The first printing appeared in China in the 9th century. Printing was carried out using special engraving boards on which ink was applied. A sheet of paper was pressed against the board, the letters were imprinted, thus forming printed text.
Invention of printing
Further development and improvement of printing took place in Medieval Europe. At the end of the 14th century, European states experienced the dawn of trade, production became manufactory. Handwritten editions of books could no longer satisfy all the needs of society.
The invention of printing using metal type is the merit of the famous German jeweler Johannes Guttenberg. It was he who developed the idea of the first printing press.
At first, Guttenberg kept his development a secret because it might anger the Catholic Church. But already in 1446 the world saw the first printed book, The Trojan Chronicle.
The first Russian book printer was Ivan Fedorov. It was he who published the first printed book on the territory of the Russian state - “Apostle”.
First printed books
Previously, book printing was focused on the spiritual enlightenment of society. The first printed books were predominantly theological and philosophical in nature. At that time, society was dominated by the church, and the first book publishers did not want to incur the oppression of the Roman clergy.
Thus, one of Gutenberg’s first books, Donatus, was a guide for students to study the Latin language, in which services were carried out in medieval churches. With the beginning of the Renaissance, a printing boom took place in the first printing houses: taking advantage of the spiritual revival of society, book publishers tried to print all the books that had previously been created by man.
The world saw the printed works of ancient Greek and Roman thinkers - “Geography” by Strabo, “History” by Pliny, “The Beginning of Geometry” by Euclid. In 1493, the “Book of Chronicles” by the famous German physician G. Schedel was published in Nuremberg, which broke the record for the number of copies published - about 1000.
The impact of the first printed books on society
Printed books brought about a spiritual revolution in society. Before the era of printing, many literary works were inaccessible to people, because most books in handwritten form were kept in monasteries and churches. With the development and establishment of printing, books became accessible to almost every person.
This was the decisive factor in the advent of the Age of Enlightenment. One of the first printed books was the Bible. The society first became acquainted with the biblical canons not from the sermons of clergy, as was the case previously, but from the original text.
This provoked the emergence of new views on the church and its role in public life. It was at this time that the first Protestant movements began to appear, which broke away from Catholicism due to ideological differences.
In Europe, he invented typography from typesetting. This meant that letters, numbers and punctuation marks were cast from metal and could be used repeatedly. And although a similar system was known to the Chinese around 1400 BC, it did not take root there due to the presence of several hundred written characters. And the method was forgotten. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg began printing texts in Germany in a new way. At first these were calendars or dictionaries, and in In 1452 he printed the first Bible. It later became known throughout the world as the Gutenberg Bible.
How did the first printing press work?
Individual printed characters, letters, were attached to hard metal in a mirror image. The typesetter put them into words and sentences until the page was ready. Printing ink was applied to these symbols. Using a lever, the page was pressed firmly against the paper placed underneath it. On the printed page, the letters appeared in the correct order. After printing, the letters were folded in a certain order and stored in the typesetting desk. This way the typesetter could quickly find them again. Today, a book is usually designed on a computer: the text is typed and sent directly from the computer to print.
Why was the invention of printing important?
Thanks to new printing methods, it became possible to print a lot of texts in a short time, so suddenly many people had access to books. They were able to learn to read and develop spiritually. Church leaders no longer determined who could gain access to knowledge. Opinions were disseminated through books, newspapers or leaflets. And they were discussed. This freedom of thought was completely new for those times. Many rulers were afraid of her and ordered books to be burned. And even today this happens with some dictators: they arrest writers and journalists and ban their books.
All books printed before January 1, 1501 are called INCUNABULAMI. This word is translated as “cradle”, that is, the infancy of book printing.
Few incunabula have survived to this day. They are preserved in museums and largest libraries in the world. The incunabula are beautiful, their fonts are elegant and clear, the text and illustrations are placed very harmoniously on the pages.
Their example shows that a book is a work of art.
One of the largest collections of incunabula in the world, about 6 thousand books, is stored in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg. The collection is located in a special room, the so-called “Faust’s office,” recreating the atmosphere of a Western European monastery library of the 15th century.
Did you know that...
In ancient Rus' did they write on birch bark? This is the name of the outer part of birch bark, consisting of thin translucent layers that are easily separated from each other.
The first typewriter was made in the USA in 1867?
Is the number of books published all over the world growing year by year? True, this only applies to developed countries.
Test yourself.
1. In Germany, in the city of Strasbourg, in the central square there is a monument to Johannes Gutenberg. For what merits did grateful descendants perpetuate the memory of this German master?
2. Why are printed books from the 15th century called incunabula?
3. What new elements appeared in printed books in the 15th century?
4. Explain the meaning of the following concepts using reference books.
The Big Encyclopedic Dictionary (any edition) will help you
letter
typeset printing (typing)
font
printing house
engraving
red line
Watch the cartoon about Johann Guttenberg:
http://video.mail.ru/mail/glazunova-l/4260/4336.html
Typography- the process of creating printed materials. The term is usually used in a historical context.
China is considered the country where printing was invented. There in 1040-1048. a blacksmith named Pi Shen used a unique typesetting process, carving hieroglyphs into blocks of clay, firing them, writing them into text on a metal plate, and attaching them to that plate with resin. However, clay letters wore out quickly and did not give a clear imprint. This method has not found widespread use, since Chinese writing is complex and consists of many characters. In 1392, the Koreans achieved great success by using copper type to reproduce texts. In 1403, Emperor Tai Tsung, in order to improve public education, ordered the printing of Korean books using such characters.
The history of European book printing dates back to the 15th century, when the prototypes of printed publications appeared. These first books, mostly primitive illustrations with small textual explanations for the illiterate consumer - “Bible of the Poor” (“Biblia pauperum”), “Mirror of Human Salvation” (“Speculum humanae salvationis”) or “The Art of Dying” (“Ars moriendi”) , were prints from solid boards (woodcuts).
Woodcut books were in wide circulation, but had an indirect relation to book printing itself, since printing from boards could not provide a large number of copies, and the wooden form quickly wore out. However, it is worth noting that books were published using woodcut printing until 1530.
Guttenberg and his followers
The invention of printing, i.e. printing from a set consisting of individual letters belongs to the German typographer from Mainz - Johann Gutenberg. He spent a significant part of his life in Strasbourg, where he was engaged in polishing semi-precious stones and mirrors. In 1448, Gutenberg appeared in Mainz, where, borrowing 150 guilders, he continued to work on casting type and constructing a printing press. The year of the first printed publication remains a matter of debate - dates are given from 1445 to 1447. The first editions, attributed to Johannes Gutenberg, were small calendar leaflets and textbooks.
The year of birth of European newspaper periodicals is considered to be 1609 (although some researchers call 1605). Its place of origin was Germany. The newspaper, which began with the words "Relation: Aller Furnemmen", was printed in January 1609 in the city of Strasbourg, and contained news from Cologne, Antwerp, Rome, Venice, Vienna and Prague. The editor-publisher of this weekly was the typographer Johann Carolus, who had previously been involved in compiling handwritten news sheets.
Also in 1609, “Avisa Relation oder Zeitung” appeared in Augsburg, another weekly newspaper published by Luca Schulte. The Italian word “avviso”, which found its way into the German press, indicates a genetic connection between the first German weekly newspapers and their Venetian prototypes. The format of German publications and the form of news presentation also resemble Venetian avvisi.
The first printed newspapers did not have a clearly defined name. The place of publication and the name of the editor-publisher were usually not indicated. The location of the news material depended not on the degree of importance of the event being described, but on the day the information was received. The news itself was practically not commented on and presented without any headings; political events were interspersed with not always reliable sensations.
Beginning in 1609, weekly printed periodicals began to spread rapidly throughout Europe: in 1610, the printed weekly Ordinari Wohenzeitung began to be published in Basel; in 1615, Frankfurt am Main and Vienna joined Basel. In 1616, the newspaper appeared in Hamburg, in 1617 - in Berlin, in 1618 - in Amsterdam, in 1620 - in Antwerp, Magdeburg, Nuremberg, Rostock, Braunschweig, Cologne.
As for Cologne, in this city, starting from 1588, Michel von Aitzing published twice a year a selection of political and military events for six months under the name "Relatio Historica" ("Historical Bulletin") and sold his publication in the fall and spring in Frankfurt book fairs. In 1594, another publication appeared in Cologne, covering events over the past six months. “Mercurius Gallo Belgicus” (“Gallo-Belgian Mercury”) was published in Latin and was known far beyond the borders of Germany.
By 1630, weekly newspapers appeared in 30 European cities. The rapid spread of printed periodicals, and in the period from 1609 to 1700. In Germany alone, experts recorded the circulation of about 200 newspapers, which was explained by the increased level of printing, the growth of cities and the increased demand for various information from the urban population, the main consumer of this type of printed products.
However, the process of the appearance of the first newspapers in a number of countries was hindered by strict censorship procedures that regulated the appearance of printed materials. The widespread introduction of the institution of preliminary censorship, which appeared almost immediately after the invention of printing, became the state’s reaction to the uncontrolled spread of ideas, opinions and information.
It was the effect of censorship restrictions that led to the fact that the first printed newspapers in England and France appeared relatively late. Under conditions of severe censorship pressure, the role of a kind of “catalyst” for the emergence of English and French newspapers was played by Holland, which in the 17th century was the most liberal country in Europe.
A well-established printing business and skillful use of the advantages of “ideological liberalism” allowed Holland to make considerable profits from the sale of printed products to neighboring countries (England, France), where they were in great demand.
In September 1620, Caspar van Hilten (publisher and editor of the first Dutch newspaper "Courante uyt Italien, Duytsland, etc." - "News from Italy, Germany, etc.") began translating his own publication into French and distributing it to territory of France under the name "Courant d" Italic & d "Almaigne, etc." Apparently, van Hilten's venture was a commercial success.
In December of the same 1620, the Dutch engraver and cartographer Pieter van de Keere, who lived for several years in London, began publishing a newspaper in Amsterdam in English, which presented an almost literal translation of the Dutch “couranto”. The first issue of Keere, dated December 2, 1620, came out without a title and began quite remarkably: “The new typings out of Italic are not yet com” - “Fresh news from Italy has not yet been received.”
From the second issue this publication has the title “Corrant out of Italic, Germany, etc.” The news contained in the newspaper printed in Amsterdam could hardly be called fresh, but it gave readers an idea of the events taking place in Europe.
8. The emergence and development of the institution of censorship in Western Europe.
Censorship(lat. censura) - control by the authorities over the content and dissemination of information, printed materials, musical and stage works, works of fine art, films and photographs, radio and television broadcasts, websites and portals, in some cases also private correspondence, in order to limit or prevent dissemination of ideas and information considered undesirable by this government.
Censorship also refers to the bodies of secular or spiritual authorities that exercise such control.
According to Doctor of Historical Sciences T. M. Goryaeva [Note. 1], censorship arose at the moment when a group of people with power and property began to impose their will on others. The word “censorship” itself originated from ancestry. census, which meant in ancient Rome the periodic assessment of property to divide people into classes. The second meaning was associated with the division according to the right to enjoy the privileges of citizenship. Thus, according to Goryaeva, the ancient censor monitored the reliability of the political orientation of citizens.
Censorship became an attribute of state and religious power in the era of antiquity. The Brief Jewish Encyclopedia cites as an example the destruction of the scroll of Jeremiah's prophecies (608 - 598 BC) by the Jewish king Joachim. Encyclopedia Britannica notes that in Athens (480 - 410 BC) the books of the philosopher Protagoras on the Gods were burned. Plato proposed introducing a set of prohibitions to protect people from the harmful influence of works of art. He became the first thinker to substantiate the need to combine the artist's self-censorship with preliminary public censorship. Subsequently, censorship and repression of free thought became an integral part of the policies of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. In 213 BC. e. Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang ordered the burning of all books except medical, agricultural and scientific ones to protect the empire from the perceived dangers of poetry, history and philosophy.
The first censorship lists date back to unacceptable apocryphal books, a list of which was compiled in 494 AD. e. under the Roman bishop (pope) Gelasius I. Preliminary censorship of books was first introduced in 1471 by Pope Sixtus IV. This was followed by similar decisions of Pope Innocent VIII (1487) and the Lateran Council (1512).
Later, under Pope Paul IV in 1557, the Index liborum prohibitorum was issued for the inquisitorial tribunals. This list was only canceled in 1966. And in 1571, Pope Pius V established the Congrecatio Indicis, according to which no Catholic, under pain of excommunication, could read or keep books that were not included in the list specified by the pope. Not only banned books, but also their authors were often burned at the stakes of religious censorship. The period of the Church Reformation was also characterized by intolerance of dissent. European society of that time was infected with aggressive xenophobia, and the authorities supported church censorship with administrative, judicial and forceful measures.
Subsequently, critics of censorship appeared, for example Pierre Abelard, Erasmus of Rotterdam and Michel Montaigne, who began to express doubts about its usefulness and expediency. Supporters of a strict form of censorship were Bernard of Clairvaux, Martin Luther and Tommaso Campanella. During the Enlightenment, philosophers and politicians proclaimed the ideas of freedom of speech, press and assembly. British philosopher Thomas Hobbes believed that if a church prohibition is not confirmed by state law, it is nothing more than advice. The poet John Milton, speaking in the English Parliament on June 16, 1643, for the first time specifically examined the features of censorship as a public institution. His critical treatise "Areopagitica" brought closer the abolition of preliminary censorship in England, which occurred in 1695.
9. The origin and development of political journalism and its role in public life.
PUBLISHING(from the word public, public) - that area of literature that deals with political, social issues with the aim of promoting certain views among a wide circle of readers, creating, shaping public opinion, and initiating certain political campaigns. The origin of journalism dates back, of course, to the era when mass readers first appeared, as well as the means to reproduce literary works in large quantities, i.e. to the beginning of the capitalist period in Europe, with the influx of new ideas corresponding to new social relations, with the development of urban life and trade, with the advent of a number of discoveries and inventions, and first of all - printing. Journalism is the child of the young, emerging bourgeoisie and is developing in Europe along with the development of bourgeois relations. Therefore, the birthplace of journalism is Italy, where, along with the first banks, the first newspapers appeared and where, during the Renaissance, the first literary form of journalism arose - pamphlet, i.e. a small pamphlet of brightly propaganda content, dealing with some topical, pressing issue or attacking particularly politically hated individuals and groups.
The end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times, the era of the collapse of feudalism, with its subsistence economy, economic and spiritual stagnation, is a deeply revolutionary era. And like all subsequent revolutionary eras, it creates extensive journalistic literature and, first of all, pamphlets. In addition to a number of Italian humanists who opposed the Catholic Church, especially
German humanists became famous at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries Erasmus of Rotterdam with his "Praise of Folly" and Reuchlin- with his “Letters of Dark People,” which ridiculed the ignorant monks, the most hated and reactionary social group of that time. The great social movement known as the Reformation, which stirred up huge masses of the lower strata of the population, first created journalism for the people, popular, rough in form, but often caustic and witty. Poisonous pamphlets of a polemical nature were exchanged between the leaders of the moderate reformation - Luther with the apostle of heretical communism and the leader of the peasant uprising of 1525 - Foma Muntzer, who in his brochures and appeals cursed both the clergy and the authorities.
The pamphlet developed especially during the era of the first English revolution of the 17th century. The great English poet Milton wrote a pamphlet for the first time in history in defense of freedom of the press. At the same time, the famous pamphlet “Killing - no murder” appeared, justifying the execution of the king. A number of pamphlets were written by the democrat Lilborn and the communists - the “true Levellers”. Since then, the pamphlet has become a favorite spiritual weapon of the English opposition parties and provided examples of high propaganda skills, especially during major political campaigns, such as the fight for electoral reform and the repeal of the Corn Laws in the first half of the 19th century, the fight for the liberation of Ireland or Chartism. The pamphlet (along with political newspapers) also achieved remarkable development during the era of the Great French Revolution, which opened with the pamphlet of Abbot Sieyès “What is the Third Estate”, reached its apogee in the newspapers of Marat and ended with Babeuf’s “Tribune of the People”. During the restoration era, the French Shchedrin became famous for his satirical pamphlets against the returning nobles and the royal administration - Paul Louis Courier. The pamphlets of socialists of the 30s and 40s are also remarkable. After that pamphlet everything
is increasingly being replaced in France by newspaper journalism.
In Germany, before the revolution of 1848, poets became famous as publicists Heine and critic Berne. But then he undoubtedly took first place Karl Marx, who, in his pamphlets and newspaper articles, knew how to combine brilliant literary talent, wit and caustic, killing sarcasm with deep and clear theoretical analysis. That is why his pamphlets are both propaganda and deeply scientific works. The first such work was the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” by Marx and Engels. Then Marx’s articles in the Neue Rhine Gazette, “The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte,” where, with devastating satire and ridicule of the hero of the 1851 coup, a class explanation of the very possibility of this coup is given, and finally, “The Civil War in France” , the manifesto of the First International, issued immediately after the pacification of the Paris Commune.
Lassalle, who wrote his speeches and distributed them in the form of pamphlets, was also a great master of the scientific propaganda pamphlet in Germany.
Most people take printed materials for granted; it is difficult for us to imagine modern life if the printing press had not been invented. We would not have the opportunity to read books, newspapers, magazines. Posters, leaflets, brochures would not exist and would not come to us by mail. The printing house allows you to exchange a huge amount of information in the shortest possible time. In fact, the printing press is one of the most important inventions for modern man. He made a huge contribution to the development of society. How was the printing press invented and how did it influence the development of culture?
Life before the printing press
Before printing was invented, all written materials and images were written and copied by hand. This was done by certain people who were allocated places for scribes at monasteries. This room in monasteries was called a scriptorium. There the writer could work in silence, first marking the page and then transferring onto paper the data from the book being copied. Later, decorative elements began to be applied to the pages of books. In the Middle Ages, books, as a rule, were only the property of monasteries, educational institutions or very rich people. Most of the books were religious in nature. Some families kept copies of the Bible, but this was very rare, and the family was considered lucky.
Around the late 1430s, a German named Johannes Gutenberg came up with a good way to make money. At that time, there was a trend of wearing small mirrors on clothes and hats when visiting sacred places. The mirrors themselves were not of much importance to him, but they gave him an idea of how he could create large volumes of printed matter. During the 1300s and 1400s, society gained a basic form of printing. For it, images or letters were used, painted on wooden blocks, which were dipped into paint and then transferred to paper. Gutenberg already had experience with printing, so he realized that by using cut blocks for it, he could make the process faster. He strove to reproduce large texts in large volumes. Instead of wooden blocks, he decided to use metal ones. The design he invented was called the "Movable Printing Press" because the metal letters could move to form different combinations to print words and phrases. Using this device, Gutenberg created the first printed book, which was the Bible. Today, the Bible printed by Gutenberg is of historical value.
The printing press had a device that arranged groups of blocks in the right order so that the letters formed words and sentences, constantly moving. The blocks were dipped in ink and paper was placed on them. When the paper was moved, letters appeared on it. These printing presses were manually operated. Later, by the 19th century, other inventors created steam-powered printing machines that did not require operator control. Today's printing presses are electronic, automated, and capable of printing much faster than any of their previous counterparts.
Gutenberg's invention caused a stir in society. Representatives of the upper social strata were not happy. For them, books written by hand were a sign of luxury and grandeur; they believed that books should not be subject to mass production. In this regard, printed books became primarily widespread among the lower strata of the population. Later, printing houses began to open, giving the world new professions. Printed texts have become a new way to distribute information to huge numbers of people quickly and cheaply. Scientists, who could disseminate their works, and politicians, who could interest voters through printed materials, benefited from this. The most important achievement that was achieved with the invention of the printing press was the opportunity to receive an education that many people previously could not obtain. The invention marked the beginning of new ideas and developments. Another contribution that the invention made was the distribution of printed materials and books in all languages among people.
Printing history
Valery Shtolyakov, Moscow State University named after. Ivan Fedorov
The history of the mind knows two main eras:
invention of letters and typography,
all others were its consequences.
N.M. Karamzin
The invention of printing presses and the subsequent invention of typesetting and bookbinding equipment should be considered in close connection with the development of printing, which, along with the advent of writing, became one of the greatest progressive landmark events in the history of world culture.
The first identical (circulation) prints appeared in 8th century AD in the East. For this purpose, a technique was developed for engraving text on wood - woodcut ( from Greek xylon - felled tree and grapho - writing). To implement this method, manual operations and simple tools were used, and therefore it was labor-intensive and unproductive.
868 is significant in that in that year the Diamond Sutra, the oldest example of woodblock printing, was printed (kept in the British Museum). The scroll consists of seven successively glued sheets approximately 30-32 cm wide; The length of the entire scroll when unfolded is more than 5 m. Several hundred hand-engraved boards were required to produce this scroll.
The development of printing equipment began in the mid-15th century with the invention of 1440 Johann Guttenberg created a manual printing press, which made it possible to mechanize the main technological process - printing. If before this books in Europe were produced by woodcut and were very rare, then with the invention of Gutenberg, starting from the first half of the 15th century, they began to be printed using the printing method (Fig. 1). Despite the simplicity of manual operations, Gutenberg's printing press laid down the basic design principles of the future printing apparatus, which have been successfully implemented in modern printing machines. The design of the first printing press turned out to be so successful that it existed without fundamental technical changes for about 350 years.
The invention of the printing press contributed to the development of printing technology, which continues to this day, constantly being updated with new technical solutions. Using the example of improving printing production, all stages of the transformation of the simplest tools and mechanisms into automatic printing machines are clearly traced.
This publication provides a chronology of the appearance of some original inventions and technologies, which allows us to assess the pace of development and improvement of printing equipment.
1796- Alois Senefelder, having seen a clear rusty imprint of a razor on a garden stone, invents, based on the principle of analogy, a new method of flat-panel printing - lithography ( from Greek lithos - stone and grapho - writing), which was first implemented in a manual lithographic printing press of a roller design. As a form, A. Senefelder used a limestone on which an image was applied with ink, after which the surface of the stone was treated with an acid solution to form gap elements in areas of the stone not protected by ink. A year later, A. Zenefelder invents a ribbed printing press for producing an impression from a lithographic stone (Fig. 2).
1811— F. Koenig patented a printing machine, which used the idea of transmitting pressure along a line (according to the “plane-cylinder” principle), implemented in a flat-bed printing machine, where the form was placed on a movable table - a thaler, and a sheet of paper was moved to the form by a rotating printing cylinder with grips. In the period from 1811 to 1818, F. Koenig and his partner A. Bauer created and launched four types of flat-panel printing machines without a prototype.
1817— Friedrich Koenig and Andreas Bauer founded the flat-bed printing machine factory Schnellpressenfabrik Koenig & Bauer in the Oberzell monastery (Würzburg), 25 years ahead of their competitors in the field of industrial production of printing equipment.
1822- English scientist William Congreve developed a technology for multi-level relief stamping (convex-concave) of an image without paint on cardboard under the force of a heated punch and matrix - the so-called embossing (embossing), which has become an effective technique for designing printed publications.
1829- Lyon typesetter Claude Genoud developed a method for making stereotypical matrices from paper, using which it was possible to cast several monolithic copies (stereotypes) of the original letterpress form.
1833- English printer D. Kitchen invented a simple and cheap printing machine designed for small-format, short-run and single-color products. Having implemented F. Koenig's idea of changing the position of the piano and the form, he moved them to a vertical position. The swinging pian (pressure plate) was driven by a lever mechanism, so it soon became known as a crucible (hence the name of the machine). Since the middle of the 19th century, crucible machines of various designs were actively produced, which, due to their mass production in the USA, were called “American machines”. Due to the versatility of platen printing machines, their small dimensions, light weight, low cost and ease of maintenance, they are very economical and still work in printing houses.
1838- Academician B.S. Jacobi (St. Petersburg) developed a technology of electroplating that makes it possible to produce exact metal copies from original engraving forms.
1839- the invention of photography, which is associated with the names of Zh.N. Niepsa, L.G. Daguerra and V.G. Talbot.
1840- the London company Perkins, Bacon and Petch printed the first postage stamp, which was called the “Penny Black”. This was a completely new type of printing product - a stamp printed on an intaglio machine.
The beginning of the 19th century is characterized by sociologists as the emergence and development of an industrial society, which is characterized by a high level of industrial production and active use of natural resources. During this period, there was a rapid development of the printing industry, making extensive use of the achievements of science and technology. Confidence in the paper medium of information is increasing, which is facilitated by the beginning of mass production of newspapers, books and magazines.
1847— A. Appleget (England) creates a multi-platform sheet-fed printing machine, in which eight printing cylinders with a diameter of 0.33 m were located around a vertical plate cylinder with a diameter of 1.63 m. Printing forms made from ordinary rectangular letters were attached to them. The feeding and ejection of the sheet from the printing cylinders was carried out by a complex ribbon system. The machine was a bulky multi-tiered structure, which was served by eight handlers and eight receivers (Fig. 3). She worked for 14 years and printed up to 12 thousand notes per hour by hand, which was considered high productivity at that time. Due to their large overall dimensions, multi-platform printing machines were called “mammoth machines”. However, starting in 1870, due to their large size and large operating crew, these printing presses were displaced from newspaper production by the more efficient and economical web presses.
1849- Danish inventor Christian Sørensen patented a “tacheotype”, which is a variant of a typesetting machine capable of mechanizing a whole range of manual typing operations.
1849- American inventor E. Smith designed a folding knife machine.
1850- French inventor Firmin Gillot patented a method for making illustration printing plates by chemical etching on zinc.
1852— the inventor R. Hartmann in Germany made the first attempt to mechanize the process of cutting a stack of sheets.
1853- the invention by the American John L. Kingsley of rubber elastic forms, the basis of which was natural rubber, was a prerequisite for the emergence of a new printing method - flexography, which became a type of letterpress printing. It is characterized by the use of an elastic elastic form and quick-drying liquid paints. Initially, this printing method used aniline synthetic dyes, hence the term “aniline printing” (die Anilindruck) or “aniline rubber printing” (die Anilin-Gummidruck).
1856— D. Smith (USA) received a patent for a thread sewing machine.
1857- Robert Gattersley, an engineer from Manchester, patented a typesetting machine.
1859— in Germany, K. Krause created the first paper-cutting machine with an inclined movement of the knife, where he was the first to use automatically acting foot pressure from a load (Fig. 4).
1861- English physicist James Clerk Maxwell was the first to reproduce a color image using photographic methods.
1865— William Bullack from Philadelphia created the first roll-fed printing press, which had two cylinders: a printing cylinder and a plate cylinder, on which the stereotype was attached. Before being fed into the printing machine, the roll paper was cut to size and sealed, after which it was removed with ribbons for acceptance. The idea of creating a machine for printing on paper tape, the manufacturing method of which was mastered at the beginning of the 19th century, occupied the minds of inventors. However, these ideas were realized only after the industrial production of round stereotypes - cast letterpress forms - began in the 1850s.
1867— P.P. Knyagininsky patented an automatic typesetting machine (automatic typesetter) in England, the technical solutions of which were largely repeated by the inventor of the monotype, T. Lanston (Fig. 5).
1868— a phototype method was invented, providing raster-free production of flat-panel printing forms.
1873— Hugo and August Bremer (Germany) invented a method of sewing notebooks with wire.
1875— Thomas Alva Edison patented the mimeograph, which is a printing device for producing simple, short-run products using screen printing. Following this, he designed an “electric pen”, which was moved by a miniature motor and pierced the paraffin paper in the right places, which served as a form for a mimeograph machine. Edison also formulated a paint with the required degree of viscosity to penetrate through holes punched in paper.
1876— rotating rods were invented to control the direction of movement of paper ribbons in a roll-to-roll printing machine.
1876— Hugo and August Bremer made a wire sewing machine (a prototype of a four-part wire sewing machine), which sewed notebooks with four staples in one connector.
1883— American L.K. Crowell invented the folding funnel for longitudinally bending sheets or tape while the machine was running, which made it possible to equip web printing presses with folding devices. These inventions paved the way for the creation of roll-fed printing machines designed for printing multi-page publications, since thanks to the funnel it was possible to double the width of the ribbons, and the presence of rods made it possible to select them for joint processing.
1880— the basics of offset printing technology have been developed.
1886— Ottmar Mergenthaler designed the Linotype, a type-setting line casting machine.
1890— I.I. Orlov invented a method of multicolor letterpress printing, implemented on a printing machine for the production of securities. The method he invented for forming a multi-color raw image on a prefabricated form and then transferring it to paper, called the “Orlov seal,” made it possible to protect securities from counterfeiting. In Fig. Figure 6 shows a diagram of the printing apparatus designed by I.I. Orlov.
Rice. 6. Diagram of the printing apparatus of the “Oryol press” (a): 1, 2, 3, 4 - printing forms, 5 - assembled printing form, 11, 21, 31, 41, - elastic rollers; implementation of the Oryol effect with intaglio printing in a security stamp (old style)
for alcoholic products (produced by FSUE Goznak) - b
Before this, they tried to protect securities by manufacturing complex shapes on special guilloche machines, obtained by mechanical engraving of various geometric patterns and figures with variable step frequencies and different stroke thicknesses. However, this did not protect the banknotes from counterfeiting, and only applying a rich colored “rainbow” pattern to the paper using the “Orlov seal” method could protect them to some extent.
1893- invention of I.I. Orlova was awarded the Grand Prix at an industrial exhibition in Paris and is protected by patents from Russia, Germany and Great Britain. However, I. Orlov’s machines did not receive worthy support in Russia - they began to be manufactured in a slightly modified form in Germany at the KVA company. Currently, the KVA-Giori company has developed special printing equipment that uses some of the principles of the Oryol printing method. These special purpose machines print more than 90% of the world's high security banknotes and documents in different countries.
1890s— the need for the production of large-scale printed publications is increasing, so the circulation and volume of newspapers is noticeably increasing, and publishing is turning into one of the largest industries. As a result, roll letterpress presses appeared to produce first 8- and 16-, and then 32-page newspapers.
1893— Gustav Kleim (Germany) designs the first automatic folding machine equipped with a mechanical sheet feeder.
1894-1895— schematic diagrams of the first phototypesetting machines were developed.
1895- American inventor Sheridan built the first machine for gluing book blocks with preliminary milling of the spine and manual feeding of blocks in the form of a closed conveyor with carriages.
1896— Tolbert Lanston designed a monotype type-setting typesetting machine.
1896- in England, later in the USA and Germany, the use of roll-to-roll gravure printing machines was mastered, and in 1920 the production of 4- and 6-section machines for multicolor printing began. Due to the long drying time of the turpentine paints used at that time, the belt speed in the first machines did not exceed 0.5 m/s. Subsequently, thanks to the improvement of drying devices and the use of inks based on volatile solvents, the operating speed of the machines increased to 30 thousand revolutions of the plate cylinder per hour.
1897- The Harris company built a two-color planetary type letterpress press, where two plates were placed around the printing cylinder.
At the end of the 19th century, the companies Heidelberg and Mann Roland were created, which over time became leading manufacturers of printing equipment.
1905— a feeder was invented, which made it possible to increase the productivity of sheet-fed printing machines to 5 thousand letters per hour.
1906-1907— the first designs of offset printing machines were developed, the creation of which is associated with the names of lithographers K. Hermann and A. Rubel. Probably at the same time, concepts such as offset ( English. offset) and offset printing.
1907- thanks to the experience in operating single-color lithographic machines and the successful use of the “Oryol printing” method, the German company “Fochmag”, under the patent of K. Hermann, built a sheet-fed offset machine for double-sided printing, which allows printing a sheet on both sides in one run.
1907— attempts are being made to use telegraph communication in the printing industry to transmit text over long distances.
1912- a new stage in the development of flexography began thanks to the development of the Parisian company S.A. la Cellophane" production of cellophane bags, which were printed with aniline paints. The scope of flexography is gradually expanding, which is facilitated by certain advantages of this printing method over classical ones.
1922- Englishman E. Hunter developed the design of a phototypesetting machine, which consisted of a typesetting and perforating mechanism, a counting and switching device and a photoreproduction apparatus. Due to some of its similarities with the monotype, experts called it “Monophoto”.
1923- German engineer G. Spiess created a cassette folding machine.
1929- in Munich, the famous German inventor Rudolf Hell, who created the transmitting television tube, founded the Hell company.
1929-1930- American engineer Walter Gaway designed a photoelectric engraving machine.
1935- German researcher G. Neugebauer and our compatriot N.D. Nürberg outlined the scientific theory of the foundations of multicolor printing.
1936— in the USSR, the technology of printing illustrations with a stereoscopic effect was introduced into production.
1938— Emil Lumbek invented a new method of seamless fastening along the spine of a book block, which used quick-setting polyvinyl acetate dispersion (PVAD), developed in 1936 in Germany.
1938- American inventor Chester Carlson and German physicist Otto Korney developed a method for making prints using the electrophotographic method, which marked the beginning of the birth of electrophotographic printing devices for quickly obtaining both black and white and color copies from the original placed on a glass slide (Fig. 7).
1938- a three-color image was transmitted from Chicago to New York via phototelegraph communication.
1947-1948- Soviet engineer N.P. Tolmachev designed an electronic engraving machine with a change in the scale of cutting clichés.
1950-1952— in the USSR, the theoretical foundations for creating an automatic printing house equipped with a high-performance printing and finishing line for the production of books were developed.
1951- Hell company began the first work on the creation of electronic engraving machines for making clichés.
1951- a patent was issued in the USA for an inkjet head, which was actually the first digital printing device. This invention was the beginning of a fundamentally new direction in operational printing - inkjet printing.
1960s— Magnetographic printing machines are being actively developed in the USSR, to which interest has now revived abroad. The principle of their operation is similar to the operation of electrophotographic machines.
1963- Hell released the first electronic color separation machine, ChromaGgraph, the use of which for the production of color separated photo plates significantly reduced the technological process of obtaining plates for color printing.
1965- Hell, being the founder of electronic phototypesetting, produces a series of Digiset phototypesetting machines, in which the outlines of fonts and illustrations are reproduced on the screen of a cathode ray tube.
1968— a method of printing from holographic forms has been patented in the USA.
Late 1960s- The American company Cameron Machine Co. has developed a design for a printing and finishing unit for producing pocket-sized books in one run.
1966— the world’s longest line of phototelegraph transmission of newspapers from Moscow to Novosibirsk, Irkutsk and Khabarovsk came into operation.
Mid-20th century characterized by the beginning of the development of post-industrial society, when science becomes the main productive force. The structure of economic relations is changing, as a result of which intellectual capital (stocks of knowledge and skills), which is more often called human capital, becomes the main source of national wealth. The role of innovative processes (innovations) is becoming more active, without which today it is impossible to create products with a high degree of knowledge intensity and novelty. Innovation is the result of human creative activity, ensuring the achievement of high economic efficiency in the production or consumption of products. Product renewal times in the most dynamic areas are reduced to two to three years. The value of information is increasing significantly, a new community of people is emerging - a netocracy, whose members own information, the Internet, information networks: for them, the main thing is information, not money. Digital technologies for converting information are actively beginning to develop, which has determined significant revolutionary changes in the printing industry.
The World Wide Web (Internet) and other information systems are developing. At the same time, there is a danger of increasing the risk of leakage of socio-economic, scientific, technical, educational and other information, since a reliable legal barrier for this still does not exist. Road information A in production, but the costs of its distribution and reproduction are minimal, which gives rise to new problems with the advent of the Internet for the creators and copyright holders of intellectual property.
In printing, the period of transition to a post-industrial society can be conditionally linked to 1970s, when varieties of desktop publishing systems are developed and put into operation, in which the principle of converting graphic information into digital form was laid down. This made it possible to quickly process it at the stage of pre-press processes and print it in the form of single single-color copies. This is where the name “desktop printing” came from, as such systems could produce short runs of sheet-fed printed products. The quality of printing was determined by the technical capabilities of the printing devices used in desktop publishing systems. The advantage of such systems is manifested in the ability to quickly combine the shaping process with the printing of any graphical information entered digitally, excluding traditional photochemical operations. This technology is called computer-to-print - “from a computer to a printing device.”
1970s— experimental models of laser engraving machines have been developed.
1971— in the First Exemplary Printing House (Moscow) the “Book” line came into operation - the first domestic automatic line for the production of hardcover books.
1976- Linotrone AG ceased production of type-setting line casting machines, which had been going on for almost 90 years.
1977— The Leningrad Printing Machines Plant has released an industrial series of the Cascade phototypesetting complex, designed for organizing the typesetting process in printing houses of any profile.
1980s— for operational printing, the Riso Kadaku Corporation (Japan) has developed a series of digital screen printing machines - risographs, or digital duplicators. In these machines, the processes of preparing the working matrix (screen form) and the start of printing are practically combined, which makes it possible to obtain the first print with a resolution of up to 16 dots/mm 20 s after placing the original on the glass slide.
1980s- the beginning of production by the Japanese company Canon of a series of color copiers of various models.
1991— Heidelberg specialists demonstrated at the Print-91 exhibition (Chicago) a four-section offset printing machine GTOV DI, built on the basis of the serial GTO machine. If previously information from a computer was printed only on a printer, now it can be replicated on an offset printing machine. The abbreviation DI in the designation of the GTO production car is translated from English as “direct exposure”. This technology allows you to quickly create a color-separated printing form in each section based on digital data from the prepress stage for offset printing without dampening. The demonstration of the GTOV DI at the exhibition in Chicago was a great success, and the Heidelberg exposition received the Grand Prix. For the first time, the company demonstrated an offset printing machine operating on the computer-to-press principle. The developers of the GTOV DI printing machine managed to combine the efficiency of a computer with the high quality of offset printing. This was a breakthrough in the field of new digital technologies, which significantly complemented the known printing methods with new capabilities.
1993— the Indigo company (Israel) launched the E-Print digital printing machine, for which an original printing process technology was developed that combines the principles of electrophotography and offset printing.
1996- Canadian company Elcorsy Technology at the NEXPO exhibition in Las Vegas demonstrated a new digital technology for forming a colorful image - elcography, based on an electrochemical process - electrocoagulation, as a result of which a colorful image is formed on a metal cylinder when paint (a hydrophilic polymer) is applied to it. A feature and advantage of elcography is the ability to selectively transfer layers of paint of different thicknesses to areas of the print, that is, to adjust the optical density over a wide range.
1997— NUR Macroprinters (Israel) produces a Blueboard digital inkjet printer, which allows you to print a 4-color image 5 m wide with a productivity of 30 m2/h.
2000— testing of technological principles of work flow (WorkFlow), which ensures the organization of end-to-end digital control of the production process in the form of a clearly structured chain of all technological operations (route of work) for their continuous implementation.
2008— at the drupa 2008 exhibition, the organic electronics association Organic Electronic Association OE A demonstrated its achievements in the development of high technologies, taking into account the use of printing equipment. Thanks to this, in the near future a new direction in printing will be developed - the so-called printed electronics.
According to experts, the development of printing equipment and technologies designed to serve the needs of society in the near future will be focused on converting, combining traditional printing equipment with digital printing machines and technologies. Such a combination makes it possible to quickly replicate multicolor products with both variable and constant data at a sufficiently high printing level. Considering the emerging trend of world society abandoning printed books and printed products in general (according to a survey of readers), there is an active introduction of digital technologies for the production of printed products in electronic format, which was demonstrated at the drupa 2012 exhibition.
