From the end of the eighth to the end of the 11th century, the Vikings as a culture dominated Europe and spread throughout the world, from Russia (the land of the Rus) to the east coast of North America. Although their often religious raids were undeniably brutal, many Vikings peacefully traded, cultivated crops and settled conflicts peacefully, leaving their mark on virtually every region they touched.

Explore just a few of the things we owe to the ancient Scandinavians, from the English language to the combs we use for our hair.

Achievements of the Vikings in the field of shipbuilding and shipping

There is even a Viking Ship Museum in the world. Perhaps the most striking of the achievements of the ancient Scandinavians was the achievement of almost the modern level of shipbuilding technology, which allowed them to cover greater distances than anyone before. Their longboats, smooth wooden vessels with shallow hulls and rows of oars along the side, were faster, lighter, more flexible, and more manoeuvrable than other ships of the time. But while examining the prowess of the Vikings, it is also worth mentioning their skill as navigators. They relied on such simple tools as the solar compass, which used calcite crystals known as "sunstones" to determine the position of the sun even after it had set in the evening or on overcast days.

Such innovations gave the Vikings a clear advantage over other peoples in sailing long distances to foreign lands. In their heyday, the Vikings were active on four continents at the same time, making them the first truly global citizens of the world.

Old English

In the following centuries, after the first raid on English lands in 793 AD, the Vikings made a series of attacks, waged wars and established settlements in the British Isles, making a permanent impact on the land, culture and language. How did the Vikings interact with their English neighbors? First of all, through agriculture and trading activities, and then through marriages and linguistic assimilation, that is, mixing. This process appears in place names such as Grimsby, Thornby and Derby (the suffix comes from the Scandinavian word for "farm" or "village"), or Lothwaite, for example (-thwaite means "meadow" or "piece of land").

"Give", "window" and "sleep", other common English words, also derived their modern meanings from Viking culture. In another famous example, the word "Berserker" comes from the Old Norse berserker, which means "bear shirt" or "bear skin." Viking warriors, called berserkers, worshiped Odin, the god of war, and drove themselves into a frenzy during combat.

Dublin is descended from a Scandinavian fortress

We owe the capital of the Emerald Isle to the Vikings, who founded the first recorded settlement on the south bank of the River Liffey in 841. It was named Dabh Linn ("Black Pool") after the ancient Scandinavians moored their boats on the lake and began to build housing, harvest timber for their needs, poured an earthen fortress. Now it is the heart of modern Dublin.

Dubh Linn soon became the center of one of the largest slave markets in Europe. The Vikings held tight control over Dublin for nearly three centuries until the Irish High King Brian Boru defeated them at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. Unlike England, the Vikings left few Scandinavian place names in Ireland and little influence on the Irish language, but they made their mark there nonetheless. In addition to Dublin, the Irish cities of Wexford, Waterford, Cork and a few others also began their count as Viking settlements.

Skiing

Although the oldest known skis, dated between 8000 and 7000 BC, were discovered in Russia, and the first written record of skis comes from the Chinese Han Dynasty (206 BC approximately), there is reason to thank the ancient Scandinavians for the discovery of the Western tradition of skiing. Even the word "ski" in English comes from the Old Norse "skío." The ancient Scandinavians skied across the snowy native lands, both for recreation and transport purposes, and the Scandinavian goddess Skaoi and the god Ull were often depicted by them on skis or snowshoes.

Combs - the invention of the Varangians-chistyuli

Although they were considered untidy barbarians by their enemies, the Vikings actually bathed more often than other Europeans of that time (not counting the Russians, who always had baths in the factory), at least once a week, preferably in a hot spring. Bristle combs, often made from the antlers of the red deer or other animals they killed, are one of the objects most commonly found in Viking graves. In fact, although comb devices have existed in other cultures around the world, it is the Vikings who are often credited for inventing the comb as the Western world knows it today.

Tweezers, razors, and other cosmetic items are among the other objects that have turned up in Viking burial excavations, proving that even long-haired, bearded Viking warriors took personal grooming very seriously.

Sagas from Iceland: truth and fiction

Apart from archaeological evidence, one of the main sources of modern historians in obtaining information about the life of the ancient Scandinavians is a somewhat dubious, but endlessly fascinating source. These are Icelandic sagas written by unknown authors in the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, a chronicle of life during the Viking Age around A.D. 1000, when the ancient Norwegians abandoned their pagan gods and converted to Christianity.

During the Victorian era, scholars accepted the sagas, with their accompanying graphic depictions of the deeds of powerful rulers and common people, as an indisputable historical fact and historically reliable source. Most historians now agree that the sagas are unreliable but still valuable sources of information about the Vikings, laced with a hefty dose of mythology and fantasy. In any case, we can thank the Vikings and their exploits for providing food for one of the earliest forms of our favorite social entertainment: the soap opera.

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Viking culture - the heart of ancient Scandinavia

Viking traditions are a special layer of world cultural heritage, because in this case we are talking about an entire era (which, by the way, is called the Viking Age). Scandinavian traditions include an extensive list of cultural, in particular, ritual actions and phenomena that have come down to us by no means in a folklore and mythological shell. Rich archaeological material and surviving historical documents (first of all, the works of medieval chroniclers) are the scientific basis for modern knowledge about Scandinavian culture.

Usually, the culture of the Vikings means the life and traditions of the peoples who lived not only on the territory of the Scandinavian Peninsula (mainly Norway and Sweden), but also in nearby regions, such as Denmark and the island state of Iceland. Of course, the German-Scandinavian culture also includes the beliefs, life and traditional way of life of the peoples of Northern Europe, in particular, the territory of modern Germany and, to a lesser extent, Great Britain. On the other hand, it is obvious that the culture of Scandinavia in the Early Middle Ages had a large-scale impact on the culture of the entire European and even partially Asian region (this is primarily trade and cultural ties between the Vikings and representatives of Ancient Russia).

But in this regard, a logical question arises - what exactly do we mean when we talk about the culture of the Vikings or Scandinavian traditions? After all, these are not only powerful gods and unshakable heroes, epic myths about the formation and death of the Universe. The traditions of the Vikings are proud drakkars, cutting through the leaden expanse of the northern seas. The Viking tradition is a long journey to heavenly Vinland hundreds of years before Columbus and Vespucci. Viking traditions are spectacular "long houses", cruel rites like the famous "bloody eagle" and legendary warriors - berserkers and ulvhendars. These are erili - stone carvers, and skalds - poets, clutching a sword in one hand, and the art of versification in the other. This is the whole depth of the Scandinavian culture, in many ways still not understood by us.

Viking Age: who built Europe?

Traditionally, the Viking Age is called the period of the Early Middle Ages, corresponding to the following chronological framework - the VIII-XI century AD. The Viking Age in Northern Europe immediately follows the so-called "Germanic Iron Age" (IV-VIII centuries). The legendary period of the rule of the northern warriors precedes the attack of the Scandinavian warriors on the English city of Dorset in 789. In the future, the Vikings regularly raided England, Ireland, and France. In 860, the Scandinavians, as part of the Rus army, come to Constantinople. Ten years later, Norwegian navigators discover Iceland, and five years later, Greenland.

During the Viking Age, Scandinavian warriors, explorers and pioneers repeatedly besieged European cities, ruled individual regions and even entire countries. They traded and traveled abundantly, and therefore the Viking Age in Europe is rightly considered a special historical phenomenon that left the deepest mark on the cultural and historical heritage of all European states. The end of the Viking Age in Europe (and throughout the world) is considered the legendary Battle of Stamford Bridge (1066) and the death of the last Scandinavian king, King of Norway, Harald III the Severe.

That is, in fact, the Viking Age is a three-hundred-year primacy of Scandinavian culture over medieval European peoples. As a result, many ruling dynasties of the Late Middle Ages trace their ancestry precisely from the Vikings, fearless foreign invaders (that's what they were called in the southern regions). Therefore, it is not surprising that the life, religion and culture of the Vikings are so interesting to us today, because it was these desperate warriors who largely created the world that we know today from school history books. The world we see around us. A world that many of us would like to see...

A separate block is the theme of the paganism of the Vikings. This is also an integral part of the Scandinavian culture, but other sections of the RUNARIUM information portal are devoted to this issue. In the "Culture" section, Viking paganism as such is not reflected, except perhaps in rituals and those materials where consideration of specific elements of the Viking tradition is impossible outside the cultural and religious context. Basically, we will talk about Viking ships, their weapons, military culture, life and, of course, about famous (and not so) people whose deeds the Scandinavian skalds have glorified for centuries.

The medieval culture of Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Iceland and Germany has common roots associated with the arrival of the nomadic Huns from the depths of Asia to Northern Europe. They mingled with the tribes living there and, under the influence of a passionate impulse, transformed the ethnic map of this region. By the will of historical fate, Iceland became the custodian of Scandinavian culture, where, for various reasons, mainly Norwegians moved. The culture of Scandinavia is of particular interest to us, on the one hand, because we are also northerners and live in similar geographical conditions, and on the other, because the Varangians-Rus, among whom there were many Scandinavians, having united with the Slavs, laid the foundation for an ancient state in the territory our Fatherland.

Time from the end of the VIII century. until the first half of the 11th century. called the Viking Age. The word "Viking" comes from the Norwegian "vik" - bay, bay, coastal settlement and denoted sea robbers, pirates of the northern seas (synonymous - Varangian). The Scandinavians built small single-masted ships - dragons, which were given figurative names "Long Serpent", "Sea Bird", "Wind Eater". These boats were usually 18 - 20 m long and 3 - 4 m wide, the noses were decorated with dragon heads. Dozens and even hundreds of ships were often equipped for the campaign. The warriors were well armed: a long sword, a battle ax, a pike, an iron helmet, chain mail and a shield. Norwegians and Danes went on campaigns to the West, Swedes - to the East. In the 11th century, campaigns practically ceased, the Scandinavians began to develop the conquered territory 1 .

According to legend, he discovered a new country and named it Iceland ("ice country") Floki Vilgerdarson. And the first settlers were Ingolf Arnarson and his cousin Hjorleif, both from western Norway. They went on a Viking campaign and quarreled with the sons of Jarl Atli, two of them they killed. Therefore, fearing revenge, the brothers decided to leave their native places. First, they went to explore and, making sure that it was possible to live there and the place was not occupied, they returned to thoroughly prepare. Hjorleif made a trip to Ireland, where he took slaves and a lot of property. Having sailed to Iceland, they threw sacred pillars with the image of the gods into the water, intending to settle where the pillars would be washed ashore by waves. They landed separately and settled near each other. The following year, the slaves killed Hjorleif and tried to escape. Ingolf caught up with them and killed them. This was in 878.

Following Ingolf, other Norwegians began to arrive, settling on patches of land suitable for cultivation. The bulk of the hrappa community was made up of bond peasants. The most influential and wealthy peasants were called hevdings. From their midst, the bondsi chose a godi priest, who performed sacrificial rites in the temple, led the general meeting-ting, held in spring and autumn.

In 930, at the end of the era of the settlement of the country, it was decided to hold an All-Icelandic Althingi on the lava field, called the Field of Tinga. Not all the bonds came to the Althing, but only representatives - one from every nine, headed by the godi. The Althingi met for the adoption of laws, trial and the election of an elder law speaker, who received powers for three years. But it was not a king or leader, his duty was only the knowledge of the laws and their announcement from the Rock of the Law during the Althing, he had no power outside the general meeting.

The peculiarity of this state was the lack of executive power and the combination of legislative and judicial. Therefore, at the time of adoption of the laws, they provided for the mechanism for their implementation and the procedure for implementation. The very implementation and control over the execution of the law was undertaken by the interested parties.

The Christianization of Iceland took place in 1000. Christians appeared earlier, but by this year there were about half of them and there was a danger of a split in society into two parts. And then the godi Thorgeir, who at that time was a law-speaker, delivered his famous speech from the Rock of the Law, in which, using historical examples, he showed the danger of a split in society and religious enmity and proposed officially adopting Christianity, as is done in most European countries, but at the same time not to persecute those who will continue to perform the ancient rites. In other words, religious tolerance was proclaimed as a law. A unique example for that time!

The era of "democracy" lasted until the 13th century, when the influence and authority of the rich hevdings increased, who began to fight for power, for the title jarl(viceroy of the king of Norway). They could contain large squads of hired soldiers. The first half of the century is called the era of the Sturlungs named after the founder of the clan - Sturla from Khvamm and his sons Tord, Sighvat and Snorri. Snorri Sturluson is not only the most active political figure who was elected as a law speaker, but also a famous author who wrote (or, more precisely, compiled) a collection of sagas "The Steep of the Earth" and "Younger Edda". At this time, most of the sagas were written, telling about the deeds of the Norwegian and Icelandic Vikings, as well as the epic tales of the Elder Edda, outlining Scandinavian mythology, were recorded. This “black age”, accompanied by epidemics, famine, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and the transition of Iceland under the rule of the Norwegian king, ended.

When in the 16th century Iceland, together with Norway, became a Danish possession, the Icelanders were deprived of the right to bear arms. Once, a storm brought Algerian pirates to Iceland, who discovered a country where you can safely and with impunity rob, without fear of any resistance or retribution. Only in the XX century. Iceland gained autonomy, and then independence.

Introduction

Chapter 1 Traditions and Beliefs

1.1 Beliefs

1.2 Birth traditions

1.3 Training and "moral code"

1.4 Funeral rites

Chapter 2 Science and Art

2.1 Calendar

2.2 Navigation

2.3 Shipbuilding

2.4 Medicine

2.5 Literature. Poetry

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The relevance of this work of this work is due to the fact that in order to understand the history of any people, it is important to know not only the material, but also the spiritual side of his life. For a long time, the role of mentality was underestimated by many scientists, but using only a materialistic approach, it is sometimes difficult to explain some historical phenomena. In addition, this leads to an unjustified belittling of the significance of the achievements of ancient people; to the fact that their culture is presented by many researchers as "primitive". This does not take into account the very difference between the worldview of ancient and modern people. In recent years, good works began to appear, which are based on the consideration of the mentality, but they are mainly devoted to the civilizations of the Ancient East. There are no special works devoted to the spiritual culture of pre-Christian Scandinavia, at least in Russian. All this determines the relevance of this work.

First of all, it should be said about what is meant by the concepts of "culture" and "pre-Christian Scandinavia".

“Culture (from Latin Cultura - cultivation, upbringing, education, development, veneration), a historically determined level of development of society, the creative forces and abilities of a person, expressed in the types and forms of organizing the life and activities of people, in their relationships, as well as in the material and spiritual values ​​they create… In a narrower sense, the sphere of people's spiritual life. It includes the objective results of people's activities ... as well as human strengths and abilities implemented in activities (knowledge, skills, intelligence, moral and aesthetic development, worldview, ways and forms of people's communication),” the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary tells us .

In this work, the concept of "culture" will be used in the narrow sense of the word, that is, to denote the spiritual and intellectual values ​​created by man.

Now let's determine the place of pre-Christian Scandinavia in time and space. Scandinavia includes the Scandinavian Peninsula, the island of Iceland, the Jutland Peninsula, as well as the small islands surrounding them, and the small islands of the chronological framework, then the lower border is the settlement of Scandinavia in the III-II millennium BC. e.. It should be noted here that basically the information provided refers to the 9th - 12th centuries, but it should be remembered that any culture is formed not for a year or two, but for centuries and millennia. The upper limit of the period under consideration is the end of the 12th century. By this time, the Christianization of Scandinavia was completed.

As for the historiography of this issue, there are not very many scientific works in Russian on the topic of pre-Christian Scandinavia, especially its culture separately (as mentioned above). Things are not much better with translated literature, most of it is just popular science publications depicting the Scandinavians of the pre-Christian era as people with a very primitive level of development in every sense.

“Until the time of Charlemagne, the northern countries constituted an almost completely closed world, about which only a few fragmentary news and legends reached the attention of the Romans ...”, writes A. Strinngolm, a major Swedish Scandinavian. What can we say about more ancient times... The sources of the medieval era include both the chronicles of continental Europe and the sagas of Scandinavia itself.

Among the excellent works on this topic, the monograph "Viking Campaigns" by the aforementioned Anders Stringholm should be noted. A. Khlevov, scientific editor of the Russian edition of this work, writes the following in the preface: “Until the appearance in the 1950s-1970s. books by M.I. Steblin-Kamensky, A.Ya. Gurevich, G.S. Lebedev, devoted to the history of the Vikings, "The Campaigns of the Vikings" edition of 1861 remained the only serious and comprehensive historical study in Russian. This truly classic work describes both the cultural and political life of Scandinavia during the Viking Age (8th-12th centuries).

I would like to mention the encyclopedia "Vikings: Raids from the North", published in the series "Disappeared Civilizations". It is beautifully illustrated, it presents a huge number of archaeological finds. Most of the book is devoted to battles, trade, colonial activity; however, when reading, one often gets the impression that the author (whose name, by the way, is not indicated anywhere ...) considers the culture of pre-Christian Scandinavia to be primitive. The adherence to the "Norman theory" is striking: "Starting with Rurik and up to the son of Ivan the Terrible Fyodor, these Scandinavians ruled the largest medieval power in Europe - Russia." In addition, as in most similar publications, there is almost no information about the spiritual life of the people.

A brochure by V.I. Shcherbakov "Where did the heroes of Eddic myths live?". The author examines the issue of the origin of the Scandinavian culture, based on legends and archaeological data. It should be noted that none of the other works available contradict Shcherbakov's point of view.

Among the excellent popular science works, it is worth noting the essay by M. Semenova “I will tell you about the Vikings”, published in the collection “Vikings”. In this work - a detailed description of the life and, most importantly, the mentality of the Scandinavians of that era. Moreover, M. Semyonova's interesting approach to narration should be noted, she tries to show the worldview of the Scandinavians, as it were, "from the inside".

The purpose of this work is to consider the culture of pre-Christian Scandinavia, to show its features.

The objectives of the work are to tell about the spiritual values ​​and intellectual achievements of the Scandinavians of the pre-Christian era: about their navigational and shipbuilding art, about poetry and about the famous Scandinavian runes, about knowledge in the field of medicine and astronomy; and, of course, about traditions and beliefs, about how they thought and how they perceived the world.

The work consists of two chapters. The first chapter is devoted to the spiritual life of the Scandinavians of the pre-Christian period, their worldview, beliefs, and some traditions, and the second chapter is devoted to scientific knowledge, practical skills and the poetic art of the Scandinavians.

Chapter 1 Traditions and Beliefs

1.1 Beliefs

The Scandinavians of the period under review were characterized by a religious-mythological type of thinking (in the historical, but not the philosophical understanding of this term). One can draw some parallel between such a worldview and pantheism, which represents the deity as if "dissolved" in nature, and not standing "above" nature. Stringholm writes the following about this: “Peoples, in their infancy without comprehending the laws of nature and the internal connection between objects, have always suspected the participation of living beings wherever they noticed the active forces, and personified nature. And the ancient Normans, like the Pythagoreans, filled the whole world with special spiritual beings.

According to the Scandinavians, there were nine worlds, each of which had its own inhabitants. Only one of them is accessible to human feelings - Midgard, the "middle city", the world of people. He was in the center, between the other eight worlds. Therefore, the "spiritual essences" of all worlds could manifest themselves in the life of the inhabitants of Midgard. Let's take a closer look at these worlds in order to understand what creatures and entities surrounded the Scandinavian pantheist.

Directly above Midgard is Lyusalfheim - the world of light alves-elves, beautiful creatures.

Above Ljusalfheim is Asgard, "the city of the Aesir", the supreme Scandinavian gods, which will be discussed below.

Immediately below Midgard is Svartalfheim, “the house of the black elves”: “the dark elves are blacker than pitch”.

Even lower is Helheim - the home of Hel, the goddess of death and rebirth (many researchers, unfortunately, often forget about her second "function").

To the east of Midgard is Jotunheim, a country of frost giants, frost spirits. In the north is Niflheim - the realm of cold. There are no living beings here. To the west of Midgard is Vanaheim - the "home of the Vanir" - deities patronizing fertility, weather, etc. In the south is the land of fire - Muspelheim. From here, according to legend, the fiery giant Surtr will come out, who will burn the worlds to the ground on the day of Ragnarok. It can be assumed that the prototype of this image was some kind of natural cataclysm (it could have happened even before the separation of the Indo-Europeans - here we can recall, for example, the Greek titanomachy).

Here is what V.I. writes about the connection between the images of Niflheim and Muspelheim and the cataclysm. Shcherbakov: “After this (the cataclysm - author's note), the glacier began to melt rapidly, presumably due to the sinking of some islands to the bottom of the ocean and a change in the direction of the Gulf Stream, which rushed to the shores of Scandinavia, melting thousand-year-old ice. And Edda remembers this! The myths directly speak of an ice shell and a hot, calm country in the south. It is interesting that then, before the cataclysm, the atmosphere was calmer, and the exchange of heat was minimal - severe cold in the north and unrelenting heat in the south. And this is told in Scandinavian myths!

Let us now note that the cataclysm, or flood, which the myths of many peoples speak of, was the root cause of the resettlement of tribes in territories freed from ice. This resettlement came in several waves - naturally, from the south and southeast. The process went on for thousands of years. And this, as is clear from the Edda, was remembered by ancient people, contemporaries of giants, dwarfs and gods!

They came from the sea, warriors who know neither pity nor fear of death. The motley sails of their drakkars were visible from afar. And when such a sail rose above the horizon, the inhabitants of the coastal villages fled in fear, saving their lives. Their courage, courage, cruelty and rage were legendary. They lived for war and for war. They were kept by severe northern aces. They were assisted by light elves and dark jotuns. Their souls were carried away from the battlefield by golden-skewed Valkyries. They were called heroes and barbarians, pirates and wolves of the North. But they themselves called themselves Vikings.

Many centuries have passed, and the Vikings are still on everyone's lips. Nordic character, what can you do! And how many legends and myths have been written and told during this time, do not count. I think that each of us wants to know the truth about them (or at least a true story similar to it).

Who are the Vikings? What are they famous for? Were they really that crazy and bloodthirsty? Why and how did their reign end? Let's figure it out together.

A little about the Vikings themselves

The Vikings came from Scandinavia - a region in Northern Europe (now there are modern Norway, Sweden and Denmark). But in the 5th-11th centuries, called the early Middle Ages, these countries did not yet have clear borders, and the rulers themselves divided power among themselves, now and then engaging in armed skirmishes. The common language of those peoples was Old Norse. The word "VIK" from this language can be translated as "bay", "bay", "refuge", and "VIKING" meant "man from the bay" or "one who hides in the bay."

By religious affiliation, the Vikings were overwhelmingly pagans. Their main god was Odin - the father of all the Gods and the God of those who fell in battle, who after death became his adopted sons.

The Vikings firmly believed in the afterlife, and therefore they were not afraid of death. The most honorable was considered death in battle. Then, according to ancient legends, their souls fell into the wonderful country of Valhalla. And the Vikings did not want a different fate for themselves and for their sons.

During the battle, one of the warriors always carried the banner of the clan. This was an extremely honorable duty, and only the chosen one could become a standard-bearer - it was believed that the banner had miraculous power, helping not only to win in battle, but also to leave the carrier unharmed. But when the advantage of the enemy became obvious, the main task for the warriors was to save the life of their king. To do this, the Vikings surrounded him with a ring and shielded him with shields. If the king still died, they fought to the last drop of blood next to his body.

Berserkers had a special fearlessness (among the Scandinavians - a powerful, frantic hero). They did not recognize the armor and went ahead, as if insane, like mad dogs and wolves, terrifying the enemy troops. They knew how to inject themselves into a euphoric state and, breaking through the front line of enemies, dealt crushing blows and fought to the death in the name of Odin. Battle-hardened Vikings, as a rule, won victories both at sea and on land, earning themselves the glory of being invincible. Everywhere armed to the teeth, detachments acted in approximately the same way - their landing took cities and villages by surprise.

After decades of robbery, the uninvited northern guests realized that it was more profitable and easier to impose tribute on the Europeans, since they were happy to pay off. Medieval chronicles testify: from 845 to 926, the Frankish kings laid out about 17 tons of silver and almost 300 kilograms of gold to the "barbarians" in thirteen steps. Moreover, around 860, the Vikings discovered the island, calling it "Iceland" ("Ice Country") and founded a number of their own colonies there.

Viking ships

Of course, the Vikings would not have gained their gloomy fame if they did not have the best ships for those times. The hulls of their "sea dragons" were perfectly adapted to sailing in the turbulent northern seas: low sides, gracefully upturned bow aft end; at the stern on the side - a stationary steering oar. Painted in red or blue stripes, and sometimes checks, sails of rough canvas on the mast were set in the center of the spacious deck.

Merchant ships of the same type and military ships, much more powerful, inferior in size to the Greek and Roman ones, significantly surpassed them in maneuverability and speed. Time really helped to evaluate their superiority. At the end of the 19th century, in a burial mound in southern Norway, archaeologists found a well-preserved 32-oared drakar. Having built its exact copy and tested it in ocean waters, the experts came to the conclusion: with a fresh wind, a Viking ship under sail could develop almost ten knots - and this is one and a half times more than Columbus's caravels while sailing to the West Indies in more than five centuries.

Viking weapons

The ax and ax (double-edged ax) were considered the favorite weapons. Their weight reached 9 kg, the length of the handle - 1 meter. Moreover, the handle was bound with iron, which made the blows inflicted on the enemy as crushing as possible. It was with this weapon that the training of future warriors began, therefore they owned it, and excellently, without exception.

Viking spears were of two types: throwing and for hand-to-hand combat. In throwing spears, the length of the shaft was small. Often a metal ring was fixed on it, indicating the center of gravity and helping the warrior to give the throw the right direction. Spears intended for land combat were massive, with a shaft length of 3 meters. Four-five-meter spears were used for combat, and in order for them to be lifting, the diameter of the shaft did not exceed 2.5 cm. The shafts were made mainly of ash and decorated with applications of bronze, silver or gold.

Shields usually did not exceed 90 cm in diameter. The field of the shield was made from a single layer of boards 6-10 mm thick, fastened together, and covered with leather on top. The strength of this design was given by the umbon, the handle and the rim of the shield. Umbon - a hemispherical or conical iron plaque protecting a warrior's hand - was usually nailed to the shield with iron nails, which were riveted on the back. The handle for holding the shield was made of wood according to the yoke principle, that is, crossing the inside of the shield, it was massive in the center, and became thinner closer to the edges. An iron bar was superimposed on it, often inlaid with silver or bronze. To strengthen the shield, a metal strip passed along the edge, nailed with iron nails or staples and covered with leather on top. The leather cover was sometimes painted with colored patterns.

Burmese - protective mail shirts, consisting of thousands of interlaced rings - were of great value to the Vikings and were often inherited. True, only rich Vikings could afford to have them. The bulk of the warriors wore leather jackets for protection.

Viking helmets - metal and leather - had either a rounded top with shields to protect the nose and eyes, or a pointed one with a straight nose bar. Laid on planks and shields were decorated with bronze or silver embossing.

Arrows VII - IX centuries. had wide and heavy metal tips. In the 10th century, arrowheads became thin and long, with silver inlays. The bow was made from a single piece of wood, usually yew, ash or elm, with braided hair serving as a bowstring.

Only wealthy Vikings, who also possessed remarkable strength, could have swords. This weapon was very treasured, keeping it in a wooden or leather scabbard. The swords were even given special names, such as the Mail Ripper or the Miner. Their average length was 90 cm, they had a characteristic narrowing to the point and a deep groove along the blade. The blades were made from several iron rods intertwined with each other, which were flattened together during forging.

This technique made the sword flexible and very durable. The swords had guards and pommel - parts of the hilt protecting the hand. The latter were equipped with hooks that could be attacked by pulling aside the main blade of the enemy. Both the guards and the pommel, as a rule, had regular geometric shapes, were made of iron and decorated with overlays of copper or silver. The decorations of the blades, squeezed out during the forging process, were unpretentious and were either simple ornaments or the name of the owner.

The Viking swords were very heavy, so sometimes during a long battle it had to be held with both hands, in such situations the enemy's retaliatory blows were repelled by shield bearers.

Viking clothing

Women wore long shirts with or without sleeves. From above, they put on a sundress, which was fastened with two metal clasps, brooches, often in the shape of the head of some animal or tortoise shell. Men also wore linen shirts, long trousers, woolen or leather cloaks with brooches-clasps. Those who had the desire and opportunity to stand out, dressed in bright cloaks with expensive fur lining and tied up with richly decorated belts. Viking shoes were most often made of leather. Jewelry was worn by everyone, both women and men - brooches, necklaces, bracelets, rings and chains around the neck.

Family and its head

Family ties were very important to the Vikings. The family united not only close relatives - parents and children - but also distant ones, the list of which could be very wide. They were cousins ​​and sisters, aunts and uncles, servants and even slaves (who constituted the lower class and were called thrells).

Wealthy men were allowed to have multiple wives and even marry slave girls. True, children born in such marriages did not receive the status of free people, they remained thrells, like their mothers.

The head of the family clan (it could be either a man or a woman) enjoyed universal respect: he made important decisions about marriages, trade deals, and declaring revenge on enemies.

Viking Age Sunset

In the middle of the 11th century, the Viking Age ended. During their raids, the Vikings increasingly preferred to stay in a new place and quickly adapted, adopting a new faith and new traditions. In addition, their well-being has declined: robberies, resale and heavy extortions have depleted the resources of donor countries. In addition, the Christian church banned slavery, and the slave trade brought huge income to the Vikings. And the Scandinavian lands themselves, like other European territories, began to increasingly unite under the banner of large rulers, who were subordinate to a large army. Organized warriors in the civil service deprived the Vikings of their main trump card and intimidation strategy - a surprise attack on the unarmed.

What about today?

They write, film, draw comics about them. They even named a brand of beer and a spacecraft in their honor.

Today, the Vikings are the same symbol of the carefree romance of distant wanderings and quick victories, just like sea pirates. Cunning and cruel adventurers, the Vikings forever left a noticeable mark in world history.

Bare feet on glass.
Yes, so as not to feel pain
From those who cursed you in the world,
Sold for the last pound of salt.

You have entered the path of true faith,
And the truth is forged on it - with flour.
Our sword fights for gold, pearls
With all his strength he shakes his hand with steel,

So that lies flow with blood
Evil thoughts on thin marble
Strong shields from the songs of the Velva
Instead of the roof and walls of Valhalla.

You entered the path of words of honor,
Now let it be solid
Stand like a stone for the glory of revenge
Near dark and narrow fjords.

Fly like a bird across brotherly lands,
Bring the sisters news from Thor;
Walk proudly at Freya's will
The path of true faith and honor.

Photo: book "Vikings" from the publishing house "Walking into history"