The most common entrance exams:

• Russian language
• Mathematics (basic level)
• Geography is a specialized subject, at the choice of the university

Training lasts 4-5 years depending on the form of training: full-time (full-time) - 4 years; correspondence, distance learning, evening, etc. - 5 years.

The specialty “Geology” will be of interest to those applicants who are interested not just in geography, but in tectonic structures, the structure and origin of the Earth and the lithosphere, groundwater, soils, minerals and their deposits, crystals, minerals and rocks. Students gain extensive knowledge specifically in the field of the Earth and the processes of its evolution, without focusing too much on other sections of geography.

Briefly about the specialty

Groups of future geologists are divided into several subgroups depending on their profiles:

1. Geophysicists and geochemists (geochemical and geophysical directions);
2. Hydrogeologists (geological, hydrogeological, engineering-geological, ecological-geological directions);
3. General geologists.

When applying, it is better to ask the admissions committee about your future specialization. However, in most “classical” universities only general geology is taught. Then students equally deeply study the structure, material composition and origin of the Earth and the lithosphere, large tectonic structures, crystals, minerals and rocks, mineral deposits, groundwater, soils, geochemical and geophysical fields.

The training covers a variety of sciences related to geology: history of geology, geomorphology, lithology, mineral and sedimentary sciences, volcanology, geostatistics, glaciology. Moreover, graduates will have a good understanding of global warming and ocean currents.

Disciplines studied

First of all, you should pay attention to the disciplines that all students study, regardless of their specialty. These include: Russian language, history, political science, foreign language, philosophy, sociology, cultural studies, religious studies, ecology, psychology and pedagogy, ethics and aesthetics, life safety, logic, etc.

As specialized subjects you will study:

• General, historical, engineering, environmental sections of geology;
• Geodynamics;
• Geophysics and geochemistry;
• General and optical mineralogy;
• Crystallography;
• Lithology;
• Basics of paleontology;
• Structural geology and geomapping;
• Economics of Mineral Resources;
• Hydrology;
• Petrography;
• Geology of Russia with the basics of geotectonics;
• Isotope geology;
• Geology of solid and combustible minerals and others.

Acquired skills

By receiving your diploma, you will already have the following skills:

• Carrying out geological surveys;
• Participation in geological research of seas and oceans;
• Conducting regional geological research;
• Teaching in educational institutions;
• Use of field and laboratory geological, geochemical, geophysical instruments, installations and other equipment;
• Groundwater resource and quality assessments;
• Conducting lithological studies of sedimentary deposits;
• Research and use of the results of this research in the field of formation processes of seasonally frozen and permafrost waters;
• Paleontological study of fossil organic remains;
• Conducting research during the construction of engineering structures in a wide variety of conditions;
• Stratigraphy studies;
• Studies of the structure, chemical composition and properties of minerals and crystals;
• Study and search for mineral deposits;
• Studying the tectonic structure of areas;
• Search and exploration of important types of energy raw materials (oil, gas, coal);
• Study of natural and artificially created physical fields of the Earth, etc.

Future profession

First of all, you should pay attention to an important factor for many applicants - salary. It ranges from 20 to 50 thousand rubles per month and depends on the development customer. A government agency can order the work of a geologist (in this case, you need to expect a lower fee) or a private company (it makes sense to ask for a salary increase).

Do not also forget that there is always a chance of being invited to work under a contract abroad. The salaries and working conditions are much better there. Additionally, note that the oil industry is increasingly in need of highly skilled geoscientists. To a greater extent, geologists are required to assess prospects when drilling wells in different areas. And as you know, employees of companies engaged in oil production receive decent salaries.

A bachelor's degree in geology can also work in other areas: in the fields of museums, environmental protection.

Where to work?

So, in addition to schools and colleges, you will also be able to work in:

• Institutions of the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Russian Federation;
• Government organizations;
• Companies involved in prospecting, exploration and production of mineral raw materials;
• Consulting companies;
• Organizations of the Ministry of Energy;
• Companies of the State Construction Committee of the Russian Federation;
• Educational and non-profit companies;
• Institutes of the Academy of Sciences and Research Institutes of Geological Profile, etc.

Who to work with?

A bachelor's degree and the skills acquired with it are sufficient to work as a laboratory assistant, junior researcher or technician. However, despite the apparent “low prestige” of such professions, they will be a good start for subsequent work:

• Ecologist;
• Geocryologist;
• Engineer;
• Geochemist;
• Geologist;
• Topographer;
• Head of the party;
• Paleontologist;
• Geophysicist;
• Surveyor;
• Hydrogeologist and hydroecologist;
• Petrologist;
• Team leader, etc.

"Geology" - specialty of higher education, qualification - academic bachelor (03/05/01). Overview of the specialty: exams, terms of study, subjects studied, future profession: where and who to work with, reviews and suitable universities.

First semester

1. Basic information about the Universe: Big Bang theory, expansion, relict radiation, methods for studying the Universe. Visible and invisible matter in the Universe.

2. Giant clusters of stars - galaxies: sizes, morphology. Milky Way. Stars: their classification by luminosity, the relationship between luminosity and mass of stars. Neutron stars and black holes. Evolution of stars over time.

3. Characteristics of the Sun as a class G star: energy sources, shell structure, solar activity, solar wind.

4. Basic data on the composition, structure, size and satellites of the planets of the inner (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) and outer (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto) groups.

5.Asteroid belt. Meteorites, their composition and significance for geology. Comets. Hypotheses of the origin of the solar system. A brief overview of catastrophic hypotheses. Evolutionary hypotheses of Kant-Laplace, Schmidt, Fesenkov. Two reservoir hypothesis. Concepts of heterogeneous and homogeneous accretion of the Earth.

6.Magnetic field: Earth’s magnetosphere, magnetic declination and inclination. Migration of magnetic poles and their inversion. Regional and local magnetic anomalies. The nature of the Earth's magnetic field.

7. Earth’s gravitational field, its inhomogeneities: local and regional anomalies. The concept of isostosy.

8. Thermal field of the Earth: ideas about the sources of energy of the Earth, geothermal gradient and step. Zone of constant temperatures. Use of the Earth's thermal energy by humans.

9. Earth's atmosphere: gas composition, density and temperature heterogeneity. The ozone layer and its importance for life on Earth. Radiation belts in the atmosphere.

10. Hydrosphere: above-ground and underground components. Forms of water: liquid, solid and gaseous and their volumetric relationships with each other. Biosphere. The noosphere is a shell of the active manifestation of human activity.

11. Shape and size of the Earth. Features of the structure of its surface. The concept of geoid. Mass and density of the Earth. Basic information about the earth's crust, mantle and core. Composition and structure of the earth's crust. Chemical composition of the earth's crust.

12. The concept of minerals. Classifications of minerals. The most important rock-forming minerals. The main rocks and their division according to the conditions of formation: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Minerals and rocks as minerals.

13. Types of the earth's crust: continental, oceanic and transitional. Asthenosphere, lithosphere, tectonosphere. Ideas about the aggregate state of masses inside the Earth and the expected chemical composition of the geospheres.

14. Objective difficulties in studying the Earth: complexity of structure, enormous size, duration of geological processes. Methods used in studying the Earth (direct observations (geological mapping), comparative historical, actualistic, geophysical, chemical, remote sensing, etc.).

15. Sciences of the geological cycle: crystallography, mineralogy, petrography, lithology, structural geology, geotectonics, petrology, volcanology, sedimentology, geodynamics, seismology, mineral geology, hydrogeology, engineering geology, etc.

16. Sciences related to geology that study the Earth using their own methods: geophysics, geochemistry, paleontology.

17. Methods for determining the relative age of rocks. Paleontological method, as the main one for determining the relative age of sedimentary and volcanogenic-sedimentary rocks. Geochronological scale: major stratigraphic and geochronological units.

18. Determination of the isotopic age of geological formations. The most important isotope-radiometric methods: uranium-thorium-lead, potassium-argon, rubidium-strontium, samarium-neodymium, radiocarbon. Age of the Earth and crustal rocks.

19. Determination of the process of volcanism. Products of volcanic activity: liquid, solid and gaseous. Terrestrial and underwater eruptions. Types of volcanoes according to the nature of the volcanic structure: central type (stratovolcanoes, cinder cones, shields), fissure type.

20. The structure of volcanic apparatuses of the central type: cone, vent, crater, bokki, somma, caldera, barancos. Types of volcanoes according to the nature of eruptions (effusive, explosive, intermediate type). Post-volcanic activity. Formation of fumaroles, solfatars, mofet, geysers, thermal springs.

21. Patterns of distribution of active and extinct volcanoes on the Earth’s surface. Main varieties of volcanic rocks (according to silicon-acidity). Minerals associated with volcanoes.

22. The concept of intrusive magmatism. Ideas about the origin of magmas and the levels of their generation. The main types of intrusive rocks and their differences from volcanic rocks. Processes inside magma chambers: segregation, gravitational-crystallization differentiation, assimilation.

23. Forms of occurrence of intrusive rocks, sizes, composition, relationships with host rocks Discordant bodies: batholiths, stocks, dikes, igneous veins. Concordant bodies: forces, laccoliths, lopoliths. Abyssal and hypabyssal intrusions. The role of magmatic and post-magmatic processes in the formation of minerals.

24. Definition of the process of metamorphism. Factors (agents) of metamorphism. The nature of metamorphic transformations (textural-structural, mineral, chemical). Types of metamorphism: contact (low pressure), regional (medium pressure), dislocation (dynamometamorphism), high pressure metamorphism. Progressive and regressive metamorphism. Minerals associated with metamorphic formations.

25. Tectonic movements of the earth's crust. Horizontal, vertical movements and their combinations. Signs and methods for detecting tectonic movements. Transgressions and regressions of the seas as indicators of vertical movements of the earth's crust.

26. Folded (plicative), discontinuous (disjunctive). Folds and elements of their structure. Anticlinal and synclinal folds. Elements of the structure of folds.

27. Fracture dislocations: cracks (fractures without displacement) and fractures with displacement. Elements of discontinuous faults. Faults, reverse faults, shifts, extensions, thrusts. Grabens, rifts, horsts.

28. Ideas about seismic phenomena as a result of tectonic movements. Examples of the strongest earthquakes. Source, hypocenter, epicenter of an earthquake. Depths of earthquake sources. Earthquake intensity scale: point and magnitude. Earthquake energy.

29. Methods for studying earthquakes. Seismographs, the principle of their design and operation. Causes of earthquakes. The pattern of propagation of earthquakes on Earth. Seismic belts. Short-term and long-term earthquake forecast. Harbingers of earthquakes.

30. Weathering. Definition of the weathering process. Physical weathering and its factors. The structure of eluvial deposits.

31. Chemical weathering. Factors of chemical weathering. Types of weathering crusts (linear and areal) and their vertical zoning. The influence of climate on the type of weathering (physical or chemical). Minerals associated with weathering processes.

32. Geological activity of wind - aeolian activity. Types of geological work of wind (rock destruction, transfer and accumulation of material). Deflation and corruption. Aeolian transport and accumulation.

33. Deserts and their types (sandy, clayey, loess and saline). Deflationary and accumulative deserts. Forms of aeolian deposits: dunes, dunes, ridges, hummocky sands. Movement of sand accumulations. Distribution of deserts on the territory of Russia and their development. Fighting the blowing sands.

34. Plane slope drainage. Diluvium.

35. Temporary riverbed flow. Ravines are temporary water flows. Backward erosion, material transport, gully deposits – gully alluvium. Characteristics of gully alluvium.

36. Mountain temporary flows and their deposits – proluvium. Main features of proluvial fans. A special type of temporary flow is a mudflow.

37. River flows. Types of river erosion: bottom and side. The basis of erosion and the reasons for its fluctuations. Development of a longitudinal profile of the river equilibrium. Meandering as a result of lateral erosion of rivers. Forms of material transport by rivers. River deposits are alluvium. Distinctive features of alluvium. Channel and floodplain alluvium.

38. River valleys and their evolution. Reasons for the formation of river terraces. Above-floodplain terraces and their types. Deltas, estuaries and conditions of their formation. Minerals associated with the activity of surface flowing waters. The national economic importance of rivers, the protection of their resources.

39. Geological activity of groundwater. Forms of water in rocks. Origin of groundwater: infiltration. condensation, sedimentogenic, juvenile and dehydration waters.

40. Types of groundwater. Soil water. Verkhovodka. Groundwater. Movement and regime of groundwater. Interstratal free-flow waters. Pressure (artesian) interstratal waters. Areas of supply, unloading, pressure. Piezometric level. Artesian pools.

41. Chemical and gas composition of groundwater. Mineral waters: carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, radioactive. Mineral spring deposits. Minerals associated with the activity of mineralized thermal waters. National economic importance of groundwater.

Description

When choosing a correspondence or evening form of mastering the program, future specialists will master within six years:

• terrain orientation, determination of coordinates of geological objects, wells and mine workings;
• taking measures for the safe conduct of work in the field of geoexploration;
• drawing up maps and sections in terms of geological content;
• development of measures to protect the geological environment;
• Carrying out diagnostics of oil, rocks, minerals, natural water, minerals and gas;
• calculation of reserves and assessment of residual resources of oil, minerals and gas;
• monitoring compliance with the rules, requirements and standards necessary for the development of deposits;
• identification of promising areas and sites, searching for and assessing mineral resources;
• processing and systematization of obtained data and results using modern computer technologies;
• conducting geological research in laboratories and field conditions;
• rules for choosing equipment and technologies for performing mining, geophysical and drilling operations;
• preparing deposits for processing.

Who to work with

Specialists will be able to get a job in the field of geology: geocryologist, geologist or geochemist. The inextricable connection of this profile with environmental research allows for professional activities as an ecologist. Mining enterprises often announce competitive recruitment for the position of geologist in the field of mining and mineral exploration. This specialty is in great demand in Russia, especially in regions developing oil, mineral and gas fields. The volume of knowledge acquired is also sufficient to carry out scientific work. To do this, a graduate can get a job at one of the research institutes or universities.

The profession of a geologist is not only very interesting, but also extremely useful for society and the life of mankind. The work of geologists, first of all. consists of searching for minerals. And the production of oil, gas, coal, etc. decides the fate of the entire economic situation of the country. Therefore, qualified geologists are worth their weight in gold.

Nowadays, getting an education in geology is not difficult, but the competition for one place is quite high, since after receiving a diploma there is a chance of getting a well-paid and promising job, and many applicants understand this.

The specialty of geology at the university is a separate direction, which is listed in the classifier as the specialty 04/05/01 geology.

Recruitment to universities for geology is carried out on the basis of complete secondary education and the qualification that students will receive upon completion of their studies will be a specialist. This is indicated by the geology specialty code, namely the second encrypted pair of numbers.

In order for an applicant to be enrolled in the specialty of geology, at school he must pass a mandatory state exam in three subjects: mathematics (must be a core subject), Russian language, computer science, computer technology or physics, or chemistry (this subject is the choice of the university) . According to Russian universities, in order to become a student majoring in geology, you must have a passing score on the Unified State Examination from 60 to 93.

There are 3 types of education available for this specialty:

• Full-time. Upon admission to full-time study, the duration of study is 5 years;
• Extramural. Involves independent study of the material and passing exams and tests at the university according to the completed programs. Duration of distance learning is 6 years;
• Part-time and part-time form. This form of education involves combining study with work and attending classes on a free schedule. In this case, the duration of study will be 6 years.

Specialty Geology - Universities

Today in Russia 26 universities graduate specialists in the field of Geology. In Moscow, the most prestigious educational institutions that graduate geologists are:

• Lomonosov Moscow State University;
• Russian State Geological Prospecting University named after Sergo Ordzhonikidze.

Lomonosov University provides 180 budget places for geologists, and the Sergo Ordzhonikidze Geological Prospecting University provides 25 places.

Jobs in geology

Specialty geology who to work with:

• Laboratory assistant;
• Technician;
• Geologist;
• Leading geologist;
• Paleontologist;
• Topographer;
• Geochemist.

And this is not a complete list of professions that graduates with a major in geology can occupy. The position and remuneration will, first of all, depend on the direct knowledge and professionalism of the employee.

Geology is the study of the Earth and the sciences are interconnected. Geophysics studies the mantle, crust, outer liquid and inner solid core. The discipline examines oceans, surface and underground waters. This science also studies the physics of the atmosphere. In particular, aeronomy, climatology, meteorology. What is geology? Within the framework of this discipline, somewhat different research is carried out. Next, let's find out what geology studies.

General information

General geology is a discipline within which the structure and patterns of development of the Earth, as well as other planets belonging to the Solar System, are studied. Moreover, this also applies to their natural satellites. General geology is a complex of sciences. The research is carried out using physical methods.

Main directions

There are three of them: historical, dynamic and descriptive geology. Each direction differs in its basic principles, as well as research methods. Let's look at them in more detail next.

Descriptive direction

It studies the placement and composition of the corresponding bodies. In particular, this applies to their shapes, sizes, relationships and sequence of occurrence. In addition, this area deals with the description of rocks and various minerals.

Study of process evolution

This is what the dynamic direction does. In particular, the processes of destruction of rocks, their movement by wind, underground or ground waves, and glaciers are studied. This science also examines internal volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, movement of the earth's crust and accumulation of sediments.

Chronological order

Speaking about what geology studies, it should be said that research extends not only to phenomena that take place on Earth. One area of ​​the discipline analyzes and describes the chronological order of processes on Earth. These studies are carried out within the framework of historical geology. The chronological order is organized in a special table. She is better known as She, in turn, is divided into four intervals. This was done in accordance with stratigraphic analysis. The first interval covers the following period: the formation of the Earth - the present time. Subsequent scales reflect the last segments of the previous ones. They are marked with stars on an enlarged scale.

Features of absolute and relative age

The study of the geology of the Earth is of utmost importance for humanity. Thanks to research, he became known, for example. Geological events are assigned an exact date that refers to a specific point in time. In this case we are talking about absolute age. Also, events can be assigned to certain intervals of the scale. This is relative age. Speaking about what geology is, it should be said that, first of all, it is a whole complex of scientific research. Within the discipline, various methods are used to determine the periods to which specific events are tied.

Radioisotope dating method

It was opened at the beginning of the 20th century. This method provides the ability to determine absolute age. Before its discovery, geologists were greatly limited. In particular, only relative dating methods were used in order to determine the age of the relevant events. Such a system is only capable of establishing the sequential order of the latest changes, and not the date of their occurrence. However, this method is still very effective. This applies to the case where materials devoid of radioactive isotopes are available.

Comprehensive research

The comparison of a certain stratigraphic unit with another occurs through strata. They are composed of sedimentary rocks, rocks, fossils and surface deposits. In most cases, relative age is determined using the paleontological method. At the same time, it is mainly based on the chemical and physical properties of rocks. As a rule, this age is determined by radioisotope dating. This refers to the accumulation of decay products of the corresponding elements that make up the material. Based on the data obtained, the approximate date of occurrence of each event is established. They are located at certain points on the general geological scale. To build an accurate sequence, this factor is very important.

Main sections

It is quite difficult to briefly answer the question of what geology is. It should be noted here that science includes not only the above areas, but also various groups of disciplines. At the same time, the development of geology continues today: new branches of the scientific system are emerging. Previously existing and emerging new groups of disciplines are associated with all three areas of science. Thus, there are no exact boundaries between them. What geology studies is also studied to varying degrees by other sciences. As a result, the system comes into contact with other areas of knowledge. There is a classification of the following groups of sciences:

Mineralogy

What does geology study in this section? Research concerns minerals, issues of their genesis, as well as classification. Lithology deals with the study of rocks that were formed in processes associated with the hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere of the Earth. It is worth noting that they are still inaccurately called sedimentary. Geocryology studies a number of characteristic features and properties that permafrost rocks acquire. Crystallography was originally one of the areas of mineralogy. Nowadays it can rather be classified as a physical discipline.

Petrography

This branch of geology studies metamorphic and igneous rocks mainly from a descriptive perspective. In this case we are talking about their genesis, composition, textural features and classification.

The earliest section of geotectonics

There is a direction that studies disturbances in the earth’s crust and the occurrence patterns of the corresponding bodies. Its name is structural geology. It must be said that geotectonics appeared as a science at the beginning of the 19th century. Structural geology studied medium- and small-scale tectonic dislocations. Size - tens to hundreds of kilometers. This science was finally formed only towards the end of the century. Thus, there was a transition to the identification of tectonic units on a global and continental scale. Subsequently, the doctrine gradually developed into geotectonics.

Tectonics

This section of geology studies. It also includes the following areas:

1. Experimental tectonics.
2. Neotectonics.
3. Geotectonics.

Narrow Sections

• Volcanology. A rather narrow section of geology. He studies volcanism.
• Seismology. This branch of geology deals with the study of geological processes that occur during earthquakes. This also includes seismic zoning.
• Geocryology. This branch of geology focuses on the study of permafrost.
• Petrology. This section of geology studies the genesis, as well as the conditions of origin of metamorphic and igneous rocks.

Sequence of processes

Everything that geology studies contributes to a better understanding of certain processes on earth. For example, the chronology of events is a critical subject. After all, every geological science is historical in nature to one degree or another. They consider existing formations from this point of view. First of all, these sciences clarify the sequence of formation of modern structures.

Classification of periods

The entire history of the Earth is divided into two major stages, which are called eons. Classification occurs according to the appearance of organisms with hard parts that leave traces in sedimentary rocks. According to paleontology, they allow us to determine the relative geological age.

Subjects of research

The Phanerozoic began with the appearance of fossils on the planet. Thus, open life developed. This period was preceded by the Precambrian and Cryptozoic. There was a hidden life at this time. Precambrian geology is considered a special discipline. The fact is that she studies specific, mostly repeatedly and strongly metamorphotic complexes. In addition, it is characterized by special research methods. Paleontology focuses on the study of ancient life forms. She describes fossil remains and traces of the vital activity of organisms. Stratigraphy determines the relative geological age of sedimentary rocks and the division of their strata. She also deals with the correlation of various formations. Paleontological definitions provide a source of data for stratigraphy.

What is applied geology

Some areas of science interact with others in one way or another. However, there are disciplines that are on the border with other branches. For example, mineral geology. This discipline deals with methods of prospecting and exploration of rocks. It is divided into the following types: geology of coal, gas, oil. Metallogeny also exists. Hydrogeology focuses on the study of groundwater. There are quite a lot of disciplines. All of them have practical significance. For example, what is This section dealing with the study of the interaction of structures and the environment. Soil geology is closely related to it, since, for example, the choice of material for the construction of buildings depends on the composition of the soil.

Other subtypes

• Geochemistry. This branch of geology focuses on the study of the physical properties of the Earth. This also includes a set of exploration methods, including electrical prospecting of various modifications, magnetic, seismic and gravity prospecting.
• Geobarothermometry. This science studies a set of methods for determining the temperatures and pressures of formation of rocks and minerals.
• Microstructural geology. This section deals with the study of rock deformation at the micro level. This refers to the scale of mineral aggregates and grains.
• Geodynamics. This science focuses on the study of processes on a planetary scale that occur as a result of the evolution of the planet. The connection between mechanisms in the earth's crust, mantle and core is studied.
• Geochronology. This section deals with determining the age of minerals and rocks.
• Lithology. It is also called petrography of sedimentary rocks. Engaged in the study of relevant materials.
• History of Geology. This section focuses on the totality of the information obtained and the mining business.
• Agrogeology. This section is responsible for the search, extraction and use of agricultural ores for agricultural purposes. In addition, he studies the mineralogical composition of soils.

The following geological sections focus on the study of the Solar System:

1. Cosmology
2. Planetology.
3. Space geology.
4. Cosmochemistry.

Mining geology

It is differentiated by types of mineral raw materials. There is a division into the geology of nonmetallic and ore minerals. This section studies the patterns of location of the corresponding deposits. Their connection with the following processes is also established: metamorphism, magmatism, tectonics, sedimentation. Thus, an independent branch of knowledge appeared, which is called metallogeny. The geology of non-metallic minerals is also subdivided into the sciences of combustible substances and caustobioliths. This includes shale, coal, gas, oil. The geology of non-combustible rocks includes building materials, salts and more. This section also includes hydrogeology. It is dedicated to underground waters.

Economic direction

It is a rather specific discipline. It appeared at the intersection of economics and mineral geology. This discipline is focused on cost assessments of subsoil areas and deposits. The term "mineral resource", taking this into account, can be attributed to the economic sphere rather than to the geological one.

Intelligence Features

The geology of the deposit is an extensive scientific complex, within the framework of which activities are carried out to determine the industrial significance of rock areas that have received a positive assessment based on the results of prospecting and assessment activities. During exploration, geological and industrial parameters are set. They, in turn, are necessary for the appropriate assessment of sites. This also applies to the processing of extracted minerals, the provision of operational activities, and the design of construction of mining enterprises. Thus, the morphology of the bodies of the corresponding materials is determined. This is very important when selecting a mineral post-processing system. The contours of their bodies are being established. In this case, geological boundaries are taken into account. In particular, this applies to fault surfaces and contacts of lithologically different rocks. The nature of the distribution of minerals, the presence of harmful impurities, and the content of associated and main components are also taken into account.

Upper crustal horizons

They are studied by engineering geology. The information obtained during the study of soils makes it possible to determine the suitability of the relevant materials for the construction of specific objects. The upper layers of the earth's crust are often called the geological environment. The subject of study in this section is information about its regional characteristics, dynamics and morphology. Interaction with engineering structures is also being studied. The latter are often called elements of the technosphere. In this case, the planned, current or completed economic activity of a person is taken into account. Engineering-geological assessment of the territory involves the identification of a special element, which is characterized by homogeneous properties.

A Few Basic Principles

The above information allows you to understand quite clearly what geology is. It must be said that science is considered historical. It has many important tasks. First of all, this concerns the determination of the sequence of geological events. To efficiently perform these tasks, a number of intuitively consistent and simple features related to the temporal relationship of rocks have long been developed. Intrusive relationships represent contacts between the corresponding rocks and their strata. All conclusions are made based on the detected signs. Relative age also allows us to determine current relationships. For example, if it breaks rocks, then this allows us to conclude that the fault was formed later than them. The principle of continuity is that the building material from which the layers are formed can be stretched across the surface of the planet if it is not limited by some other mass.

Historical information

The first observations are usually attributed to dynamic geology. In this case, we mean information about the movement of coastlines, erosion of mountains, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Attempts to classify geological bodies and describe minerals were made by Avicenna and Al-Burini. Some scholars now suggest that modern geology originated in the medieval Islamic world. Similar research was carried out during the Renaissance by Girolamo Fracastoro and Leonardo da Vinci. They were the first to suggest that fossil shells are the remains of extinct organisms. They also believed that the history of the Earth itself was much longer than the biblical ideas about it. At the end of the 17th century, a general theory about the planet arose, which became known as diluvianism. Scientists of the time believed that the fossils and sedimentary rocks themselves were formed due to a global flood.

The need for minerals increased very quickly towards the end of the 18th century. Thus, the subsoil began to be studied. Basically, the accumulation of factual materials, descriptions of the properties and characteristics of rocks, as well as studies of the conditions of their occurrence were carried out. In addition, observation techniques were developed. For almost the entire 19th century, geology was entirely concerned with the question of the exact age of the Earth. Estimates have varied widely, from a hundred thousand years to billions. However, the age of the planet was initially determined at the beginning of the 20th century. Radiometric dating contributed greatly to this. The estimate obtained then was about 2 billion years. Currently, the true age of the Earth has been established. It is approximately 4.5 billion years old.