Each enterprise incurs certain costs in the course of its activities. There are different ones. One of them provides for the division of costs into fixed and variable.

The concept of variable costs

Variable costs are those costs that are directly proportional to the volume of products and services produced. If an enterprise produces bakery products, then as an example of variable costs for such an enterprise, one can cite the consumption of flour, salt, yeast. These costs will grow in proportion to the growth in the volume of bakery products.

One cost item can relate to both variable and fixed costs. For example, the cost of electricity for industrial ovens that bake bread would serve as an example of variable costs. And the cost of electricity for lighting a production building is a fixed cost.

There is also such a thing as conditionally variable costs. They are related to production volumes, but to a certain extent. With a small level of production, some costs still do not decrease. If the production furnace is loaded halfway, then the same amount of electricity is consumed as for a full furnace. That is, in this case, with a decrease in production, costs do not decrease. But with an increase in output above a certain value, costs will increase.

Main types of variable costs

Let's give examples of variable costs of the enterprise:

• Wages of employees, which depends on the volume of products they produce. For example, in the bakery industry, a baker, a packer, if they have piecework wages. And also here you can include bonuses and remuneration to sales specialists for specific volumes of products sold.
• The cost of raw materials, materials. In our example, these are flour, yeast, sugar, salt, raisins, eggs, etc., packaging materials, bags, boxes, labels.
• are the cost of fuel and electricity, which is spent on the production process. It can be natural gas, gasoline. It all depends on the specifics of a particular production.
• Another typical example of variable costs are taxes paid on the basis of production volumes. These are excises, taxes on tax), USN (Simplified Taxation System).
• Another example of variable costs is paying for the services of other companies, if the volume of use of these services is related to the level of production of the organization. It can be transport companies, intermediary firms.

Variable costs are divided into direct and indirect

This separation exists due to the fact that different variable costs are included in the cost of goods in different ways.

Direct costs are immediately included in the cost of goods.

Indirect costs are allocated to the entire volume of goods produced in accordance with a certain base.

Average variable costs

This indicator is calculated by dividing all variable costs by the volume of production. Average variable costs can both decrease and increase as production volumes increase.

Consider the example of average variable costs in a bakery. Variable costs for the month amounted to 4600 rubles, 212 tons of products were produced. Thus, the average variable costs will amount to 21.70 rubles / ton.

The concept and structure of fixed costs

They cannot be reduced in a short amount of time. With a decrease or increase in output, these costs will not change.

Fixed costs of production usually include the following:

• rent for premises, shops, warehouses;
• utility bills;
• administration salary;
• the cost of fuel and energy resources that are consumed not by production equipment, but by lighting, heating, transport, etc.;
• advertising expenses;
• payment of interest on bank loans;
• purchase of stationery, paper;
• the cost of drinking water, tea, coffee for employees of the organization.

Gross costs

All of the above examples of fixed and variable costs add up to gross, that is, the total costs of the organization. As production volumes increase, gross costs increase in terms of variable costs.

All costs, in fact, are payments for the acquired resources - labor, materials, fuel, etc. The profitability indicator is calculated using the sum of fixed and variable costs. An example of calculating the profitability of the main activity: divide the profit by the amount of costs. Profitability shows the effectiveness of the organization. The higher the profitability, the better the organization performs. If the profitability is below zero, then the costs exceed the income, that is, the organization's activities are inefficient.

Enterprise Cost Management

It is important to understand the essence of variable and fixed costs. With proper management of costs in the enterprise, their level can be reduced and more profit can be obtained. It is practically impossible to reduce fixed costs, so effective work to reduce costs can be carried out in terms of variable costs.

How can you reduce costs in your business?

Each organization works differently, but basically there are the following ways to reduce costs:

1. Reducing labor costs. It is necessary to consider the issue of optimizing the number of employees, tightening production standards. Some employee can be reduced, and his duties can be distributed among the rest with the implementation of his additional payment for additional work. If the enterprise is growing production volumes and it becomes necessary to hire additional people, then you can go by revising production standards and or increasing the amount of work in relation to old workers.

2. Raw materials are an important part of variable costs. Examples of their abbreviations might be as follows:

• search for other suppliers or changing the terms of supply by old suppliers;
• introduction of modern economical resource-saving processes, technologies, equipment;

• cessation of the use of expensive raw materials or materials or their replacement with cheap analogues;
• implementation of joint purchases of raw materials with other buyers from one supplier;
• independent production of some components used in production.

3. Reducing production costs.

This may be the selection of other options for rental payments, the sublease of space.

This also includes savings on utility bills, for which it is necessary to carefully use electricity, water, and heat.

Savings on the repair and maintenance of equipment, vehicles, premises, buildings. It is necessary to consider whether it is possible to postpone repairs or maintenance, whether it is possible to find new contractors for this purpose, or whether it is cheaper to do it yourself.

It is also necessary to pay attention to the fact that it can be more profitable and economical to narrow down production, transfer some side functions to another manufacturer. Or vice versa, enlarge production and carry out some functions independently, refusing to cooperate with subcontractors.

Other areas of cost reduction may be the organization's transport, advertising, tax relief, debt repayment.

Any business must consider its costs. Working to reduce them will bring more profit and increase the efficiency of the organization.

53. Fixed and variable costs

fixed costs- Costs that do not change depending on the volume of production. The source of fixed costs (overhead) are the costs of fixed resources.

The latter remain unchanged throughout the short run, and therefore fixed costs do not depend on the volume of output. The plant may be idle because does not find a market for its products; mine - do not work due to workers' strikes.

But both the plant and the mine continue to incur fixed costs: they must pay interest on loans, insurance premiums, property taxes, pay the salaries of cleaners and watchmen; make utility payments.

The absence of a connection between output and fixed costs does not reduce the influence of the latter on the production process.

To understand this, it is enough to list the types of fixed costs.

These include many costs that determine the technological level of production. These are the costs of fixed capital in the form of depreciation, rental payments; expenditure on R&D and other know-how; payments for the use of patents.

Fixed costs are some costs of "human capital", including the payment of the "backbone" of the staff: key managers, accountants, or even skilled craftsmen - workers of rare specialties. The cost of training and advanced training of employees can also be considered fixed costs.

Fixed costs do not depend on the volume of production.

source variable costs are the costs of variable resources. The main share of these costs is associated with non-use of working capital.

They include the cost of purchasing raw materials, materials, components and semi-finished products, the payment of wages to production workers. The nature of variable costs is also transport costs, value added tax, various payments, if the contract establishes their amount in the form of fixed costs.

As you know, in the short run, changes in output are associated with a decrease or increase in the cost of variable resources.

Therefore, variable costs rise as production increases.

Moreover, the nature of this growth depends on the return on the variable resource (more specifically, on whether it is increasing, constant or decreasing).

The sum of fixed and variable costs forms the gross (total) total costs in the short run:

TC = TFC + TVC

If the company does not produce products, then the gross total cost is equal to the amount of fixed costs. When increasing the volume of production, gross costs increase by the amount of variable costs, depending on the volume of production.

(Materials are given on the basis of: E.A. Tatarnikov, N.A. Bogatyreva, O.Yu. Butova. Microeconomics. Answers to exam questions: Textbook for universities. - M .: Exam Publishing House, 2005. ISBN 5- 472-00856-5)

Fixed costs are costs that do not change with the volume of production. They are associated with fixed costs in each period of time, i.e. do not depend on the volume of production, but on time. Fixed and variable costs add up to total costs.

Examples of Fixed Costs:

Rent.
Property taxes and similar payments.
Salary of management personnel, security, etc.

Fixed costs are usually indirect costs in terms of calculating the cost of production. Those. they cannot be directly (without additional calculations) included in the cost of a certain type of product or service. Or is it not economically feasible.

Fixed costs are fixed only for the purposes of short-term analysis. In the long term, they change due to changes in the size of the enterprise, financial arrangements, rental and insurance premiums.

Since fixed costs do not depend on volume, the share of fixed costs in the cost of each unit of production will decrease with an increase in volume and increase with a decrease in volume. This, in turn, will lead to a decrease or increase in value, respectively. At a certain volume, called the break-even point, the cost per unit of output will be such that revenue will only cover costs.

The break-even point in kind is 20 pieces of some products. With such a volume, the profit (green line) is equal to 0. With a smaller volume (to the left), the activity of the enterprise is unprofitable, with a larger volume (to the right), it is profitable.

Fixed-variable costs

Costs are usually divided into fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs are those costs that do not depend on the volume of production and sales, they are unchanged, and do not constitute the direct cost of products, goods, services. Variable costs are costs that make up the direct cost of production, and their size directly depends on the volume of production and sales of products, goods or services. Fixed and variable costs examples are very diverse, they depend on the types and areas of activity. Today we will try to present fixed and variable costs in more detail in examples.

Fixed costs include the following types:

Rent. The most striking example of a fixed cost that occurs in any type of entrepreneurial activity is rent payments. An entrepreneur, renting an office, workshop, warehouse, is forced to pay regular rental payments, regardless of how much he earned, sold goods or provided services. Even if he has not received a single ruble of income, he will still have to pay the cost of rent, otherwise the contract with him will be terminated and he will lose the leased area.
wages of administrative staff, management, accounting, wages of support staff (system administrator, secretary, repair service, cleaning lady, etc.). The accrual and payment of such wages also does not depend in any way on sales volumes. This also includes the salary of sales managers, which is accrued and paid regardless of the performance of the sales manager. The percentage part or bonus will be attributed to variable costs, since it directly depends on the volume, sales results. Examples of fixed costs include the salary of the main workers, which is paid regardless of the volume of products produced, or payments for forced downtime.
depreciation deductions. Accumulated depreciation amounts are also a classic example of fixed costs.
payment for services related to the general management of the enterprise. This includes utility costs: payment for electricity, water, communication services and the Internet. Services of security organizations, banking services (settlement and cash services) are also examples of fixed costs. Advertising agency services.
bank interest, interest on loans, discounts on promissory notes.
tax payments, the taxable base of which is static objects of taxation: land tax, corporate property tax, unified social tax paid on wages accrued on salaries, UTII - a very good example of fixed costs, various payments and fees for trade permits, environmental fees, transport tax.

Examples of variable costs associated with the volume of production, sales of goods and services are not difficult to imagine, they include:

Piecework wages for workers, the amount of which depends on the amount of goods produced or services rendered.
the cost of raw materials, materials and components used to manufacture products, the cost of purchased goods for subsequent resale.
the amount of interest paid to sales managers from the results of sales of goods, the amount of bonuses accrued to personnel based on the results of the enterprise.
the amount of taxes, the taxable base of which is the volume of production and sales of products, goods: excises, VAT, tax on the simplified tax system, UST, paid from accrued premiums, interest on sales results.
the cost of services of third-party organizations paid depending on the volume of sales: services of transport companies for the transportation of products, services of intermediary organizations in the form of agency or commission fees, sales outsourcing services,
the cost of electricity, fuel, in manufacturing enterprises. These costs also depend on the volume of production or the provision of services, while the cost of electricity used in an office or administrative building, as well as the cost of fuel for cars used for administrative purposes, are fixed costs.

As we have already said, knowledge and understanding of the essence of fixed and variable costs is very important for the competent management of a business, its profitability. Due to the fact that fixed costs do not depend on the volume of production and sale of goods, they are a certain burden for the entrepreneur. After all, the higher the fixed costs, the higher the break-even point, and this, in turn, increases the risks of the entrepreneur, since in order to cover the amount of large fixed costs, the entrepreneur must have a large volume of sales of products, goods or services. However, in conditions of fierce competition, it is very difficult to guarantee the constancy of the occupied market segment. This is achieved by increasing the cost of advertising and promotion, which also refers to fixed costs. It turns out a vicious circle. By increasing the cost of advertising and promotion, we thereby increase fixed costs, at the same time we stimulate sales. The main thing here is that the efforts of the entrepreneur in the field of advertising should be effective, otherwise, the entrepreneur will receive a loss.

This is especially important for small businesses, as the margin of safety for a small business entrepreneur is low, he has limited access to many financial instruments (loans, loans, third-party investors), especially for a budding entrepreneur who is just trying to grow his business. Therefore, for small businesses, you should try to use low-budget ways to promote your business, such as guerrilla marketing, non-standard advertising. It is necessary to try to reduce the level of fixed costs, especially at the initial stage of development.

Fixed costs of production

Each enterprise, regardless of its size, uses certain resources in the course of economic and financial activities: labor, material, financial. These consumed resources are the costs of production. They are divided into fixed costs and variable costs. Without them, it is impossible to carry out economic activities and make a profit. The division into variable and fixed costs allows you to competently and efficiently make the most optimal management decisions, which helps to increase the profitability of the enterprise.

Fixed costs are all types of resources directed to production and independent of its volume. They also do not depend on the number of services rendered or goods sold. These costs are almost always the same throughout the year. Even if the enterprise temporarily stops the production of products or stops the provision of services, these costs will not stop.

We can distinguish such fixed costs inherent in almost any enterprise:

Wages of permanent employees of the enterprise (salaries);
- deductions for social insurance;
- rent, leasing;
- tax deductions on the property of the enterprise;
- payment for the services of various organizations (communications, security, advertising);
- depreciation charges calculated using the straight-line method.

Such expenses will always exist while the enterprise carries out its economic and financial activities. They are there regardless of whether it receives income or not.

Variable costs - the costs of the enterprise, which change in proportion to the volume of marketable products produced. They are directly related to production volumes.

The main items of variable costs include:

Materials and raw materials required for production;
- piecework wages (at tariff rates), percentages of remuneration to sales agents;
- the cost of commercial products purchased from other enterprises, intended for resale.

The main point of variable costs is that when an enterprise has income, they may occur. From its income, the company spends part of the money on the purchase of raw materials, materials, goods. At the same time, the money spent is transformed into liquid assets in the warehouse. The company also pays interest to agents only from the income received.

Such a division into fixed costs and variables is necessary for the full management of the business. It is used to calculate the "break-even point" of the enterprise. The lower the fixed costs, the lower it is. Reducing the share of such costs dramatically reduces business risk.

The division of costs into fixed and variable is widely used in the theory of microeconomics. It is also used in calculating the cost of production, to determine the proportion of specific types of costs, since it is beneficial for the company to reduce fixed costs. The growth in production volume reduces part of the fixed costs included in the unit cost of production, thereby increasing the profitability of production. This growth in profits is due to the so-called "scale effect", that is, the more marketable products are produced, the lower its cost becomes.

In practice, such a concept as semi-fixed costs is also often used. They represent a type of cost that is present during downtime, but their value can be changed depending on the period of time chosen by the enterprise. This type of cost overlaps with indirect or overhead costs that accompany the main production, but are not directly related to it.

Conditionally fixed costs

Semi-fixed costs - costs that do not change or change slightly depending on changes in the volume of production. These include: depreciation of buildings and structures, costs of managing production and the enterprise as a whole, rent, etc.

Costs are usually divided into fixed and variable costs. This division is based on the economic sense of the costs that the entrepreneur incurs in the course of his activities. Some costs - fixed costs do not depend on the volume of production and sales, others - variable costs directly depend on the volume of production and sales of products, goods, services. However, in real life, fixed and variable costs are not immutable, they are constantly changing in the process of entrepreneurial activity. Therefore, in the economy they are usually considered as conditionally fixed and conditionally variable costs. In this material, we will try to give examples and explain why they are considered conditionally fixed and conditionally variable costs.

Conditionally fixed and conditionally variable costs: definition.

Conditionally fixed costs are costs that are not related to the volume of production and sales of products, goods, services, in the process of entrepreneurial activity changing both in quantitative and qualitative state. Fixed costs can be converted to variable.

Conditionally variable costs are costs that are directly related to the volume of production and sales of products, changing throughout the life of the entrepreneur and in quantity and in their quality and composition.

Conditionally fixed and conditionally variable costs: examples of conditionally fixed costs.

Fixed costs in the form of rent when renting an office may change during the course of the entrepreneur's activities. They can increase or decrease quantitatively - the cost of rent rises or falls, or the leased area changes. They can also change structurally: an entrepreneur bought a rented office or bought his premises elsewhere. Quantitatively, they may decrease, because now the entrepreneur is charged depreciation, and it is lower than rental payments. They can also change structurally: an entrepreneur took out a loan to purchase his premises, and now the total amount of fixed costs for maintaining the premises may remain the same, and the structure is part of the depreciation deductions, and part of the interest on the loan.

The salary of the accounting department is a fixed cost. Over time, the amount of wage costs may increase (expansion of staff due to an increase in operations, types of activities), and may decrease - the transfer of accounting to a specialized organization for outsourcing.

tax payments. There are taxes that are also related to fixed costs: property tax, UST from the wages of administrative staff, UTII. The amounts of these taxes may also change during the course of business. The amount of property tax may increase due to an increase in the value of property (acquisition of new property, revaluation of value), due to an increase in tax rates. It may decrease (sale of property, revaluation). The amounts of other taxes related to fixed costs may also change. The transition to outsourcing accounting services does not imply payroll, therefore, UST will also not be charged.

Fixed costs can be changed by converting them to variables. For example, when an enterprise manufactures products and produces some of the components in-house. With a decrease in the volume of orders, it is more profitable to find a third-party manufacturer and receive components from it, thereby removing part of the fixed costs in the form of depreciation of equipment, its maintenance, depreciation of premises by selling it or renting it out. In this case, the cost of supplied components will be considered fully variable costs.

Conditionally fixed and conditionally variable costs: examples of conditionally variable costs:

1. Variable costs in the form of material costs in the production of products (raw materials, materials, components) are considered conditionally variable costs. They also change during activity. Changes can occur: - due to changes in prices (an increase in the price of a supplier due to inflation, a decrease in prices due to a change in a supplier with more loyal conditions), - due to a change in technology (the use of less expensive types of raw materials and materials, the use of cheap substitutes), - due to a change in the production itself (previously purchased components on the side, the company can start producing on its own. In this case, part of the variable costs will turn into fixed costs in the form of equipment depreciation, the salary of foremen and the salary of workers, part of the costs will remain variable in the form of costs for raw materials and materials.
2. Variable costs in the form of piecework wages. Such costs change in quantity, as well as in connection with a change in the conditions of payments: an increase or decrease in norms, the application of new payments stimulating labor productivity. Increase or reduction of staff, etc. That is, the size of variable costs changes throughout the life of the enterprise.
3. Variable costs in the form of interest payments to sales managers. Such costs are also constantly in the mode of change, as the amount of remuneration varies depending on sales volumes. Changes may also apply to the very terms of payment of remuneration (interest). When a certain volume of sales is reached, interest can rise or fall, as a result, variable costs will change both quantitatively and qualitatively.

The given examples of conditionally fixed and conditionally variable costs clearly show why the costs are considered to be conditional. In the process of entrepreneurial activity, the entrepreneur tries to influence profit: reduce costs and increase income, at the same time, the market and the external environment also influence the entrepreneur. As a result of such activities, the costs are constantly changing under the influence of various factors, therefore they are considered to be conditionally fixed and conditionally variable costs.

Amount of fixed costs

The amount of fixed and variable costs, in turn, depends on the level of resource intensity and changes in the cost of material resources due to inflation.

Gross costs - the sum of fixed and variable costs.

It is very important to accurately determine the amount of fixed and variable costs, since the results of the analysis largely depend on this.

The selective method allows you to more accurately determine the amount of fixed and variable costs, but it is more laborious than those discussed above. However, under the conditions of modern technologies for processing economic information, this process is simplified if we provide for the division of costs into fixed and variable in computer programs and in primary documents.

What exactly gives the manager information about the amount of fixed and variable costs. This information is most useful in the so-called marginal approach, which is used when compiling a profit and loss account.

General (gross) costs are the sum of fixed and variable costs.

The break-even point corresponds to the sales volume at which revenue is equal to the sum of fixed and variable costs for a given production volume and capacity utilization rate. For example, you can calculate the occupancy rate of a hotel or an airplane that corresponds to the break-even point.

To effectively manage the process of forming the cost of production, it is very important to correctly determine the amount of fixed and variable costs.

Fixed total costs

Fixed costs are costs that do not change directly with a change in the volume of production, i.e. are not a function of output. Examples of such costs include rent, property taxes and similar charges, depreciation charges, etc.

From an economist's point of view, fixed costs are synonymous with overhead costs. For an accountant, this term means indirect costs. If we add all the fixed costs of the firm together, we get the total fixed costs.

Variable costs are a function of the volume of production. An example of variable costs is the cost of materials, energy, labor, components, etc. Variable costs are a continuous function of the volume of production. If we bring all the variable costs of the firm together, we get the total variable costs.

As a result, by combining the total variables, TVC and total fixed costs, TFC, we get the total costs of the firm, TC and this can be expressed by the formula:

Thus, in order to obtain a functional dependence of total costs on the volume of production, it is necessary to calculate the values ​​of TC, which correspond to a number of values ​​of the volume of production.

In the analysis, total variable costs are the only variable part of total costs, any change in the amount will result in and will be equal to the change in total variable costs. This change due to a change in output is called marginal cost.

Marginal cost is the change in total cost due to a unit change in output and is equal to the change in total variable cost.

The amount of fixed costs

This information is the starting point for determining the break-even point. If you do not know which costs you have at your enterprise are variable and which are fixed, this can be determined from the financial statements, for this you need to look at the accounting by expense items for a certain period, for example, a year by month.

Fixed costs are labor costs (if these are salaries and not piecework and if you did not change staffing during this period), rent, return on investment, insurance (if any), advertising, any other limited expenses, including purchases of raw materials, depreciation.

Variable costs will change with the growth of the business activity of the enterprise (or with the growth of production) these may be the costs of production, modernization or expansion of the business. It all depends on the specifics of your business.

As a first step, you will need to review and disaggregate by item of expense the accounts that are the main accumulators of expenses:

20 "Main production",
26 "General expenses",
23 "Auxiliary production",
28 "Marriage in production", possibly 25 account, etc.

Each accountant keeps accounting in his own way, it is better to look at all the accounts that he uses to reflect expenses. Then break it down by expense item and make reports for each month for a year.

Fixed costs are those costs that do not change or change little with changes in the volume of production. These include general expenses, etc.

Variables are called costs, the value of which changes with the change in the volume of production. These include the consumption of raw materials and materials, fuel and energy for technological purposes, the wages of production workers, etc.

Some costs are mixed because they have both variable and fixed components. They are sometimes called semi-variable and semi-fixed costs. For example, a monthly telephone fee includes a fixed amount of the subscription fee and a variable part that depends on the number and duration of long-distance and international telephone calls. Therefore, when accounting for costs, they must be clearly distinguished between fixed and variable costs.

The division of costs into fixed and variable is of great importance for planning, accounting and analysis of production costs. Fixed costs, remaining relatively unchanged in absolute value, with the growth of production become an important factor in reducing the cost of production, since their value decreases per unit of output. When managing fixed costs, it should be borne in mind that their high level is determined to a large extent by industry characteristics that determine the different levels of capital intensity of products, the differentiation of the level of mechanization and automation. In addition, fixed costs are less amenable to rapid change. Despite the objective constraints, each enterprise has the opportunity to reduce the amount and proportion of fixed costs. These reserves include: reduction of administrative and management expenses in case of unfavorable commodity market conditions; sale of unused equipment and intangible assets; use of leasing and equipment rental; reduction of utility bills, etc.

Variable costs increase in direct proportion to the growth of production, but calculated per unit of output, they are a constant value. When managing variable costs, the main task is to save them. Savings on these costs can be achieved through the implementation of organizational and technical measures that ensure their reduction per unit of output - an increase in labor productivity and, due to this, a decrease in the number of production workers; reduction of stocks of raw materials, materials and finished products during periods of unfavorable market conditions. In addition, this grouping of costs can be used in the analysis and forecasting of the break-even production and, ultimately, in choosing the economic policy of the enterprise.

Fixed costs do not depend on the size of production. Their value is unchanged. they are connected with the very existence of the enterprise and must be paid even if the enterprise does not produce anything. These include: rent, the cost of maintaining management personnel, depreciation on buildings and structures. These costs are sometimes referred to as indirect or overhead costs.

Variable costs depend on the quantity of products produced, since they consist of the costs of raw materials, materials, labor, energy, and other consumable production resources.

Fixed Cost Calculation

In production, there are costs that remain the same with hundreds and tens of thousands of dollars of profit. They do not depend on the volume of output. They are called fixed costs. How to calculate fixed costs?

Just follow these simple step by step tips and you will be on the right track in your business.

Determine the formula for calculating fixed costs. It calculates the fixed costs of all organizations. The formula will be equal to the ratio of all fixed costs to the total cost of works and services sold, multiplied by the basic income from the sale of works and services.

Count all fixed costs. These include: advertising costs, both internal and external; administrative and management expenses, i.e. salaries of top managers, maintenance of company cars, maintenance of accounting departments, marketing, etc., expenses for depreciation of non-current assets, expenses for using various information databases, for example, postal or accounting.

Having done this, we move on to the next steps.

Calculate in non-current assets deductions for depreciation of fixed assets, such as land, capital costs for land improvement, buildings, structures, transmission devices, machinery and equipment, etc. Do not forget about library collections, natural resources, rental items, as well as capital investments in objects that have not been put into operation.

Calculate the total cost of works and services sold. This will include revenue from the main sale or from services provided, for example, a hairdresser and work performed, for example, construction organizations.

Calculate the basic income from the sale of works and services. Basic income is a conditional return per month in value terms per unit of physical indicator. Please note that “household” services have a single physical indicator, while “non-household” services, for example, renting out housing and transporting passengers, have their own physical indicators.

Substitute the obtained data into the formula and get the fixed costs.

Firm's fixed costs

The variety of ways to make a profit for enterprises in any industry of production and sale of services, on the one hand, creates unlimited opportunities for the development of a particular business, on the other hand, each type of activity has a certain threshold of efficiency, determined by break-even.

In turn, the amount of revenue that guarantees a profit directly depends on the total costs of production and sale of products.

The total expenses of the enterprise for the purpose of analyzing the break-even activity are usually divided into two main categories:

Variables - costs, the amount of which directly depends on the volume of production and sale of services (depending on the chosen direction of the company's operation), i.e., in fact, they are directly proportional to any fluctuations in the volume of core activities carried out;
- fixed - these are costs, the amount of which does not change in the medium term (a year or more) and does not depend on the volume of the company's core activities, i.e. they will exist even if the activity is suspended or terminated.

Having considered fixed costs on the example of an enterprise, it is easier to understand their essence and interdependence with the volume of core activities.

So, they include the following items of expenditure:

Depreciation deductions for fixed assets of the company;
- rent, tax payments to the budget, contributions to off-budget funds;
- bank expenses for servicing current accounts, loans of the organization;
- wage fund for administrative and managerial personnel;
- other general business expenses necessary to ensure the normal functioning of the enterprise.

Thus, the essence of the fixed costs of any organization is reduced to their functional necessity for the implementation of activities. They can and most often change over time, but the reason for this is external factors (changes in the tax burden, adjustment of bank service conditions, renegotiation of contracts with service organizations, changes in tariffs for utilities, etc.).

Internal factors affecting the change in fixed costs are a significant change in corporate policy, the system of remuneration of personnel, a significant change in the volume or direction of the company's activities (not just a change in volume, but a radical transition to a new level).

For the purposes of accounting and analysis, the expenses of an enterprise are usually divided into fixed and variable, using the following methods:

Based on experience and knowledge, a certain category is assigned to expenses through a management decision. This method is good when the company is just starting its activities and there are simply no other ways to allocate costs. It is characterized by a high level of subjectivity and requires revision in the long term.
- Based on the data of the analytical work carried out on the search, evaluation and differentiation of all expenses by categories based on their behavior under the influence of the factor of changes in the volume of core activities. It is the most acceptable, since this method is more objective.

Fixed costs are calculated using the formula:

POSTz \u003d Zsalary + Rent + Banking services + Depreciation + Taxes + General Economics,
where: POSTz - fixed costs;
Salary - the cost of salaries of administrative and managerial personnel;
Rent - rental expenses;
Banking services - banking services;
General economic expenses - other general economic expenses.

To find the indicator of average fixed costs per unit of output, it is necessary to apply the following formula:

SrPOSTz \u003d POSTz / Q,
where: Q is the volume of output (quantity).

The analysis of these indicators must be carried out in dynamics, evaluating the retrospective of values ​​at different time intervals, including with a joint analysis of other economic indicators. This will allow you to see the relationship of processes specific to the enterprise, which means you can get a cost management tool in the future.

An analysis of fixed costs, performed both on an operational basis and for the purpose of strategic planning, allows you to assess the ability of an enterprise to improve the efficiency of its activities. This is the key economic meaning of this category. The easiest and most accessible way to analyze the effectiveness of a company's activities is to evaluate the break-even point indicator, including in dynamics.

For calculations, data on the amount of fixed costs, unit price and average variable costs are required:

Tb \u003d POSTz / (Ts1 - SrPEREMz),
where: Tb - breakeven point;
POSTz - fixed expenses;
C1 - price per unit. products;
Avperemz - average variable costs per unit of output.

The break-even point is an indicator that allows you to see the boundary beyond which the company's activities begin to make a profit, as well as analyze the dynamics of the impact of changes in costs on the volume of production and profit of the organization. The decrease in the break-even point at constant variable costs is positively assessed, this signals an increase in the efficiency of the enterprise's expenses. The growth of the indicator should be assessed positively when it occurs against the background of an increase in sales volumes, that is, it indicates an increase and expansion of the scope of activities.

Thus, accounting, analysis and control of fixed costs, reducing their load per unit of output are mandatory measures necessary for each enterprise to achieve competent resource and capital management.

Fixed production costs

The transfer price is the price for products or services provided by one unit (segment) of a large decentralized organization to another unit of the same organization. These prices are often viewed as a substitute for the market price in the internal operations of companies that include at least one profit center or investment center.

Variable costs include those costs that are immediately credited to account 20 "Main production" or written off at the end of the reporting period to account 20 from account 25 "General production costs", on which they accumulated during the month.

Fixed costs are expenses that are relatively stable (change slightly) with fluctuations in the volume of production, services (for example, depreciation, rent, etc.).

Fixed costs per unit of service vary inversely with changes in the volume of services rendered. These costs in accounting include general business expenses that are accumulated in the account of the same name during the month. Depending on the method of cost accounting, they can be written off at the end of the month to account 20 "Main production", on which the cost of the tourist product is formed, or, bypassing account 20, they can be immediately written off for the sale of services. In the latter case, the gross proceeds from the sale of services are reduced in full by the amount of fixed (general) expenses.

An important aspect of the analysis of fixed costs is their division into useful and useless (idle), which is associated with a spasmodic change in most production resources.

Thus, fixed costs can be represented as the sum of costs - useful and useless, not used in the production process:

Zconst = Zuseful + Zuseless

When dividing costs into fixed and variable, it is necessary to take into account the fact that costs of the same type can behave differently. There are a large number of costs that are variable in a certain decision-making situation, and may be fixed in another.

It makes no sense to divide costs into fixed and variable according to their essence in an abstract form, because the truth is always concrete.

The nature of cost behavior (variable or fixed) is influenced by the following factors:

1. time factor, i.e. the duration of the period under consideration; so, in a long period of time, all costs become variable;
2. production situation in which decisions are made. For example, an enterprise pays interest on borrowed capital, this interest is usually referred to as fixed costs, since their amount does not depend on the volume of services. The same percentages become variable when the production situation changes to make a decision (for example, in the case of closing an enterprise);
3. insufficient divisibility of production factors. The consequence of this factor is the fact that many costs increase with an increase in the volume of services provided not gradually, but abruptly, stepwise. These costs are constant for a certain number of indicators of output, then they rise sharply and again remain constant for a certain interval.

Increasing Fixed Costs

A key decision for the head of the organization is whether or not to recommend an increase in fixed costs. We are talking about additional fixed costs, for example, the creation of a new overhead item that will constantly increase the company's cost base.

The addition of such costs may be necessary if the existing staff is simply not able to meet the needs of existing levels of sales and production and needs assistance. However, the director should consider this decision in terms of its effect on profitability.

One of the best ways to do this is through a cost-benefit analysis of additional fixed costs. This analysis often shows that profit peaks just before the increase in fixed costs, since it may require significant additional sales to compensate for such an increase.

There are several key factors that a director needs to consider when considering this decision. One is the level of sales at which profits will match the level they were at just before the increase in fixed costs.

Another factor follows from the previous point and is to determine the maximum level of sales that will keep the equipment in the best possible condition.

However, another factor to consider is the stability of the new sales needed to cover the increase in fixed costs. A sober view of the market served by the company, the level of competition, potential price wars, and other similar factors should all be carefully considered before deciding to increase fixed costs.

However, most of the increments are much more modest, with small additional amounts putting minimal additional pressure on financial results.

However, these add-ons gradually eat into profits over time. To gain control over them, the director must have a well-thought-out mechanism for approving any increase in fixed costs that occurs outside of the standard budget process.

In terms of budgeted costs, the director has more time to analyze why the increase is needed, how efficiency improvements would help avoid these costs, whether it would be better to outsource rather than incur additional costs, etc.

The decision to increase fixed costs is one of the most important for the company in terms of current production activities and therefore deserves a significant share of the working time of the company's director.

Change in fixed costs

In practice, the change in the amount of fixed costs occurs not so much under the influence of internal factors that can be regulated, but under the influence of external ones: an increase in prices and tariffs for goods and services consumed in the management process; revaluation of fixed assets; change in tax rates, depreciation rates, rent, etc. The influence of external factors can be planned in a very narrow period of time. Therefore, financial managers of enterprises must quickly monitor cost fluctuations and make management decisions that prevent the negative impact of external factors on the cost of production, and ultimately on the profit of the enterprise.

By changing the ratio between fixed and variable costs within the capabilities of the enterprise, it is possible to solve the problem of obtaining the optimal amount of profit.

This dependence is called the effect of the production lever, and the greater the share of fixed costs in the structure of total costs, the stronger the strength of the production lever.

Therefore, in order to achieve optimal financial results, financial managers must participate, together with other services, not only in planning the amount of costs, but also in determining their rational structure.

Cost planning should be preceded by a thorough and comprehensive cost analysis, during which the impact on the cost of production of the main technical and economic factors in the base period is established.

Particular attention should be paid to identifying the magnitude and causes of costs due to improper organization of the production process: excess consumption of raw materials, materials, energy, additional payments to workers for overtime work, losses from equipment downtime, accidents, marriage, excessive costs caused by irrational economic relations supplies of raw materials, violations of technological and labor discipline, etc. At the same time, intra-production reserves are identified in the field of improving the organization of production and labor, introducing new equipment and technology with an assessment of their economic efficiency.

Cost planning by factors is used in the development of current and future cost plans for products, works, services.

The essence of planning by factors lies in the fact that a series of special calculations establishes how the level of costs that has developed in the base year should change under the influence of changes in the technical and economic conditions of production planned for the planned year.

Advantage of the method: reduced composition and volume of required output information; a high degree of validity of the plan; a significant reduction in the complexity of calculations, both in manual and automated data processing; allocation in the total change in the cost of the share of participation of each planned event and other planned changes in the conditions of production.

Disadvantage of the method: the inability to obtain all the necessary planned cost calculations.

The planned cost is calculated in the following sequence:

The cost of marketable products of the planned year is determined based on the actual level of costs of the base year;
- the savings in the planned year are calculated, due to changes in the production, technical and economic conditions of management (ongoing measures to introduce new equipment, technology, improve the organization of production and labor, etc.) compared with the conditions adopted upon the fact of the base year;
- from the cost of marketable products of the planned year, calculated at the level of costs of the base year, the total amount of savings is deducted and the cost of marketable products of the planned year is determined (in prices comparable to the base year);
- the level of costs per 1 ruble is calculated. marketable output in the planned year and a reduction in these costs compared to the actual level of costs in the base year.

The reduction in production costs in the planned period is achieved as a result of pre-calculated savings from:

The use of resource-saving technology, which ensures the saving of materials, fuel and energy, the release of workers;
- strict adherence to technological discipline, leading to a reduction in losses from marriage;
- use of technological equipment in economically efficient areas and modes;
- balanced operation of production facilities, leading to a reduction in the cost of fixed assets, work in progress and stocks of products;
- development of an optimal strategy for the technical development of the enterprise, providing a rational level of costs for creating the technical potential of the enterprise;
- increasing the organizational level of production, which entails a reduction in the loss of working time, the duration of the production cycle and, as a result, a reduction in the cost of production and the size of the working capital of the enterprise;
- introduction of effective systems of intra-production economic relations, contributing to the saving of all types of resources, improving the quality of products;
- rationalization of the organizational structure of the production management system, which means reducing management costs, increasing its efficiency.

When determining the savings due to the action of all technical and economic factors (except for changes in the volume of production and the use of fixed assets), only the reduction in variable costs is taken into account.

Fixed cost analysis

Some experts rightly believe that the use of this method is appropriate in assessing the efficiency of production in the whole enterprise. In practice, especially with a small range of production and sales and a simple structure of overhead costs, they usually do not resort to separate accounting for fixed costs.

The main assumptions in considering this method are as follows:

Variable costs are localized by product;
fixed costs are considered as a total for the enterprise as a whole;
marginal profit is estimated for each product;
profitability, as well as other financial indicators (for example, safety margin) are evaluated for the entire enterprise as a whole.

This approach has obvious advantages: simplicity of calculations and no need to collect a large amount of data. The disadvantage of this approach is the impossibility of a comparative assessment of profitability for individual types of products.

Example 1

The manufacturing company is engaged in the production of chemicals for the operation of vehicles. For simplicity of calculations, we restrict ourselves to three product names.

Having orders for three products in the portfolio, the company's managers decided to analyze the profitability of each type of product. At first, they took the first approach, that is, they did not share indirect costs among the elements of the product portfolio. Having identified the main variable costs, they obtained the following results for a comparative analysis of the profitability of products.

A feature of the portfolio of orders is its lack of balance. Indeed, the glass cleaner ranks second in terms of profitability (in %) among all products. And at the same time, this type of product ranks last in terms of sales (revenue). As a result, the profitability of the sales portfolio as a whole (10%) leaves much to be desired. Therefore, in order to increase the efficiency of production and sales, company managers should focus their efforts on the "promotion" of this product.

Next, we evaluate the financial stability of the company to changes in external economic conditions. In this sense, an important condition for the successful operation of the enterprise is the margin of safety. The margin of safety, or financial strength, shows how much you can reduce the sale (production) of products without incurring losses. The excess of real production over the threshold of profitability is the margin of financial strength of the enterprise. This indicator is defined as the difference between the planned sales volume and the business break-even point (in relative terms). The higher this indicator, the safer the entrepreneur feels in the face of the threat of negative changes (for example, in the event of a drop in revenue or an increase in costs). The break-even point is usually presented in natural (production units) or monetary terms. With all certainty, it can be argued that the lower the break-even point, the more efficiently the enterprise works in terms of obtaining operating profit. Calculate the break-even point for the entire portfolio of production and sales. The break-even point of a business is easy to find if the financial result from the sale of products is equal to zero.

To do this, the marginal profit (MP) from sales is equated to fixed costs (Zpost):

MP = Zpost.

In this case, the company will have neither profit nor loss.

Then the critical sales volume or critical revenue (Cr), at which there is neither profit nor loss, can be found from the following relationship:

(MP / Vpr) x Vcr \u003d Zcons.

The meaning of this formula is that when the current sales proceeds (Vpr) fall to its critical level (Vcr), their values ​​will decrease.

In this case, there will be no profit (MP = Zpost). Next, we write this formula in the following form:

MP / Vpr \u003d Zpost / Vkr.

In this formula, the first part of the equality is an expression for determining the profitability of the enterprise's products as a whole in terms of marginal profit.

Let's denote it as an indicator:

Hence, the critical revenue (or break-even point) (Bkr) in monetary terms is equal to: 800 thousand rubles. / 0.42 = 1905 thousand rubles

In this case, the safety margin factor (Kzb) will be: [(2500 - 1905) / 2500] x 100% \u003d (595 / 2500) x 100% \u003d 23.8%.

In its meaning, Kzb characterizes the break-even point in monetary terms. This is such a value of the minimum income at which all costs are fully paid off, while the profit is equal to zero. It is believed that for the normal operation of the enterprise it is quite enough if the current sales volume (Vpr) exceeds its critical level (Vcr) by at least 20%. In this case, this indicator exceeds the recommended value, but is almost on the verge.

It would seem that everything is clear: on the one hand, in the general case, we have an unbalanced structure of production and sales of the portfolio of orders for total products, on the other hand, there are relatively low profitability and safety margins for the company's products as a whole. In addition, we seem to have rather scanty information about the behavior of fixed costs in relation to each type of product. However, the presented picture may change radically if the distribution of fixed costs by product types is taken into account.

Specific fixed costs

In the analysis of break-even, not only a graphical, but also a mathematical approach is used to reflect on the processing of initial information about the costs and results of the production and commercial activities of the enterprise. When developing and applying mathematical formulas, it should be borne in mind that fixed costs are a constant cumulative (total, total) value for the entire production volume, and variables reflect the costs per unit of production and change depending on the change in production volume, which means that the specific profit in the calculation per unit of output will also vary with the level of production.

The mathematical relationship between profit, production volume and costs will be as follows:

NP = pq - (c + vq); Formula 1
NP - net profit;
q - the number of sold units of production, natural units;
p is the selling price of a unit of production, DE;
v - variable costs per unit of production, DE;
c - total, fixed costs, DE.

Factors affecting net profit:

The volume of manufactured or sold products;
- unit price of sold products;
- variable costs for production, sale and management;
- fixed costs associated with the production, sale and management of the enterprise.

First of all, it is necessary to determine the volume of production and sales, in which the company provides reimbursement of all costs.

The break-even point is the volume of production at the sale of which the revenue covers the total costs. At this point, the revenue does not allow the company to make a profit, but there are no losses either.

Accordingly, according to formula 1, the break-even point will be at the production level at which:

C + vq = pq – NP formula 2
since NP = O,
pq = c + vq formula 3

To determine the break-even point, you can also use the indicator of gross, or marginal profit (MR). Different approaches are given to the definition of this indicator: "the difference between the selling price and specific variable costs is called gross profit per unit of production" or "variable costs or partial production costs (PC) are deducted from the selling price of products and marginal profit is determined". In all cases, its calculation and use are based on the fact that in the expected range of production, the price of production and unit variable costs are constant. Therefore, the difference between the selling price and the variable cost per unit of output must be constant. To ensure that production breaks even, this difference, or marginal profit, must cover fixed costs.

Unit Price = Specific Constants + Specific Variables

Product costs costs

Or at the break-even point, marginal profit is equal to specific fixed costs, since in this case:

Unit Price – Specific Variables = Specific Constants

Product costs costs

Subject to this rule, each unit of production does not bring any profit or loss.

Break Even Point = Total Fixed Costs

Specific fixed costs

Break Even Point = Total Fixed Costs

Share of fixed costs

The most significant information for analysis is provided by the division of costs into variable and fixed components. It is convenient to describe the cost structure by setting the share of fixed costs in the cost of products sold.

The allocation of fixed and variable costs allows you to conduct a break-even analysis, evaluate the dynamics of changes in prices for products sold and materials consumed in the production process (calculate the price coefficient), determine the causes of losses from the main activity (increase in variable or fixed costs).

Of the general list of additional data, information on the cost structure is of the greatest importance.

Form 5-z "Information on the costs of production and sale of products (works, services)" can become a source of information on the share of fixed costs in the cost price. However, information of this form may require additional processing, for example, dividing the costs of materials, fuel, energy into variable and constant components; allocation of the share of costs for sold products from the total cost of the period.

One of the options for determining the amount of fixed costs for the period is to use information from the statements (estimates) of overhead costs for the period for individual workshops and production facilities of the enterprise.

Often, enterprises have similar reporting forms - statements of general business, general shop expenses and expenses for the maintenance and operation of equipment, which are drawn up by each of the shops (productions, services) of the organization.

Based on the statements for each workshop (service, production), fixed costs are allocated, written off to the cost of production of a given period. Summing them up, you can estimate the total amount of fixed costs of the enterprise, included in the cost of production in a given period. Knowing what share of manufactured products was sold, it is possible to determine the amount of fixed costs included in the cost of sales.

If statements of general workshop, general factory expenses, etc. contain cost elements that are, in fact, variables, additional processing of these documents is required. For example, general shop expense sheets may contain wages for support workers on a piece-rate basis.

In this case, the wages of the support workers are variable and must be attributed to the variable costs of the period.

Pricing

To carry out the above process, as well as to manage it, cost sharing plays a rather large role. The dynamics of their change with fluctuations in output volumes allows us to distinguish two categories: variable and fixed costs.

variable costs

This concept is a cost item, the volume of which directly depends on the number of products produced. From the point of view of economics, this category can be considered as the entire set of costs for the actual activities of the enterprise. This allows you to most fully highlight the goals that contributed to the creation of the enterprise and determined the direction of its development. Therefore, the larger the volume of production, the more significant part must be devoted to variable costs. This category traditionally includes expenses for the purchase of materials and raw materials, components and spare parts, electricity and fuel resources, as well as contributions to social insurance funds and employee salaries.

These are expenses, the volume of which does not depend on the number of products produced. Nevertheless, we can talk about the invariability of this value only when considering a certain scale of production activity. From an economic point of view, this type of cost is responsible for the most optimal conditions for the enterprise. Fixed costs are objectively existing even during those periods of time when the organization does not produce any products. Changing this category of costs is possible only if there are any changes in the production process itself. Such a condition may be the purchase of new equipment, the construction of new and additional buildings and structures, as well as price changes. Fixed costs traditionally include salaries of the administration and management staff, as well as contributions to social insurance funds, expenses for the operation and maintenance of the proper condition of buildings, structures and facilities, maintenance and repair of equipment, etc.

Mixed costs

This category is not one of the main ones, but it is quite common in both small and large enterprises. This, as the name suggests, includes both fixed and variable costs. The simplest and most obvious example of this kind of cost is the payment of telephone bills. In this case, elements of both the first and second categories may be present. Thus, the subscription fee belongs to the "fixed costs" group, but the bills for long-distance communication belong to the "variable costs" group.

What is this for?

The division of the enterprise's expenses into the two classes described above is important and necessary, since in the conditions of market relations there is a frequent change in the situation, which can lead to an expansion or, conversely, a reduction in the volume of products. Fluctuations in the scale of production directly affect variable and fixed costs, which in turn affect the pricing process, and hence profits.

Types of variable costs

• Regional

• regressive

• Flexible

Examples of Variable Costs

In accordance with IFRS standards, there are two groups of variable costs: production variable direct costs and production variable indirect costs. Production variable direct costs- these are costs that can be attributed directly to the cost of specific products on the basis of primary accounting data. Production variable indirect costs- these are costs that are directly dependent or almost directly dependent on changes in the volume of activity, however, due to the technological features of production, they cannot be directly attributed or economically impractical to be directly attributed to manufactured products.

Examples of variable direct costs are:

• The cost of raw materials and basic materials;
• Costs for energy, fuel;
• The wages of workers engaged in the production of products, with accruals on it.

Examples of variable indirect costs are the costs of raw materials in complex industries. For example, when processing raw materials - coal - coke, gas, benzene, coal tar, ammonia are produced. When milk is separated, skimmed milk and cream are obtained. In these examples, it is possible to divide the costs of raw materials by types of products only indirectly.

Dependence of cost type on cost object

The concept of direct and indirect costs is conditional.

For example, if the main business is transportation services, then the wages of drivers and the depreciation of cars will be direct costs, while for other types of business, the maintenance of vehicles and the remuneration of drivers will be indirect costs.

If the cost object is a warehouse, then the storekeeper's salary will be a direct cost, and if the cost object is the cost of manufactured and sold products, then these costs (storekeeper's salary) will be indirect due to the impossibility of unambiguously and the only way to attribute it to the cost object - cost. Depending on the volume of products produced, the cost per unit of production will change with the only battery in this system

Properties of Direct Costs

• Direct costs increase in direct proportion to the volume of products produced and are described by a linear function equation in which b=0. If the costs are direct, then in the absence of production they should be equal to zero, the function should start at the point 0 . In financial models, it is allowed to use the coefficient b to reflect the minimum wage of employees due to downtime due to the fault of the enterprise, etc.
• Linear dependence exists only for a certain range of values. For example, if a night shift is introduced with an increase in production volumes, then the payment for the night shift is higher than for the day shift.

Direct and variable costs in legislation

The concept of direct and variable costs is present in paragraph 1 of Article 318 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation. They are called direct and indirect costs. According to tax legislation, direct expenses, in particular, include:

• expenses for the purchase of raw materials, materials, components, semi-finished products;
• wages of production personnel;
• depreciation on fixed assets.

The company may include in direct costs and other types of costs directly related to the production of products. Direct costs are taken into account when determining the tax base for income tax as products are sold, and indirect costs - as they are implemented.

see also

Notes

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See what "Variable Costs" is in other dictionaries:

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variable costs- Operating costs that change directly and proportionally with changes in the volume of production or sales, capacity utilization, or other performance metrics. Examples are materials consumed, direct labor,… …

VARIABLE COSTS- - any costs that change in direct proportion to changes in the level of output. They represent the costs associated with the use of a variable resource: raw materials, labor, etc ... Economics from A to Z: Thematic guide

The costs of the enterprise, proportional to the volume of activity of the enterprise (costs of raw materials and materials, direct labor costs, etc.) ... Glossary of Crisis Management Terms

Variable costs (costs)- (Variable costs, VC) - costs, the value of which varies depending on the change in the volume of production: the cost of raw materials, fuel, energy, wages, etc ... Economic and Mathematical Dictionary

variable costs (costs)- Costs, the value of which varies depending on the change in the volume of production: the cost of raw materials, fuel, energy, wages, etc. Topics economics EN variable costsvc … Technical Translator's Handbook

variable costs step by step- Costs that increase in stages with the growth of the volume of activities. Topics accounting EN step variable cost … Technical Translator's Handbook

variable costs for the production of (electricity or heat) energy- - [A.S. Goldberg. English Russian Energy Dictionary. 2006] Topics energy in general EN variable energy costVEC … Technical Translator's Handbook

variable costs for the production of electricity or heat- - [A.S. Goldberg. English Russian Energy Dictionary. 2006] Topics energy in general EN variable energy cost … Technical Translator's Handbook

Costs, the value of which depends primarily on the volume of production of goods and services ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Economics and Law

Books

• Economic Analysis: Theory and Practice No. 12 (315) 2013 , , The journal covers theoretical issues and practical problems that arise in the process of economic analysis of design solutions: assessment, diagnostics and forecasting of investment and ... Category: Economy Series: Journal "Economic Analysis: Theory and Practice" 2013 Publisher: