call the deviation of a measurement result from the actual (true) value of the measured quantity

For reasons of error divided into instrumental, methodological and subjective. Instrumental (hardware) error- error of the measuring instrument (component of the error of the measuring instrument), caused by the imperfection of the measuring instrument, its design and technological features, non-ideal implementation of the operating principle and the influence of external conditions. Instrumental errors usually also include interference at the input of measuring instruments caused by its connection to the object. Instrumental error is one of the most tangible components of measurement error. Methodological error- component of the measurement error due to the imperfection of the applied measurement method and simplifications in constructing the design of the measuring instrument, including mathematical dependencies. Sometimes measuring instruments affect the object being measured. For example, an exhalation mask makes it difficult to breathe, and the athlete may perform less than he or she would without the mask. In most cases, these errors “act” regularly, i.e. are classified as systematic. Subjective (personal) error arises due to the individual characteristics (degree of attentiveness, concentration, preparedness) of the operators performing the measurements. These errors are practically absent when using automatic or automated measuring instruments. In most cases, subjective errors are random, but some may be systematic. Actual relative error The ratio of the absolute error to the true value of the measured quantity is called: Reduced relative error is the ratio of the absolute error to the maximum possible value of the measured quantity:

A primary standard is a standard that reproduces a unit of physical quantity with the highest accuracy possible in a given field of measurement at the current level of scientific and technical achievements. The primary standard can be national (state) and international. A standard that ensures the reproduction of a unit under special conditions and replaces the primary standard under these conditions is called special. The primary or special standards officially approved as the starting standards for the country are called state standards. The national standard is approved as the initial measuring instrument for the country by the national metrology body. In Russia, national (state) standards are approved by the State Standard of the Russian Federation.

A measure is a means of measurement designed to reproduce physical quantities of a given size. This type of measuring instruments includes weights, gauge blocks, etc. In practice, single-valued and multi-valued measures, as well as sets and stores of measures, are used.

Measuring instruments are measuring instruments that allow you to obtain measurement information in a form that is convenient for the user to understand. They represent a set of converting elements that form a measuring circuit and a reading device.

LECTURE 2

MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Measurement in the broad sense of the word is the establishment of correspondence between the phenomena being studied, on the one hand, and numbers, on the other.

Measurement of a physical quantity- this is the experimental determination of the connection between the measured quantity and the unit of measurement of this quantity, usually carried out using special technical means. In this case, a physical quantity is understood as a characteristic of various properties that are common in quantitative terms for many physical objects, but individual in qualitative terms for each of them. Physical quantities include length, time, mass, temperature and many others. Obtaining information about the quantitative characteristics of physical quantities is actually the task of measurements.

1. Elements of a system for measuring physical quantities

The main elements that fully characterize the system for measuring any physical quantity are presented in Fig. 1.

Whatever types of measurements of physical quantities are made, all of them are possible only if there are generally accepted units of measurement (meters, seconds, kilograms, etc.) and measurement scales that make it possible to organize the measured objects and assign numbers to them. This is ensured by the use of appropriate measuring instruments to obtain the required accuracy. To achieve uniformity of measurements, there are developed standards and rules.

It should be noted that the measurement of physical quantities is the basis of all measurements in sports practice without exception. It can have an independent character, for example, when determining the mass of body parts; serve as the first stage in assessing athletic performance and test results, for example, when assigning points based on the results of measuring the length of a standing jump; indirectly influence the qualitative assessment of performing skills, for example, in terms of amplitude of movements, rhythm, position of body parts.

Rice. 1. Basic elements of a system for measuring physical quantities

2. Types of measurements

Measurements are divided by means of measurement (organoleptic and instrumental) and by the method of obtaining the numerical value of the measured value (direct, indirect, cumulative, joint).

Organoleptic measurements are those based on the use of human senses (vision, hearing, etc.). For example, the human eye can accurately determine the relative brightness of light sources through pairwise comparison. One of the types of organoleptic measurements is detection - the decision of whether the value of the measured value is non-zero or not.

Instrumental measurements are those performed using special technical means. Most measurements of physical quantities are instrumental.

Direct measurements are measurements in which the desired value is found directly by comparing a physical quantity with a measure. Such measurements include, for example, determining the length of an object by comparing it with a measure - a ruler.

Indirect measurements differ in that the value of a quantity is established based on the results of direct measurements of quantities associated with the desired specific functional relationship. Thus, by measuring the volume and mass of a body, one can calculate (indirectly measure) its density or, by measuring the duration of the flight phase of a jump, calculate its height.

Cumulative measurements are those in which the values of the measured quantities are found from the data of their repeated measurements with various combinations of measures. The results of repeated measurements are substituted into the equations, and the desired value is calculated. For example, the volume of a body can first be found by measuring the volume of displaced fluid, and then by measuring its geometric dimensions.

Joint measurements are simultaneous measurements of two or more inhomogeneous physical quantities to establish a functional relationship between them. For example, determining the dependence of electrical resistance on temperature.

3. Units of measurement

Units of measurement of physical quantities represent the values of given quantities, which by definition are considered equal to one. They are placed behind the numerical value of a value in the form of a symbol (5.56 m; 11.51 s, etc.). Units of measurement are written with a capital letter if they are named after famous scientists (724 N; 220 V, etc.). A set of units related to a certain system of quantities and constructed in accordance with accepted principles forms a system of units.

The system of units includes basic and derived units. The main units are selected and independent from each other. Quantities whose units are taken as basic, as a rule, reflect the most general properties of matter (extension, time, etc.). Derivatives are units expressed in terms of base ones.

Throughout history, quite a few systems of units of measurement have evolved. The introduction in 1799 in France of a unit of length - the meter, equal to one ten-millionth of a quarter of the arc of the Paris meridian, served as the basis for the metric system. In 1832, the German scientist Gauss proposed a system called absolute, in which the millimeter, milligram, and second were introduced as the basic units. In physics, the SGS system (centimeter, gram, second) has been used, in technology - MKS (meter, kilogram-force, second).

The most universal system of units, covering all branches of science and technology, is the International System of Units (Systeme International ďUnites - French) with the abbreviated name “SI”, in Russian transcription “SI”. It was adopted in 1960 by the XI General Conference on Weights and Measures. Currently, the SI system includes seven main and two additional units (Table 1).

Table 1. Basic and additional units of the SI system

Magnitude
	Name	Designation
	Name		international
	Basic

	Kilogram

Electric current strength
Thermodynamic temperature
Quantity of substance
The power of light
	Additional
Flat angle
Solid angle	Steradian

In addition to those listed in Table 1, the SI system includes units of the amount of information bits (from binary digit - binary digit) and bytes (1 byte is equal to 8 bits).

The SI system has 18 derived units with special names. Some of them, which are used in sports measurements, are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Some derived SI units

Magnitude
Magnitude	Name	Designation


Pressure
Energy, work
Power
Electrical voltage
Electrical resistance
Illumination

Extra-system units of measurement, not related to either the SI system or any other system of units, are used in physical culture and sports due to tradition and prevalence in reference literature. The use of some of them is limited. The most commonly used non-systemic units are: time unit - minute (1 min = 60 s), flat angle - degree (1 degree = π/180 rad), volume - liter (1 l = 10 -3 m 3), force - kilogram -force (1 kgm = 9.81 N) (do not confuse kilogram-force kg with kilogram of mass kg), work - kilogrammeter (1 kg m = 9.81 J), amount of heat - calorie (1 cal = 4, 18 J), power - horsepower (1 hp = 736 W), pressure - millimeter of mercury (1 mm Hg = 121.1 N/m 2).

Non-systemic units include decimal multiples and submultiples, the names of which contain prefixes: kilo - thousand (for example, kilogram kg = 10 3 g), mega - million (megawatt MW = 10 6 W), milli - one thousandth (milliamp mA = 10 -3 A), micro - one millionth (microsecond μs = 10 -6 s), nano - one billionth (nanometer nm = 10 -9 m), etc. The angstrom is also used as a unit of length - one ten-billionth of a meter (1 Å = 10-10 m). This group also includes national units, for example, English: inch = 0.0254 m, yard = 0.9144 m, or such specific ones as nautical mile = 1852 m.

If measured physical quantities are used directly for pedagogical or biomechanical control, and no further calculations are made with them, then they can be presented in units of different systems or non-systemic units. For example, load volume in weightlifting can be defined in kilograms or tons; the angle of flexion of an athlete's leg when running - in degrees, etc. If the measured physical quantities are involved in calculations, then they must be presented in units of one system. For example, in the formula for calculating the moment of inertia of the human body using the pendulum method, the period of oscillation should be substituted in seconds, the distance in meters, and the mass in kilograms.

4. Measurement scales

Measurement scales are ordered sets of values of physical quantities. Four types of scales are used in sports practice.

The name scale (nominal scale) is the simplest of all scales. In it, numbers serve to detect and distinguish the objects being studied. For example, each player on a football team is assigned a specific number - a number. Accordingly, player number 1 is different from player number 5, etc., but how different they are and in what way cannot be measured. You can only calculate how often a particular number occurs.

The order scale consists of numbers (ranks) that are assigned to athletes according to the results shown, for example, places in boxing competitions, wrestling, etc. Unlike the naming scale, using the order scale you can determine which of the athletes is stronger and who is weaker, but how much stronger or weaker it is impossible to say. The order scale is widely used to assess qualitative indicators of sportsmanship. With the ranks found on the order scale, you can perform a large number of mathematical operations, for example, calculate rank correlation coefficients.

The interval scale is different in that the numbers in it are not only ordered by rank, but also separated by certain intervals. This scale establishes units of measurement and assigns a number to the object being measured equal to the number of units it contains. The zero point in the interval scale is chosen arbitrarily. An example of the use of this scale can be the measurement of calendar time (the starting point can be chosen differently), temperature in Celsius, and potential energy.

The relationship scale has a strictly defined zero point. Using this scale, you can find out how many times one measurement object is larger than another. For example, when measuring the length of a jump, they find how many times this length is greater than the length of the body taken as a unit (meter ruler). In sports, distance, force, speed, acceleration, etc. are measured using a ratio scale.

5. Measurement accuracy

Measurement accuracy is the degree of approximation of the measurement result to the actual value of the measured quantity. Measurement error is the difference between the value obtained during measurement and the actual value of the measured quantity. The terms “measurement accuracy” and “measurement error” have opposite meanings and are equally used to characterize the measurement result.

No measurement can be carried out absolutely accurately, and the measurement result inevitably contains an error, the value of which is smaller, the more accurate the measurement method and measuring device.

Based on the reasons for their occurrence, errors are divided into methodological, instrumental and subjective.

The methodological error is due to the imperfection of the measurement method used and the inadequacy of the mathematical apparatus used. For example, an exhaled breath mask makes breathing difficult, which reduces measured performance; the mathematical operation of linear smoothing at three points of the dependence of the acceleration of an athlete’s body link on time may not reflect the features of the kinematics of movement at characteristic moments.

Instrumental error is caused by imperfection of measuring instruments (measuring equipment), non-compliance with the rules of operation of measuring instruments. It is usually given in the technical documentation for measuring instruments.

Subjective error occurs due to inattention or lack of preparedness of the operator. This error is practically absent when using automatic measuring instruments.

Based on the nature of changes in results during repeated measurements, the error is divided into systematic and random.

Systematic is an error whose value does not change from measurement to measurement. As a result, it can often be predicted and eliminated in advance. Systematic errors are of known origin and known significance (for example, a delay in the light signal when measuring reaction time due to the inertia of a light bulb); known origin, but unknown value (the device constantly overestimates or underestimates the measured value by different amounts); of unknown origin and unknown significance.

To eliminate systematic errors, appropriate corrections are introduced that eliminate the sources of errors themselves: the measuring equipment is correctly positioned, its operating conditions are observed, etc. Calibration is used (German tariren - to calibrate) - checking the instrument readings by comparison with standards (standard measures or standard measuring instruments devices).

Random is an error that occurs under the influence of various factors that cannot be predicted and taken into account in advance. Due to the fact that many factors influence the athlete’s body and sports performance, almost all measurements in the field of physical culture and sports have random errors. They are fundamentally irremovable, however, using the methods of mathematical statistics, it is possible to estimate their value, determine the required number of measurements to obtain a result with a given accuracy, and correctly interpret the measurement results. The main way to reduce random errors is to carry out a series of repeated measurements.

A separate group includes the so-called gross error, or misses. This is a measurement error significantly greater than expected. Errors arise, for example, due to an incorrect reading on the instrument scale or an error in recording the result, a sudden power surge in the network, etc. Errors are easily detected, since they sharply fall out of the general series of obtained numbers. There are statistical methods for detecting them. Misses must be discarded.

According to the form of presentation, the error is divided into absolute and relative.

Absolute error (or simply error) ΔX equal to the difference between the measurement result X and the true value of the measured quantity X 0:

ΔX = X - X 0 (1)

The absolute error is measured in the same units as the measured value itself. The absolute error of rulers, resistance stores and other measures in most cases corresponds to the division value. For example, for a millimeter ruler ΔX= 1 mm.

Since it is usually not possible to establish the true value of the measured quantity, the value of this quantity obtained in a more accurate way is taken as its value. For example, determining running cadence by counting the number of steps over a period of time measured with a hand-held stopwatch gave a result of 3.4 steps/s. The same indicator, measured using a radio telemetry system that includes contact sensors-switches, turned out to be 3.3 steps/s. Therefore, the absolute measurement error using a hand-held stopwatch is 3.4 - 3.3 = 0.1 steps/s.

The error of the measuring instruments must be significantly lower than the measured value itself and the range of its changes. Otherwise, the measurement results do not carry any objective information about the object being studied and cannot be used for any type of control in sports. For example, measuring the maximum strength of the wrist flexors with a dynamometer with an absolute error of 3 kg, taking into account that the strength value is usually in the range of 30 - 50 kg, does not allow the measurement results to be used for routine monitoring.

Relative error ԑ represents the percentage of absolute error ΔX to the value of the measured quantity X(sign ΔX not taken into account):

(2)

The relative error of measuring instruments is characterized by the accuracy class K. Accuracy class is the percentage of the absolute error of the device ΔX to the maximum value of the quantity it measures Xmax:

(3)

For example, according to the degree of accuracy, electromechanical devices are divided into 8 accuracy classes from 0.05 to 4.

In the case when the measurement errors are random in nature, and the measurements themselves are direct and are carried out repeatedly, then their result is given in the form of a confidence interval at a given confidence probability. With a small number of measurements n(sample size n≤ 30) confidence interval:

(4)

with a large number of measurements (sample size n≥ 30) confidence interval:

(5)

where is the sample arithmetic mean (the arithmetic mean of the measured values);

S- sample standard deviation;

t α- boundary value of Student's t-test (found from the table of Student's t-distribution depending on the number of degrees of freedom ν = n- 1 and significance level α ; the significance level is usually accepted α = 0.05, which corresponds to a sufficient confidence level for most sports studies of 1 - α = 0.95, that is, 95% confidence level);

u α- percentage points of the normalized normal distribution (for α = 0,05 u α = u 0,05 = 1,96).

In the field of physical culture and sports, along with expressions (4) and (5), it is customary to give the result of measurements (with an indication n) in the form:

(6)

where is the standard error of the arithmetic mean .

Values And in expressions (4) and (5), as well as in expression (6) represent the absolute value of the difference between the sample average and the true value of the measured value and, thus, characterize the accuracy (error) of the measurement.

Sample arithmetic mean and standard deviation, as well as other numerical characteristics can be calculated on a computer using statistical packages, for example, STATGRAPHICS Plus for Windows (working with the package is studied in detail in the course of computer processing of experimental data - see the manual by A.G. Katranova and A.V. Samsonova, 2004).

It should be noted that the quantities measured in sports practice are not only determined with one or another measurement error (error), but they themselves, as a rule, vary within certain limits due to their random nature. In most cases, measurement errors are significantly less than the value of the natural variation of the determined value, and the overall measurement result, as in the case of a random error, is given in the form of expressions (4)-(6).

As an example, we can consider measuring the results in the 100 m run of a group of 50 schoolchildren. The measurements were carried out with a hand-held stopwatch with an accuracy of tenths of a second, that is, with an absolute error of 0.1 s. Results ranged from 12.8 s to 17.6 s. It can be seen that the measurement error is significantly less than the running results and their variations. The calculated sample characteristics were: = 15.4 s; S= 0.94 s. Substituting these values, as well as u α= 1.96 (at 95% confidence level) and n= 50 in expression (5) and taking into account that there is no point in calculating the boundaries of the confidence interval with greater accuracy than the accuracy of measuring running time with a hand-held stopwatch (0.1 s), the final result is written as:

(15.4 ± 0.3) s, α = 0,05.

Often when carrying out sports measurements, the question arises: how many measurements must be taken to obtain a result with a given accuracy? For example, how many standing long jumps must be performed when assessing speed-strength abilities in order to determine with 95% probability an average result that differs from the true value by no more than 1 cm? If the measured value is random and obeys the normal distribution law, then the number of measurements (sample size) is found by the formula:

(7)

Where d- the difference between the sample average result and its true value, that is, the measurement accuracy, which is specified in advance.

In formula (7), the sample standard deviation S calculated based on a certain number of previously taken measurements.

6. Measuring instruments

Measuring instruments- these are technical devices for measuring units of physical quantities that have standardized errors. Measuring instruments include: measures, sensors-converters, measuring instruments, measuring systems.

A measure is a measuring instrument designed to reproduce physical quantities of a given size (rulers, weights, electrical resistances, etc.).

A sensor-converter is a device for detecting physical properties and converting measurement information into a form convenient for processing, storage and transmission (limit switches, variable resistances, photoresistors, etc.).

Measuring instruments are measuring instruments that allow you to obtain measurement information in a form that is convenient for the user to understand. They consist of conversion elements forming a measuring circuit and a reading device. In the practice of sports measurements, electromechanical and digital instruments (ammeters, voltmeters, ohmmeters, etc.) are widely used.

Measuring systems consist of functionally integrated measuring instruments and auxiliary devices connected by communication channels (system for measuring interlink angles, forces, etc.).

Taking into account the methods used, measuring instruments are divided into contact and non-contact. Contact means involve direct interaction with the subject’s body or sports equipment. Contactless means are based on light registration. For example, the acceleration of a sports implement can be measured by contact means using accelerometer sensors or by non-contact means using strobing.

Recently, powerful automated measurement systems have appeared, such as the MoCap (motion capture) system for recognizing and digitizing human movements. This system is a set of sensors attached to the athlete’s body, information from which is sent to a computer and processed by appropriate software. The coordinates of each sensor are determined by special detectors 500 times per second. The system provides spatial coordinate measurement accuracy of no worse than 5 mm.

Measurement tools and methods are discussed in detail in the relevant sections of the theoretical course and workshop on sports metrology.

7. Unity of measurements

Unity of measurements is a state of measurements in which their reliability is ensured, and the values of the measured quantities are expressed in legal units. The unity of measurements is based on legal, organizational and technical foundations.

The legal basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements is presented by the law of the Russian Federation “On ensuring the uniformity of measurements”, adopted in 1993. The main articles of the law establish: the structure of public administration for ensuring the uniformity of measurements; regulatory documents to ensure the uniformity of measurements; units of quantities and state standards of units of quantities; measurement tools and techniques.

The organizational basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements lies in the work of the metrological service of Russia, which consists of state and departmental metrological services. There is also a departmental metrological service in the sports field.

The technical basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements is a system for reproducing certain sizes of physical quantities and transmitting information about them to all measuring instruments in the country without exception.

Questions for self-control

What elements does a system for measuring physical quantities include?
What types of measurements are divided into?
What units of measurement are included in the International System of Units?
What non-systemic units of measurement are most often used in sports practice?
What are the known measurement scales?
What is measurement accuracy and error?
What types of measurement error are there?
How to eliminate or reduce measurement error?
How to calculate the error and record the result of direct measurement?
How to find the number of measurements to obtain a result with a given accuracy?
What measuring instruments exist?
What are the basics for ensuring the uniformity of measurements?

The word “metrology” translated from Greek means “the science of measurements” (metro - measure, logos - teaching, science). Any science begins with measurements, therefore the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and the required accuracy is fundamental in any field of activity.

Sports metrology- the science of measurement in physical education and sports. The specificity of sports metrology is that the object of measurement is a living system - a person. In this regard, sports metrology has a number of fundamental differences from the field of knowledge that considers traditional classical measurements of physical quantities. The specifics of sports metrology are determined by the following features of the measurement object:

Variability is the inconstancy of variables that characterize the physiological state of a person and the results of his sports activities. All indicators (physiological, morpho-anatomical, psychophysiological, etc.) are constantly changing, so multiple measurements are required with subsequent statistical processing of the information received.
Multidimensionality is the need to simultaneously measure a large number of variables characterizing the physical state and result of sports activity.
Qualitativeness is the qualitative nature of a number of measurements in the absence of an exact quantitative measure.
Adaptability is the ability to adapt to new conditions, which often masks the true result of a measurement.
Mobility is a constant movement in space, characteristic of most sports and significantly complicating the measurement process.
Controllability is the ability to purposefully influence the athlete’s actions during training, depending on objective and subjective factors.

Thus, sports metrology not only deals with traditional technical measurements of physical quantities, but also solves important problems of managing the training process:

used as a tool for measuring biological, psychological, pedagogical, sociological and other indicators characterizing the activity of an athlete;
presents the source material for the biomechanical analysis of the athlete’s motor actions.

Subject of sports metrology- comprehensive control in physical education and sports, including monitoring the athlete’s condition, training loads, exercise technique, sports results and the athlete’s behavior in competitions.

Purpose of sports metrology- implementation of comprehensive control to achieve maximum sports results and maintain the health of the athlete against the backdrop of high loads.

During sports pedagogical research and during the training process, many different parameters are measured. All of them are divided into four levels:

Single - reveal one value of a separate property of the biological system being studied (for example, the time of a simple motor reaction).
Differential - characterize one property of the system (for example, speed).
Complex - relate to one of the systems (for example, physical fitness).
Integral - reflect the total effect of the functioning of various systems (for example, sportsmanship).

The basis for determining all of these parameters are single parameters that are complexly related to parameters of a higher level. In sports practice, the most common parameters are those used to assess basic physical qualities.

2. Structure of sports metrology

Sections of sports metrology are presented in Fig. 1. Each of them constitutes an independent field of knowledge. On the other hand, they are closely related to each other. For example, in order to assess the level of speed-strength readiness of a track and field sprinter at a certain stage of training using an accepted scale, it is necessary to select and conduct appropriate tests (standing high jump, triple jump, etc.). During the tests, it is necessary to measure physical quantities (height and length of the jump in meters and centimeters) with the required accuracy. For this purpose, contact or non-contact measuring instruments can be used

Rice. 1. Sections of sports metrology

For some sports, the basis of complex control is the measurement of physical quantities (in athletics, weightlifting, swimming, etc.), for others - qualitative indicators (in rhythmic gymnastics, figure skating, etc.). In both cases, to process the measurement results, the appropriate mathematical apparatus is used, which makes it possible to draw correct conclusions based on the measurements and assessments.

Questions for self-control

What is sports metrology and what are its specifics?
What are the subject, purpose and objectives of sports metrology?
What parameters are measured in sports practice?
What sections does sports metrology include?

In the everyday practice of humanity and each individual, measurement is a completely common procedure. Measurement, along with calculation, is directly related to the material life of society, since it developed in the process of practical exploration of the world by man. Measurement, like counting and calculation, has become an integral part of social production and distribution, an objective starting point for the emergence of mathematical disciplines, and primarily geometry, and hence a necessary prerequisite for the development of science and technology.

At the very beginning, at the moment of their emergence, measurements, no matter how different they were, were naturally of an elementary nature. Thus, the calculation of many objects of a certain type was based on comparison with the number of fingers. The measurement of the length of certain objects was based on comparison with the length of a finger, foot or step. This accessible method was initially literally “experimental computing and measuring technology.” It has its roots in the distant era of the “childhood” of humanity. Whole centuries passed before the development of mathematics and other sciences, the emergence of measuring technology, caused by the needs of production and trade, communications between individuals and nations, led to the emergence of well-developed and differentiated methods and technical means in a wide variety of fields of knowledge.

Now it is difficult to imagine any human activity in which measurements would not be used. Measurements are carried out in science, industry, agriculture, medicine, trade, military affairs, labor and environmental protection, everyday life, sports, etc. Thanks to measurements, it is possible to control technological processes, industrial enterprises, the training of athletes and the national economy as a whole. The requirements for measurement accuracy, speed of obtaining measurement information, and measurement of a complex of physical quantities have sharply increased and continue to increase. The number of complex measuring systems and measuring and computing complexes is increasing.

Measurements at a certain stage of their development led to the emergence of metrology, which is currently defined as “the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and the required accuracy.” This definition indicates the practical orientation of metrology, which studies the measurements of physical quantities and the elements that form these measurements and develops the necessary rules and regulations. The word “metrology” is made up of two ancient Greek words: “metro” - measure and “logos” - doctrine, or science. Modern metrology includes three components: legal metrology, fundamental (scientific) and practical (applied) metrology.

Sports metrology is the science of measurement in physical education and sports. It should be considered as a specific application to general metrology, as one of the components of practical (applied) metrology. However, as an academic discipline, sports metrology goes beyond the scope of general metrology for the following reasons. In physical education and sports, some of the physical quantities (time, mass, length, strength), on the problems of unity and accuracy, which metrologists focus on, are also subject to measurement. But most of all, specialists in our industry are interested in pedagogical, psychological, social, and biological indicators, which in their content cannot be called physical. General metrology practically does not deal with the methodology of their measurements, and therefore the need arose to develop special measurements, the results of which comprehensively characterize the preparedness of athletes and athletes. A feature of sports metrology is that it interprets the term “measurement” in the broadest sense, since in sports practice it is not enough to measure only physical quantities. In physical culture and sports, in addition to measuring length, height, time, mass and other physical quantities, it is necessary to evaluate technical skill, expressiveness and artistry of movements and similar non-physical quantities. The subject of sports metrology is complex control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and athletes. Along with the development of fundamental and practical metrology, the formation of legal metrology took place.

Legal metrology is a section of metrology that includes sets of interrelated and interdependent general rules, as well as other issues that require regulation and control by the state, aimed at ensuring the uniformity of measurements and the uniformity of measuring instruments.

Legal metrology serves as a means of state regulation of metrological activities through laws and legislative provisions that are put into practice through the State Metrological Service and metrological services of state government bodies and legal entities. The field of legal metrology includes testing and type approval of measuring instruments and their verification and calibration, certification of measuring instruments, state metrological control and supervision of measuring instruments.

Metrological rules and norms of legal metrology are harmonized with the recommendations and documents of relevant international organizations. Legal metrology thereby contributes to the development of international economic and trade relations and promotes mutual understanding in international metrological cooperation.

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