Option 1
A1. What is the name of the science of the structure of man and his organs?
1) anatomy 3) biology
2) physiology 4) hygiene
A2. What part of the brain is called the small brain?
1) midbrain 3) medulla oblongata
2) spinal cord 4) cerebellum
A3. What muscle group do the temporalis muscles belong to?
1) to mimic 3) to respiratory
2) to chewing 4) to motor
A4. What is the name of the process of destruction of microbes by consuming cells?
1) immunity 3) phagocytosis
2) brucellosis 4) immunodeficiency
A5. What is the name of the enzyme of gastric juice that can only act in an acidic environment and breaks down protein into simpler compounds?
1) hemoglobin 3) cerebellum
2) pituitary gland 4) pepsin
A6. What is the name of the nerve structures that convert perceived stimuli into nerve impulses?
1) sensitive neurons 3) intercalary neurons
2) receptors 4) synapses
A7. What is an excessive increase in blood pressure called?
1) hypertension 3) hypotension
2) allergy 4) arrhythmia
IN 1. What are the functions of the nervous and endocrine systems?
IN 2. What is the name of the constant composition of the fluids that make up the internal
AT 3. What is the name of a liquid containing weakened microbes or their poisons?
AT 4. Who discovered central braking?
AT 5. What are the rhythmic vibrations of the walls of arteries called?
C1. What secretion gland does the pancreas belong to? Explain why?
C2. What are the consequences of kidney failure in humans?
Biology test for the 8th grade course
Option 2
A1. What is the name of the warm salty liquid that connects all human organs with each other, providing them with oxygen and nutrition?
1) tissue fluid 3) lymph
2) blood 4) intercellular fluid
A2. What is the name of the part of the brain that provides coordination and coordination of movements, as well as the balance of the body?
1) medulla oblongata 3) cerebellum
2) hypothalamus 4) midbrain
A3. What type of tissue is bone tissue?
1) connective 3) muscular
2) epithelial 4) nervous
A4. What makes up the bulk of plasma?
1) lymph 3) erythrocytes
2) water 4) shaped elements
A5. What is the name of the largest gland in our body, located in the abdominal cavity under the diaphragm?
1) thyroid 3) pancreas
2) spleen 4) liver
A6. What is the contact between neurons and cells of the working organs?
1) with the help of synapses 3) with the help of the vagus nerve
2) with the help of alveoli 4) with the help of receptors
A7. What is lymph formed from?
1) from blood 3) from tissue fluid
2) from intercellular substance 4) from gastric juice
IN 1. What is the name of the transparent semi-liquid mass that fills the interior of the eyeball?
IN 2. What is the gray matter of the brain made of?
AT 3. What is the name of the lack of vitamins in the body?
AT 4. Where does gas exchange take place?
AT 5. What is the name of the ability of an organ to be rhythmically excited under the influence of impulses arising in it without external stimuli?
C1. Name at least 3 criteria that allow us to classify humans as mammals.
C2. Is it possible for a person with blood type II to transfuse blood type III and why? Why can blood of group I be transfused to all four groups?
Answers
Option 1
A3 - 2
A4 - 3
A5 - 4
A6 - 2
B1 - regulatory
B2 - homeostasis
B3 - vaccine
B4 - I.M. Sechenov
B5 - pulse
C1 - Mixed secretion. Part of the cells of the pancreas secretes hormones (insulin) directly into the blood, the other part - pancreatic juice, which enters the duodenum through the ducts.
C2 - Kidneys - an organ of the excretory system. Violation of their work can lead to disruption of homeostasis (changes in the composition of the internal environment) and poisoning of the body with metabolic products.
Option 2
A3 - 1
A4 - 2
A5 - 4
A6 - 1
B1 - vitreous body
B2 - from the bodies of neurons
B3 - hypovitaminosis
B4 - in the alveoli of the lungs and tissues
B5 - automatism
C1 - the presence of the uterus and mammary glands, the lungs are of the alveolar type, the heart includes 4 chambers, a constant body temperature, the chest and abdominal cavities are separated by a diaphragm.
C2 - it is impossible, because the meeting of agglutinins β contained in the blood of group II with agglutinogens B contained in the blood of group III will lead to agglutination. There are no agglutinogens A and B in the blood of the group, so it can be transfused to all blood groups.
Criteria for evaluating responses
For each correctly completed task under the letter A, 1 point is awarded, a total of 7 points.
For each correctly completed task under the letter B, 2 points are awarded, a total of 10 points.
For each correctly completed task under the letter C, 3 points are awarded, a total of 6 points.
Total - 23 points
80-100% - rating "5"
60-80% - grade "4"
40-60% - grade "3"
0-40% - score "2".
Explanatory note
For the intermediate certification in biology in the 8th grade, a set of test tasks (2 options) was compiled. They are compiled taking into account the state educational standard. The content of the educational material is correlated with the amount of time allotted for the study of biology in the 8th grade by the basic curriculum (2 hours per week / 68 hours per year).
All questions and tasks are divided into three levels of difficulty (A, B, C).
Level A - basic (A1-A7). Each question has 4 possible answers, only one of which is correct.
Level B - contains 5 tasks (B1-B5). Each task of this level requires a short answer (in the form of one or two words).
Level C - increased complexity contains 2 tasks (C1-C2). This assignment requires you to write a detailed answer.
45 minutes are allotted to complete the test (1 lesson).
The golden mean is what is important when it comes to the iron content in the body of a healthy person. Normally, this microelement is given only 4-5 grams, but its role is colossal.
Surely you know that iron is simply necessary for a person and cannot be replaced by anything. It is involved in the process of hematopoiesis and transport of oxygen to all cells of the body as part of hemoglobin. In addition, iron is involved in the synthesis of cellular enzymes, generates a magnetic field and electromagnetic impulses in nerve cells, and promotes the formation of tissues. The normal level of this metal gives the body the strength to withstand stress, fatigue, drowsiness, supports immunity, brain and thyroid function. And what is important, and for us it is even very important to maintain the tone of the skin and muscles.
If the hemoglobin level is normal, then there is no painful craving for sweets
The role of iron in the body
Daily intake of iron
The daily rate of iron for each individual and depends on the state of health and lifestyle of a person. With intense physical activity, the need increases. The table below shows the average figures for different categories of people.
| The average daily rate of iron
(at a maximum of 45 mg) |
|
| Age 0-6 months | 27 |
| Age 7-12 months | 11 |
| Age 1-3 years | 7-12 |
| Age 4-8 years | 10-18 |
| Age 9-13 years old | 8-14 |
| Boys 14-18 years old | 11-19 |
| Girls 14-18 years old | 15-27 |
| Breastfeeding women aged 14-18 | 10-18 |
| Men 19+ | 8-14 |
| Women 19-50 years old | 18-32 |
| Breastfeeding women aged 19-50 | 9-16 |
| Women 50+ | 8-14 |
| Pregnancy | 27-48 |
Ideally, any healthy body should have a supply of iron (300-1000 mg for women and 500-1500 mg for men). In reality, most people have a supply of this trace element at the lower limit of the norm, or not at all.
P products containing iron in large quantities table
The table shows only those foods that have the highest amount of iron. The proportion of iron is given in grams per 100 grams of the product.
| PLANT ORIGIN | ANIMAL ORIGIN | ||
| Dried porcini mushrooms | 35,0 | Pork liver | 19,0 |
| Syrup | 19,5 | Lungs | 10,0 |
| Brewer's yeast | 18,1 | beef liver | 9,0 |
| sea cabbage | 16,0 | chicken liver | 8,5 |
| Pumpkin seeds | 14,0 | Egg yolk | 7,2 |
| Cocoa | 12,5 | chicken heart | 6,2 |
| Lentils | 11,8 | Language | 5,0 |
| Sesame | 11,5 | Rabbit meat | 4,4 |
| Buckwheat | 8,3 | Hematogen | 4,0 |
| Peas | 7,0 | Quail eggs | 3,2 |
| Blueberry | 7,0 | Beef | 3,1 |
| Halva | 6,4 | Black caviar | 2,5 |
| Beans | 5,9 | Hen | 2,1 |
| beans | 5,5 | Pork | 2,0 |
| Mushrooms fresh | 5,2 | Mutton | 2,0 |
| Black currant | 5,2 | ||
| Dried apricots | 4,7 | ||
| Almond | 4,4 | ||
| Peaches | 4,1 | ||
| Rye bread | 3,9 | ||
| Raisin | 3,8 | ||
| Spinach | 3,5 | ||
| Walnut | 2,9 | ||
| Corn | 2,4 | ||
| Chocolate | 2,3 | ||
| Apples | 2,2 | ||
If we are talking about the lack of something, then it is already clear that this does not bode well. There are two stages of iron deficiency: latent stage and stage of anemia.
With latent iron deficiency the level of hemoglobin in the blood is normal and there are no clinical symptoms of iron deficiency, however, tissue iron reserves are inexorably falling, the activity of iron-containing enzymes is gradually decreasing. In addition, adults are characterized by a compensatory increase in iron absorption in the intestine.
With iron deficiency anemia the following clinical symptoms are observed:
- depletion of iron stores in the body;
- a decrease in the saturation of erythrocytes with hemoglobin is significantly reduced, which leads to their hypochromia, in other words, erythrocytes lose color;
- dystrophic changes occur in organs and tissues;
- in erythrocytes, an increased amount of protoporphyrin is observed;
- decrease in the level of hemoglobin in the blood and its production.
Symptoms of anemia
When should you pay attention to your condition and what hints from the body to think about a possible lack of iron? If you are worried about systematic fatigue for no apparent reason and with the same rhythm of life as always ... There is a rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath with a slight load. Muscle weakness, tinnitus, headaches. Visually, others may note the pallor of the face. Also, hair loss, brittle nails, and dry skin often increase. More pronounced symptoms are also possible, such as cracks in the mucous membranes in the corners of the mouth, reddening of the tongue. It all depends on the severity and duration of the deficiency. It should be noted that self-medication and taking medications on their own without examination is not worth it. This is because an excess of iron, as well as its lack, is quite capable of seriously harming, namely, disrupting the functioning of internal organs. Only a doctor can make a diagnosis based on the tests and prescribe the right dosage specifically in your case.
The human body is able to absorb about a tenth of the incoming iron. Some factors that reduce iron absorption in the intestinal lumen should be considered, which can be influenced. This is precipitation by phosphates, phytates and antacids. Soy proteins, albumin, and ethanol (taken orally or by injection) reduce iron absorption. As for milk, its proteins also have a detrimental effect on Fe absorption. Tea and coffee significantly reduce iron absorption due to their caffeine content. Phytic acid, found in seeds of cereals, legumes and oilseeds, reduces the absorption of iron. In order to neutralize the effect of phytate on iron absorption, ascorbic acid or meat should be included in the diet. Plant fibers other than cellulose are also able to reduce iron absorption.
Large oral doses of ascorbic acid, as well as citric, succinic acids, and sugar have a positive effect. Absorption is increased in the presence of poultry or beef.
Note that the most easily digestible iron for the human body is found in plants!
Video: Iron and body energy
Conclusion
Proper and balanced nutrition is a daily work on your health. But this is the only way to best provide your body with all the necessary vitamins, minerals and trace elements. There is no better way than getting iron from foods. And, of course, do not forget about regular physical activity.
Be sure to read about it
Of all the organs of the human body, the liver is the largest gland and second in size only to the skin, being the largest internal organ. The liver is formed in the embryo at the fourth week of pregnancy. As the fetus develops, the liver divides into two parts called the right and left lobes. At the end of fetal development, the right lobe of the liver will be six times larger than the left. By the time a baby is born, the weight of the liver is about 5 percent of the baby's total body weight. A child's liver grows and in an adult weighs three to four pounds (3 to 4 kg). If you feel the lower right corner under the rib cage, you will find a dense mass that, when tapped, makes a hollow sound. This is your liver. A healthy liver has the consistency of a sponge. In a child with liver disease, it is often denser.
The liver is located under the diaphragm and ribs, it is stretched along the upper edge of the stomach to the left side of the body. Under the right edge of the liver are the green gallbladder and its ducts. The liver's blood supply is unique: a large blood vessel called the portal vein carries blood from both the heart and the digestive tract. Each of the two large lobes is made up of smaller compartments called lobules. There are typically 50,000 to 100,000 lobules in the liver, consisting of a vein surrounded by tiny liver cells called hepatocytes. These cells purify the blood, remove waste, toxins and poisons, and store nutrients for use by the body when needed. The liver performs a variety of functions: it converts sugar (glucose) into glycogen and stores it until the body needs it.
The liver also stores vitamins, minerals, and iron until needed. Liver cells produce proteins and lipids, or fats, which include triglycerides, cholesterol, and lipoproteins. The liver produces bile acids that break down dietary fats. Bile acids allow the body to absorb the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E. The liver removes chemicals, alcohol, toxins, and drugs from the blood and sends them either as urea to the kidneys, which excrete them in the form of urine, or to the gastrointestinal tract from where they are excreted in the form of feces.
When a person consumes food, nutrients pass through the throat into the stomach and then into the intestines. In these organs, food is broken down into small particles, thanks to the enzymes that the pancreas produces, which are absorbed into the blood. Most of these small particles pass from the intestines to the liver, which filters food and turns it into nutrients that the blood delivers to the cells that need them. The liver stores these nutrients, releasing them during the day when the body needs them. Proteins, fats, enzymes and other chemical compounds that the liver synthesizes from nutrients determine human health.
The liver produces proteins needed for blood clotting. If the liver is unable to produce these substances, death can occur due to blood loss. The liver also produces bilirubin, a red-yellow pigment formed from the breakdown of hemoglobin in dying red blood cells. The blood carries it to the liver, where it mixes with bile and then enters the duodenum to be excreted from the body. If the liver is damaged and is unable to remove the reddish-yellow bilirubin from the body, jaundice occurs - the sclera of the eyes and the skin become yellowish. The liver produces the blood protein albumin, as well as cholesterol, which is necessary for the formation of outer cell membranes. When liver cells are damaged and cannot perform the listed functions, they secrete certain enzymes into the blood. To determine liver damage or disease, doctors test for all of these enzymes in the blood, as well as other liver-related substances. The liver is a very complex organ, so it is susceptible to many negative factors, including an excess of alcohol or drugs, infections such as viral hepatitis, cancer, and other metabolic disorders. However, at the same time, the liver is a persistent organ, since it is able to recover from damage or inflammation; in addition, the liver contains reserves of nutrients to which it can resort when damaged. When the liver is affected by the hepatitis virus, its cells are damaged or destroyed. The liver can tolerate this type of damage due to its ability to regenerate and compensate for the damage. This stage of the disease is called compensated liver disease because it is able to continue to perform all of its functions. When the liver begins to succumb to disease, it can no longer regenerate its tissues, and the overgrowth of scar tissue impairs its ability to filter and store nutrients. This end stage of the disease is called decompensated because the liver cannot compensate for the damage.
LIVER
the largest gland in the body of vertebrates. In humans, it is about 2.5% of body weight, an average of 1.5 kg in adult men and 1.2 kg in women. The liver is located in the right upper part of the abdominal cavity; it is attached by ligaments to the diaphragm, abdominal wall, stomach and intestines and is covered with a thin fibrous membrane - the glisson capsule. The liver is a soft but dense organ of red-brown color and usually consists of four lobes: a large right lobe, a smaller left one, and much smaller caudate and square lobes that form the posterior lower surface of the liver.
The LIVER is the largest gland in the human body and performs many functions. Ligaments fix its position in the upper right part of the abdominal cavity. The structure of the liver includes several lobes, each of which consists of functional units - lobules. The liver cells secrete the bile needed for digestion into the intralobular bile canaliculi. Bile is transported through the common bile duct to the intestines or gallbladder, where it is stored for later use. Nutrition of the liver tissue is provided by blood flowing through the hepatic artery. The portal vein brings blood containing absorbed digestion products, which are further processed in the liver. All incoming blood enters the lobular capillaries - sinusoids. Flowing through them, it washes the liver cells and exits through the central, then the interlobular, and then the hepatic vein into the inferior vena cava.
Functions. The liver is an essential organ for life with many different functions. One of the main ones is the formation and secretion of bile, a clear orange or yellow liquid. Bile contains acids, salts, phospholipids (fats containing a phosphate group), cholesterol, and pigments. Bile salts and free bile acids emulsify fats (i.e., break them into small droplets), which makes them easier to digest; convert fatty acids into water-soluble forms (which is necessary for the absorption of both the fatty acids themselves and fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K); have antibacterial action. All the nutrients absorbed into the blood from the digestive tract - the products of digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, minerals and vitamins - pass through the liver and are processed in it. At the same time, part of the amino acids (protein fragments) and part of the fats are converted into carbohydrates, so the liver is the largest "depot" of glycogen in the body. It synthesizes blood plasma proteins - globulins and albumin, as well as amino acid conversion reactions (deamination and transamination). Deamination - the removal of nitrogen-containing amino groups from amino acids - allows the latter to be used, for example, for the synthesis of carbohydrates and fats. Transamination is the transfer of an amino group from an amino acid to a keto acid to form another amino acid (see METABOLISM). The liver also synthesizes ketone bodies (products of fatty acid metabolism) and cholesterol. The liver is involved in the regulation of glucose (sugar) levels in the blood. If this level rises, liver cells convert glucose into glycogen (a substance similar to starch) and store it. If the blood glucose falls below normal, glycogen is broken down and glucose enters the bloodstream. In addition, the liver is able to synthesize glucose from other substances, such as amino acids; this process is called gluconeogenesis. Another function of the liver is detoxification. Drugs and other potentially toxic compounds can be converted into a water-soluble form in the liver cells, which allows them to be excreted in the bile; they can also be destroyed or conjugated (combined) with other substances to form harmless products that are easily excreted from the body. Some substances are temporarily deposited in Kupffer cells (special cells that absorb foreign particles) or in other liver cells. Kupffer cells are particularly effective at removing and destroying bacteria and other foreign particles. Thanks to them, the liver plays an important role in the immune defense of the body. Possessing a dense network of blood vessels, the liver also serves as a blood reservoir (it constantly contains about 0.5 liters of blood) and is involved in the regulation of blood volume and blood flow in the body. In general, the liver performs more than 500 different functions, and its activity cannot yet be reproduced artificially. Removal of this organ inevitably leads to death within 1-5 days. However, the liver has a huge internal reserve, it has an amazing ability to recover from damage, so humans and other mammals can survive even after the removal of 70% of liver tissue.
Structure. The complex structure of the liver is perfectly adapted to its unique functions. Shares consist of small structural units - lobules. In the human liver, there are about one hundred thousand of them, each 1.5-2 mm long and 1-1.2 mm wide. The lobule consists of liver cells - hepatocytes, located around the central vein. Hepatocytes are combined into layers one cell thick - the so-called. liver plates. They diverge radially from the central vein, branch and connect with each other, forming a complex system of walls; narrow gaps between them, filled with blood, are known as sinusoids. Sinusoids are equivalent to capillaries; passing one into another, they form a continuous labyrinth. The hepatic lobules are supplied with blood from the branches of the portal vein and the hepatic artery, and the bile formed in the lobules enters the tubule system, from them into the bile ducts and is excreted from the liver.
The hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery provide the liver with an unusual, dual blood supply. Nutrient-rich blood from the capillaries of the stomach, intestines, and several other organs is collected in the portal vein, which, instead of carrying blood to the heart like most other veins, carries it to the liver. In the lobules of the liver, the portal vein breaks up into a network of capillaries (sinusoids). The term "portal vein" indicates an unusual direction of blood transport from the capillaries of one organ to the capillaries of another (the kidneys and pituitary gland have a similar circulatory system). The second blood supply to the liver, the hepatic artery, carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the outer surfaces of the lobules. The portal vein provides 75-80%, and the hepatic artery 20-25% of the total blood supply to the liver. In general, about 1500 ml of blood passes through the liver per minute, i.e. quarter of cardiac output. Blood from both sources ends up in the sinusoids, where it mixes and goes to the central vein. From the central vein begins the outflow of blood to the heart through the lobar veins into the hepatic (not to be confused with the portal vein of the liver). Bile is secreted by the liver cells into the smallest tubules between the cells - the bile capillaries. Through the internal system of tubules and ducts, it is collected in the bile duct. Some of the bile goes straight into the common bile duct and is drained into the small intestine, but most is returned through the cystic duct to the gallbladder, a small, muscular-walled sac attached to the liver, for storage. When food enters the intestine, the gallbladder contracts and ejects the contents into the common bile duct, which opens into the duodenum. The human liver produces about 600 ml of bile per day.
Portal triad and acinus. The branches of the portal vein, hepatic artery, and bile duct are located side by side, at the outer border of the lobule, and form the portal triad. There are several such portal triads on the periphery of each lobule. The functional unit of the liver is the acinus. This is the part of the tissue that surrounds the portal triad and includes the lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers, and adjacent sectors of two or more lobules. One acinus contains about 20 hepatic cells located between the portal triad and the central vein of each lobule. In a two-dimensional image, a simple acinus looks like a group of vessels surrounded by adjacent areas of lobules, and in a three-dimensional image it looks like a berry (acinus - lat. berry) hanging on a stalk of blood and bile vessels. The acinus, whose microvascular frame consists of the above blood and lymphatic vessels, sinusoids and nerves, is the microcirculatory unit of the liver. Liver cells (hepatocytes) have the shape of polyhedrons, but they have three main functional surfaces: sinusoidal, facing the sinusoidal channel; tubular - participating in the formation of the wall of the bile capillary (it does not have its own wall); and intercellular - directly bordering on neighboring liver cells.
Liver dysfunction. Since the liver has many functions, its functional disorders are extremely diverse. With liver diseases, the load on the organ increases and its structure can be damaged. The process of restoration of the liver tissue, including the regeneration of liver cells (the formation of regeneration nodes), is well understood. It was found, in particular, that in cirrhosis of the liver there is a perverted regeneration of the hepatic tissue with an incorrect arrangement of the vessels that form around the nodes of the cells; as a result, blood flow is disturbed in the organ, which leads to the progression of the disease. Jaundice, manifested by yellowness of the skin, sclera (white of the eyes; this is where the discoloration is usually most noticeable), and other tissues, is a common symptom in liver disease, reflecting the accumulation of bilirubin (a reddish-yellow bile pigment) in body tissues.
see also
HEPATITIS;
JAUNDICE;
GALLBLADER;
CIRRHOSIS.
Animal liver. If in humans the liver has 2 main lobes, then in other mammals these lobes can be divided into smaller ones, and there are species in which the liver consists of 6 and even 7 lobes. In snakes, the liver is represented by one elongated lobe. The fish liver is relatively large; in those fish that use liver oil to increase buoyancy, it is of great economic value due to the significant content of fats and vitamins. Many mammals, such as whales and horses, and many birds, such as pigeons, lack a gallbladder; however, it is found in all reptiles, amphibians, and most fish, with the exception of a few species of sharks.
LITERATURE
Green N., Stout W., Taylor D. Biology, v. 2. M., 1996 Human Physiology, ed. Schmidt R., Tevsa G., vol. 3. M., 1996
Collier Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .
Synonyms:See what "LIVER" is in other dictionaries:
Liver- (hepar) (Fig. 151, 158, 159, 165, 166) is the largest gland of the human body, its mass reaches 1.5 2 kg, and the size is 25 30 cm. It is located in the upper abdomen under the dome of the diaphragm, predominantly occupying... Atlas of human anatomy
LIVER- LIVER. Contents: I. Liver ashtomia .............. 526 II. Histology of the liver.............. 542 III. Normal physiology of the liver ...... 548 IV. Pathological physiology of the liver ..... 554 V. Pathological anatomy of the liver ..... 565 VI. ... ... Big Medical Encyclopedia
- (hepar), the digestive gland of some invertebrates and all vertebrates. Among invertebrates, there are horseshoe crabs, arachnids, crustaceans, mollusks, and a number of echinoderms (starfish and lilies). Represents a hollow outgrowth of the middle ... ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary
liver- - the most voluminous of the glands of the appendages of the digestive tract: indeed, its weight is 1500 grams. It is located on the highest tier of the right side of the abdominal cavity and goes into the epigastric region. Through the underside of the liver ... ... Universal additional practical explanatory dictionary by I. Mostitsky
Liver- a person. LIVER, a large gland in the abdominal cavity. Participates in the metabolism of proteins (synthesizes many blood proteins), lipids, carbohydrates (regulates blood sugar levels), in water and salt metabolism, in the synthesis of vitamins A and B12, in detoxification ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
PECHENKIN BAKE PECHENITSYN PECHENIN PECHENIKOV PECHINKIN LIVER PECHENKIN BURNED PECHENITSYN PECHENIN PECHENIKOV PECHINKIN From the name of the organ of the human body liver (E) More correctly from the nickname Liver, possibly a person similar to the liver of an animal ... Russian surnames
Large gland in animals and humans; participates in the processes of digestion, metabolism, blood circulation; ensures the constancy of the internal environment of the body. In vertebrates and humans, liver cells synthesize bile. Occurs in the liver... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
largest digestive gland
Internal organ of a human, animal
Large gland in animals and humans
When blood sugar levels rise, this organ of the human body converts excess glucose into glycogen.
In which human organ is vitamin A synthesized?
Which human organ synthesizes bile necessary for digestion?
Which human organ is responsible for neutralizing substances dangerous to us: poisons, toxins?
The cells of this particular organ are affected by jaundice
Organ suffering from cirrhosis
What organ is pâté made from?
What organ of Prometheus was constantly pecked out by an eagle?
largest human organ
What did the eagle peck at Prometheus?
Organ that produces bile
"colleague" of the spleen for blood purification
An organ diligently destroyed by a drunkard
Organ that purifies the blood
Alcohol destroys it
Paying for drinks
Intrauterine neighbor of the spleen
Large gland that produces bile
An internal organ of humans and animals, a large gland that produces bile
The largest iron
The skin, which averages about 20 percent of a person's weight, performs a variety of functions: it is involved in breathing, heat regulation, metabolism, the production of enzymes and mediators, cleansing the body of harmful toxins and excess water.
So, under normal conditions, 650 grams of water and about 10 grams of carbon dioxide are excreted through the skin per day; with increased sweating (for example, in febrile conditions), the amount of carbon dioxide and moisture released increases several times. Sometimes from 1 to 3.5 liters of sweat can be released per hour, which is equivalent to the release of 0 kilojoules of heat.
The skin also serves as a kind of blood depot. Under certain conditions, dilated skin vessels can hold more than a liter of blood. And if you consider that the volume of all circulating blood is 5 liters, this is a rather significant figure.
The skin is closely connected with all internal organs, connective tissue, pituitary gland, adrenal glands and other endocrine glands. It releases heat and various ions. Skin extracts can act as stimulants, vasoconstrictors, and antiseptics. Therefore, there is nothing surprising in the statement of the German scientist S. Schmitz, who called the skin "the largest endocrine gland."
The skin is the most complex human sensory system. It faces the outside world with a huge surface.
The skin resembles a military facility equipped with various types of locators!
Through special cellular formations called receptors, a person feels pain, cold, heat, touch, pressure and vibration. Researchers have found that there are 2 heat receptors, 12 cold receptors, 25 tactile receptors and 150 pain receptors per 1 square centimeter of skin.
To date, 10 functions of the skin have been discovered and studied, the combined action of which resembles a gigantic, continuously working factory, in countless workshops and laboratories of which chemical, electrical and metabolic processes take place, signal lamps go out and light up, informing the body of the slightest changes in the external and internal environment.
The largest gland in the human body
The liver is the largest gland in the body (its weight usually reaches g). The liver is located in the right hypochondrium and is divided by furrows (fossae) into four lobes: the right (right) - the largest, left (left), square (quadrate) and caudate (caudate lobes). The liver is connected to the diaphragm and the walls of the abdominal cavity with the help of five ligaments: a duplication of the peritoneum falciform ligament (falciform) - separates the right and left lobes of the liver, a fibrous round ligament (round ligament), which develops from the embryonic umbilical vein, right (right) and left ( left) triangular ligaments (triangular ligaments are the divergent edges of the coronary ligament, which is a duplication of the peritoneum that runs from the walls of the abdominal cavity to the posterior edge of the liver - ed.
The meaning of the word Liver according to Ephraim:
The liver is the largest gland in animals and humans that produces bile.
The meaning of the word Liver according to Ozhegov:
Liver - A large gland in animals and humans that produces bile, which is involved in the processes of digestion, blood circulation, and metabolism
Liver according to the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
The liver is a large gland in animals and humans, it is involved in the processes of digestion, metabolism, blood circulation, and ensures the constancy of the internal environment of the body. In vertebrates and humans, liver cells synthesize bile. The liver synthesizes and breaks down proteins, lipids, carbohydrates (regulates blood sugar levels), vitamins (forms and accumulates vitamin A) and other substances. From the "exchange fund" of the liver, the body receives many necessary substances, 1/7 of all its energy is released in it. It flows through the liver in 1 minute. 1.5 liters of blood, up to 20% of the volume of the entire circulating blood can be in the vessels of the liver.
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The largest human gland
The human body is amazing. In it there is such a considerable number of various complex processes that, in their totality, allow the individual to exist - to have what they used to call "full life".
The main task of providing it lies with the large organs in the body, including the glands. They produce hormones that are responsible for many processes, without which the most significant - in physiological and psychological terms - for any individual, events (for example, digestion or childbirth) will simply become impossible.
At the same time, for non-physicians, their own body remains for the most part a mystery. So, not everyone will be able to say with accuracy what the largest human gland is. Meanwhile, without the compounds produced by it, the assimilation of many elements from food would not occur, the blood would not be purified, the disposal of toxic substances would not occur to the proper degree, etc.
The above statements refer to the liver. It is she who is considered not only the largest of the glands present in humans, but also the most “hot” organ. The constant temperature in it is about forty-two degrees. This is not surprising, because it is known as a real "industrial enterprise" of the body. It constantly boils the production of lipids, bile, bilirubin, replenishment of a number of vitamins and other nutrients, as well as hormones and enzymes, with the participation of which food is broken down in the duodenum into its constituent parts.
In general, the list of those chemical compounds, in the production of which the above-mentioned largest human gland is somehow involved, would be very extensive. However, this organ of considerable size is involved (in an adult it weighs about one and a half to two kilograms) and in many other processes that constantly occur in the body of every inhabitant of the planet.
Thus, foreign and unsafe substances for humans (including poisons, allergens, etc.) are neutralized in the liver. Here they are transformed into more harmless compounds, which are then removed naturally. Also, with the help of this organ, an excess of various hormones, vitamins, mediators and intermediate harmful metabolic products (for example, ethanol, ammonia, acetone, and others) is removed.
However, a lot of people have an idea about these functions of the liver. However, not everyone realizes that it also serves as a kind of "blood depository". A rather large volume of this life-giving fluid is stored here. It is thrown into the vascular bed in case of injuries and other situations in which there is a decent blood loss.
With all those countless tasks (and not all of them are listed just above) that the liver has to cope with, it is certainly very vulnerable to additional obstacles in their implementation, erected by the person himself. Is it worth mentioning in this connection the repeated “libations” that many people on the planet are fond of, as well as other unsafe habits (for example, smoking) that supply the body with such decent volumes of toxins that the body’s main filter is not always able to cope with.
In addition, many people are very illegible in terms of diet, and in this regard, the liver encounters an excessive amount of fats and other difficult-to-digest compounds. This greatly affects the functionality of the liver in a negative way. However, she has the ability to regenerate, but sometimes this does not help much.
Those who seek to join the ranks of centenarians who live out their century in perfect health should also take care of the liver. The recipe for this is simple - follow the diet and not overload the largest gland with harmful compounds.
The largest iron is not iron
How to help the liver to easily carry the burden of our carelessness?
We must help the liver to easily bear the burden of our carelessness. How?
There are many fruits and medicinal plants that contain active plant components that help a person protect the liver from diseases. Rose hips, mint, oregano, St. John's wort, chamomile, immortelle, corn stigmas, celandine, calendula, birch buds, milk thistle, oats, many vitamin preparations have such properties ...
Celandine. In folk medicine, a decoction of celandine herbs with flowers and roots in small doses is used for cholelithiasis, jaundice and other liver diseases.
It is known to increase bile secretion.
Calendula promotes the secretion of bile. In folk medicine, it is often used as a choleretic agent for liver diseases.
In pharmacies today there are many “targeted” herbal preparations that promote the release of bile, cleanse the bile ducts, and remove small pebbles. Medicinal plants are good because they are close in structure to the components of the human body. They act gently and are absolutely harmless, since the person himself, albeit unique, is a biosystem. Today, official medicine no longer denies the therapeutic effect of natural biologically active compounds. Moreover, it emphasizes not only their advantages, but often their advantages. The active substances of plants are not only able to cleanse the liver of toxins, and therefore protect its cells from destruction, but also help restore already damaged liver cells.
Based on practical experience, I can say that natural remedies are good in the treatment of chronic liver diseases. As you know, the percentage of viral pathologies of the liver (hepatitis, cirrhosis, jaundice) is now growing. And in case of a high load on this organ, the herbs will act as hepatoprotectors (literally, protectors of the liver).
Without much difficulty, you can help your liver through sparing nutrition.
In this sense, according to experts, boiled meat and fish, dairy products, oatmeal are good. And even more so - decoctions of natural oats. The same as horses are fed. Well remove toxins, save the liver from medicinal "violence" cranberries, lemon drinks. After all, all the nutrients absorbed into the blood from the digestive tract pass through the liver and are processed in it. At the same time, part of the fats is converted into carbohydrates, so the liver, figuratively speaking, is the largest depot of glycogen in the body. It also synthesizes blood plasma proteins.
Diet will help normalize the impaired function of the liver and biliary tract
Egg - protein omelette (without yolk) no more than 2 times a week.
Bread and bakery products - gray, coarse bread. The cookies are not good.
Milk and dairy products: fat-free cottage cheese, one-day yogurt, low-fat kefir.
Fats: butter, sunflower oil in ready meals.
Meat and fish dishes: lean meats, boiled chicken. Low-fat fish (cod, navaga, pike) - boiled.
Soups - on vegetable broth or milk (with water). Cereals - buckwheat, oatmeal, pasta. Fruit soups.
Fruits, berries, sweets - ripe varieties of fruits and berries in raw and boiled form, lemon with sugar, watermelons, soy chocolate, sugar.
Drinks, juices - rosehip decoction, various juices (with water), tea with milk, tea with lemon, dried fruit compotes.
Vegetables and greens - cabbage, potatoes, carrots, raw and boiled beets, onions are added after boiling.
Undesirable: mushrooms, beans, peas, peppers, sorrel, spinach, fried foods, egg yolks, canned food, alcohol, beer, carbonated water.
This diet is good because it is balanced: contains a normal amount of protein and limits fats (especially lamb, goose, internal fat). Reduced set of products that promote fermentation. Increased the amount of vegetables, fruits.
It is better to eat 4-5 times a day.
Don't climb the wall
Paradoxically, even the behavior and character of a person depend on the state of the liver. Unconscious anxiety, irritability, sleep disturbances can also be signs of an overload of the liver system. Losing your temper is a typical manifestation of an irritated liver. Even the ancients noticed this: harmful and vindictive choleric people were called bilious; closed, sad and sickly melancholic - people with black bile. And in our time, a lot of well-aimed expressions are walking among the people, tracing the connection between the liver, health and character of a person: a bilious person sits in the liver.
So if you help your protector - the liver, it will help you enjoy life more often.
In folk medicine, celandine is used as a remedy that retards the growth of certain malignant tumors. But we must remember that celandine is a poisonous plant, so it must be used inside with extreme caution. When poisoned, it can cause nausea, vomiting, and even death.
The largest human gland
The liver, hepar, is the largest gland in the human body, which has a complex structure and multifaceted functions (secretion of digestive juice, barrier, protective, participation in hematopoiesis, metabolism and water metabolism). The liver is an organ of irregular shape, refers to the parenchymal. Its weight is on average 1.5-2 kg in an adult, and in a newborn. By the end of the 2nd year of life, the weight doubles, by the age of 9 it becomes 6 times more, and by the age it is much more than the original. There are two surfaces: the upper - diaphragmatic, fades diaphragmatica, and the lower - visceral, fades visceralis, which are separated from each other by the lower edge, mar go inferior. The diaphragmatic convex surface is divided lig. falciforme hepatis into two unequal sections: left and right. Since the diaphragmatic surface forms an angle approaching a right angle from the bottom, 4 parts are distinguished on it: the upper, pars superior, the anterior, pars anterior, the posterior, pars posterior, and the right, pars dextra. These parts are facing up, anteriorly, backwards and to the right, respectively. On the left, due to the convergence of the upper and lower surfaces at an acute angle, a special surface is not distinguished.
The internal surface of the liver is more or less even, but contains several flat pits - impressions from adjacent organs (from right to left): renal - impressio renalis, adrenal, impressio suprarenalis, colon, impressio colica, duodenum, impressio duodenalis, pylorus, impressio pylorica, gastric, impressio gastrica. In addition, on the lower internal surface of the liver there are three deep grooves that divide the liver into 4 lobes, two grooves are oriented longitudinally - sulci longitudinales dexter et sinister, and one - the liver gate, porta hepatis - transversely (Fig. 118).
Rice. 118. Gate of the liver. 1 - venous ligament; 2 - left hepatic vein; 3, 5 - inferior vena cava; 4 - caudate lobe; 6 - portal vein; 7 - own hepatic artery; 8 - common hepatic duct; 9 - common bile duct; 10 - cystic duct; 11 - cystic artery; 12 - gallbladder; 13 - the bottom of the gallbladder; 14 - square share; 15 - round ligament of the liver; 16 - crescent ligament; 17 - left lobe of the liver; 18 - left branch of own hepatic artery
The anterior section of the right longitudinal sulcus, which is called the fossa of the gallbladder, fossa vesicae felleae, contains the gallbladder, the posterior section of the same sulcus is the groove of the vena cava, sulcus venae cavae, the inferior vena cava. In the left longitudinal groove are: in front - a round ligament of the liver, lig. teres hepatis containing obliterated v. umbilicalis, as a result of which the anterior part of the groove is called the fissure of the round ligament, fissura lig. teretis; behind - fibrous cord - the remainder of the overgrown venous duct, lig. venosum, why this part is called the gap of the venous ligament, fissura lig. venosi. The transverse recess - the gate of the liver, porta hepatis, connects the ends of the fossae vesicae felleae and fissurae lig. teretis and contains vessels, nerves of the liver and bile ducts.
To the left of the left longitudinal groove is the left lobe of the liver, lobus hepatis sinister, to the right of the right longitudinal groove is the right lobe, lobus hepatis dexter, between the fossa of the bile duct, the fissure of the round ligament and the gate of the liver is the square lobe, lobus quadratus hepatis, and between the groove " vena cava, a slit of the venous ligament and the gates of the liver - the caudate lobe, lobus caudatus hepatis, which anteriorly gives off two processes: the right - the caudate, processus caudatus (separates the groove of the vena cava from the fossa of the gallbladder and the gates of the liver), and the left - the papillary process, processus papillaris.
In children of the first year of life, the liver is relatively large and has a significant development of the left lobe, reaching 1/3 of the entire mass of the liver. As a result, its visceral surface has a different arrangement of depressions than in adults.
Topography of the liver. The liver is located in the upper abdomen on the right, directly below the diaphragm. The upper border of the liver in front runs arcuately along the right middle axillary line - at the level of the right X intercostal space, along the right mid-clavicular and parasternal - at the level of the cartilage of the XI rib, along the anterior median - at the base of the xiphoid process, along the left parasternal - at the site of attachment of VI costal cartilage. The lower border of the liver in front normally goes along the intercostal arch to the junction of the IX and VIII ribs and then along the transverse line through the epigastrium to the junction of the cartilages of the VIII and VII of the left ribs. The anterior midline of the body is crossed by the border of the liver in the middle of the distance from the top of the xiphoid process to the navel. Behind the upper border of the liver corresponds to the lower edge of the body of the IX thoracic vertebra, along the linea paravertebralis - the X intercostal space, along the linea axillaris posterior - the VII intercostal space. The lower border at the back is determined along the posterior midline at the level of the middle of the body of the XI thoracic vertebra, along the linea paravertebralis - at the level of the XII rib, along the linea axillaris posterior - at the level of the proximal edge of the XI rib.
In newborns and children of the first year of life, the lower edge of the liver lies lower than in adults. In old people, the liver is determined one rib lower than in young people. In women, the liver is located slightly lower than in men.
From above, the liver is adjacent to the diaphragm, which separates its upper surface from the heart and pericardium. From below, the liver is in contact with the right flexure of the colon, the right kidney and adrenal gland, the inferior vena cava, the upper part of the duodenum, the stomach, gallbladder, and the transverse colon.
The structure of the liver. The basis of the liver is made up of hepatic lobules, 1o-buli hepatis, having the form of high prisms, which are composed of liver cells. Between the rows of liver cells are circulatory capillary networks and networks of bile ducts, ductuli biliferi. The capillaries of the peripheral layer of the lobule are branches of the v branches. portae and a. hepatica; capillaries of the central layer form the central vein, v. centralis, carrying blood to vv. hepaticae. The lobules are 1-1.5 mm in diameter and 1.5-2 mm high. In the human liver, a lobule. They are separated from one another by a connective tissue layer - interlobular connective tissue, which is poorly developed in humans.
Interlobular veins pass between the lobules, vv. interlobulares (branches of the portal vein), interlobular arteries, aa. interlobular es (branches of the hepatic artery), as well as interlobular bile ducts, into which the bile ducts flow. From the confluence of the interlobular bile ducts, larger ones are formed that flow into the left and right hepatic ducts, ductus hepatici sinister et dexter, as well as into the ducts of the caudate lobe. Due to the connection of the listed ducts, the common hepatic duct, ductus hepaticus communis, is formed. Outside, the entire mass of the liver is covered with a thin fibrous membrane, tunica fibrosa, which connects with the interlobular connective tissue and forms the connective tissue frame of the liver, in which the hepatic lobules lie. In addition, almost the entire surface of the liver (with the exception of the posterior part of the diaphragmatic surface) is covered with peritoneum, which, passing to neighboring organs, forms a number of ligaments: 1) sickle-shaped, lig. falciforme hepatis, running from the upper surface of the liver to the anterior abdominal wall; 2) coronal, lig. coronarium hepatis, transversely located on the upper surface of the liver as a result of the transition of the peritoneum from the liver to the diaphragm; 3) right and left triangular - ligg. triangulares dextrum et sinistrum, - the final sections of the coronary ligament, having two leaves each; 4) hepatoduodenal, lig. hepatoduodenal, between the hilum of the liver and the upper part of the duodenum; 5) hepato-renal, lig. hepatorenale, - the transition of the peritoneum from the liver to the kidney; 6) hepatogastric (see the Stomach section of this publication). Ligaments of the liver make up its fixing apparatus.
Gallbladder and bile ducts. The gallbladder, vesica felleae, is a pear-shaped receptacle for bile, lies in its own groove on the lower surface of the liver. In some cases, this furrow is very deep, so that the bladder occupies an almost intrahepatic position. Its anterior end, slightly protruding beyond the lower edge of the liver, is called the bottom, fundus, the posterior, narrowed end forms the neck, collum vesicae felleae, and the area between the bottom and the neck is the bladder body, corpus vesicae felleae. From the neck of the bladder begins the cystic duct, ductus cysticus, 3-4 cm long, which connects to the common hepatic duct, ductus hepaticus communis, resulting in the formation of the common bile duct, ductus choledochus. The latter goes to lig. hepatoduodenal and opens in the descending part of the duodenum on papilla duodeni major with a hepato-pancreatic ampulla, ampulla hepatopancreatica. At the place where it flows into the intestine, the wall of the common bile duct contains a muscle - a constrictor of the hepatic-pancreatic ampulla, m. sphincter ampullae.
X-ray anatomy of the liver and biliary tract. An x-ray examination of the liver is determined in the form of a shadow formation according to its position. In modern conditions, it is possible to inject a contrast agent into the liver and obtain an X-ray picture of the biliary tract (cholangiography) or remove intrahepatic branches of the portal vein (portogram).
Vessels of the liver. Blood is brought to the liver through the portal vein and the hepatic artery, branching in the parenchyma into a capillary bed (the "wonderful network"), from which veins are formed that form the hepatic veins. In this case, the branches of the portal vein and the hepatic artery in the liver are accompanied by hepatic ducts. Based on the features of the branching of the vessels of the portal vein, the hepatic artery and the course of the hepatic ducts in the liver, from 7 to 12 segments can be distinguished. More often there are 8 segments. In the right half of the liver, 5 segments are distinguished (anterior-inferior, anterior-upper, posterior-inferior, posterior-upper and right), and in the left - 3 segments (posterior, anterior and left).
The outflow of lymph occurs through the deep and superficial lymphatic vessels to the hepatic and celiac lymph nodes.
The liver is innervated by the hepatic nerve plexus.
Pancreas
The pancreas, pancreas, is an elongated parenchymal organ lying transversely behind the stomach. The total length of the gland is cm in adults, cm in newborns, cm in children 3 years old. In the gland, the right thickened end is distinguished - the head, caput pancreatis, the middle section - the body, corpus pancreatis, and the left tapering end - the tail, cauda pancreatis (see Fig. 115).
The head is thickened in the anterior-posterior direction, has an uncinate process, processus uncinatus, located in front and below, and a notch, incisura pancreatis, on the border with the body. The body has the shape of a trihedral prism. Three surfaces are distinguished in it: anterior, fades anterior, posterior, fades posterior, lower, fades inferior, and three edges: upper, margo superior, anterior, margo anterior, and lower, margo inferior. On the anterior surface of the body, near the head, there is an omental tubercle, tuber omentale, protruding into the omental sac. In children, the head is relatively large, the omental tubercle and notch are weakly expressed.
The excretory duct, ductus pancreaticus, is formed from small ducts, approaches the left wall of the descending part of the duodenum and flows into it, usually together with the common bile duct. Very often there is an additional pancreatic duct.
Topography of the gland. The pancreas is located retroperitoneally in the upper abdomen. Projected in the umbilical region and left hypochondrium. The head is at the level of the right surface of the I-III lumbar vertebrae, the body is at the level of the I lumbar, the tail is at the level of the XI-XII thoracic vertebrae. Behind the gland are the portal vein and the diaphragm, from below in the incisura pancreatis lie the superior mesenteric vessels, which enter here into the mesentery of the small intestine. Along the upper edge are the splenic vessels and pancreatic-splenic lymph nodes. The head is surrounded by the duodenum.
The structure of the gland. The pancreas is a complex alveolar-tubular gland. It secretes the exocrine part, which takes part in the production of intestinal juice, and the endocrine part, which secretes the hormone insulin, which regulates carbohydrate metabolism. The exocrine part, which is large, consists of acini and ducts, and the intrasecretory part consists of special islet cells collected in very small islets.
The blood supply to the pancreas is carried out by the branches of aa. pancreaticoduodenales superiores (from a. gastroduodenalis) et inferiores (from a. mesenterica superior), as well as branches of a. lienalis. Veins of the same name carry blood in v. portae.
The outflow of lymph occurs in the pancreas-splenic lymph nodes.
Innervation is carried out by plexus lienalis and plexus mesentericus superior.
Abdomen and peritoneum
Many internal organs are located in the abdominal cavity, cavum abdominis, - an internal space bounded in front and from the sides by the anterior abdominal wall, behind - by the posterior abdominal wall (spine and surrounding muscles), above - by the diaphragm and below - by a conditional plane drawn through the boundary line pelvis. The abdominal cavity is lined from the inside with intra-abdominal fascia, fascia endoabdominalis. The peritoneum also covers with its parietal sheet the inner surfaces of the abdominal cavity: anterior, lateral, posterior and upper. As a result, the parietal sheet of the peritoneum forms a peritoneal sac, which in men is closed, and in women it communicates with the external environment through the abdominal opening of the fallopian tube (Fig. 119).
Rice. 119. The ratio of the peritoneum to the organs of the abdominal cavity (diagram). 1 - trachea; 2 - esophagus; 3 - right pulmonary artery; 4 - pericardial cavity; 5 - pericardium; 6 - posterior mediastinum; 7 - diaphragm; 8 - upper pocket of stuffing bag; 9 - caudate lobe of the liver; 10 - pancreas; 11 - retroperitoneal space; 12 - a large omentum (rear sheets); 23 - duodenum; 14 - peritoneal cavity; 15 - root of the mesentery of the small intestine; 16 - retroperitoneal space; 17 - cape; 18 - sigmoid colon; 19 - rectum; 20 - rectovesical deepening; 21 - anus; 22 - testicle; 23 - vaginal membrane of the testicle; 24 - penis; 25 - prostate gland and seminal vesicle; 26 - symphysis; 27 - prevesical space; 28 - bladder; 29 - small intestine; 30 - a large omentum (rear sheets); 31 - a large omentum (front sheets); 32 - parietal sheet of the peritoneum; 33 - transverse colon; 34, 36 - stuffing bag; 35 - stomach; 37 - small gland; 38 - liver; 39 - pericardium; 40 - pericardial cavity; 41 - sternum; 42 - anterior mediastinum; 43 - thymus gland; 44 - left brachiocephalic vein
Between the peritoneum parietale and fascia endoabdominalis there is a layer of fiber, which is differently expressed in different departments. In front - in the preperitoneal space, spatium praeperitoneale, the cellular layer is small. It is especially strongly developed behind, where the organs lying retroperitoneally are located, and where the retroperitoneal space, spatium retroperitoneale, is formed (see the Retroperitoneal space section of this edition).
In the retroperitoneal space are: most of the duodenum, pancreas, adrenal glands, kidneys and ureters, posterior surfaces of the ascending and descending colon, large vessels (aorta and its branches, inferior vena cava with its tributaries, portal vein), lymph nodes, thoracic lymphatic duct, large nerve plexuses, sympathetic nerves. In the peritoneal sac lie: stomach, liver, spleen, jejunum and ileum, transverse and sigmoid colon, anterior and lateral surfaces of the ascending and descending colon.
The parietal peritoneum, peritoneum parietale, passes into the visceral, peritoneum, viscerate, which covers many internal organs located in the cavum peritonei. Between the parietal and visceral sheets of the peritoneum there is a slit-like space - the peritoneal cavity, cavum peritonei. When the splanchnic peritoneum passes from one organ to another or from the splanchnic to the parietal (or vice versa), mesentery, omentums, ligaments and folds are formed, as well as a number of more or less isolated spaces: bags, depressions, furrows, pits and sinuses.
As follows from the private anatomy of the organs located in the abdominal cavity, they can have a different relationship to the peritoneal sac: 1) be covered with peritoneum from all sides and lie intraperitoneally - intraperitoneally; 2) protrude with its three walls into the peritoneal cavity - mesoperitoneally; 3), be covered with peritoneum on one side only and lie behind the peritoneal sac - extraperitoneally.
As noted above (p. 201), in the early stages of development, the alimentary canal had two mesentery throughout its entire length: dorsal and ventral. The latter almost everywhere, with the exception of a small terminal section of the foregut, has undergone reverse development. The dorsal mesentery, as a formation that fixes a number of organs to the posterior abdominal wall, has been preserved for a greater extent. A person after birth has the following mesentery: 1) jejunum and ileum, mesenterium; 2) transverse colon, mesocolon transversum; 3) sigmoid colon, mesocolon sigmoideum; 4) appendix, mesoappendix. The places of attachment of the mesentery on the posterior abdominal wall are indicated in the description of the mentioned organs.
The transverse colon and its mesentery divide the peritoneal cavity into two floors: upper and lower. The upper floor houses the liver, stomach, spleen, and the lower floor houses the jejunum and ileum, ascending and descending colon and caecum. Within the upper floor, the peritoneal sac and the organs lying in it form three more or less isolated spaces - bags, bursae: 1) hepatic, bursa hepatica, 2) pregastric, bursa praegastrica and 3) omental, bursa omentalis.
The hepatic bursa lies below the diaphragm in front of the liver and is separated from the adjacent pregastric bursa by the falciform ligament of the liver.
The pancreatic sac lies below the diaphragm in front of the stomach and spleen. The deepest part of the bag is the perisplenic space.
The stuffing bag is located behind the stomach. Its anterior wall is the lesser omentum, the posterior wall of the stomach, and the lig. gastrocolicum, posterior - parietal peritoneum, upper - caudate lobe of the liver, lower - mesocolon transversum and colon transversum. On the right, the stuffing bag communicates with the common cavity of the peritoneal sac through the stuffing hole, foramen epiploicum, limited by lig. hepatoduodenale in front, lig. hepatorenale behind, lig. duodenorenale from below and the caudate lobe of the liver from above. In the omental bag, the vestibule, upper, lower and splenic recesses are distinguished.
In the upper floor of the peritoneal cavity, the ventral mesentery of the stomach is transformed into ligaments: lig. hepatogastricum and lig. hepatoduodenale, which go between the liver and stomach, liver and duodenum and together make up the lesser omentum, omentum minus, and also lig. coronarium hepatis, lig. triangulares hepatis and lig. falciforme hepatis. The dorsal mesentery of the stomach in the process of its rotation is transformed into a greater omentum, omentum majus, and its cavity.
The visceral peritoneum descends from the anterior and posterior surfaces of the stomach along its greater curvature, forming the anterior wall of the cavity of the greater omentum. Below the transverse colon, the indicated anterior wall passes into the posterior wall of the cavity of the greater omentum and ascends to the posterior abdominal wall, where it passes into the parietal peritoneum. The cavity of the greater omentum is slit-like and communicates with the cavity of the stuffing bag. Often, all four leaves of the greater omentum grow together and the cavity disappears.
The visceral peritoneum from the spleen passes to the diaphragm and in this place the diaphragmatic-splenic ligament, lig. phrenicolienale, as well as on the stomach - lig. gastrolienal. In addition, the peritoneum connects the left flexure of the colon with the diaphragm, forming the diaphragmatic-colonic ligament, lig. phrenicocolicum.
In the lower floor of the peritoneal cavity, the left and right mesenteric sinuses, sinus mesentericus dexter et sinister, as well as the left and right, paracolonic sulci, sulci paracolici sinister et dexter, are isolated. Both mesenteric sinuses lie between the ascending and descending colon on the sides and the mesocolon transversum on top. The left and right sinuses are separated from one another by the root of the mesentery of the small intestine. From below, the mesenteric sinuses communicate with the small pelvis.
The paracolonic sulci are located between the parietal peritoneum of the anterior-lateral abdominal wall and the ascending (right) or descending (left) colon. The right paracolic sulcus communicates superiorly with the hepatic sac.
Within the lower floor of the peritoneal cavity, the peritoneum forms folds and pits. On the posterior surface of the anterior abdominal wall from the navel downwards (to the bladder), 5 umbilical folds extend: median, plica umbilicalis mediana; medial, plicae umbilicales mediates, and lateral, plicae umbilicales laterales. In the median umbilical fold there is an overgrown urinary duct, urachus, in the medial - overgrown umbilical arteries, and in the lateral - aa. epigastricae inferiores. On both sides of the median umbilical fold there are small supravesical fossae, fossae supravesicales, between the medial and lateral folds on each side are the medial inguinal fossae, fossae inguinales mediates, and outside of the lateral folds are the lateral inguinal fossae, fossae inguinales laterales. The medial inguinal fossa corresponds to the position of the superficial inguinal ring, and the lateral to the deep inguinal ring.
From the flexura duodenojejunalis, a small duodeno-ileo-intestinal fold extends downward, plica duodenojejunalis is an important landmark in abdominal surgery. Small indentations of the posterior abdominal wall are present in the caecum - retrocaecal, recessus retrocaecalis, upper and lower ileocecal indentations, recessus ileocaecales superior et inferior.
