Ensemble

Ensemble(from fr. ensemble - together, many) - means a joint performance of a musical work by several participants or a musical work for a small group of performers; a favorite type of music-making since ancient times. In accordance with the number of performers (from two to ten), the ensemble is called a duet, trio (terzetto), quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, nonet or decimet - according to the Latin name for the numbers. As independent works, ensembles belong to the field of chamber music, but are also part of operas, oratorios, and cantatas. VIA (vocal and instrumental ensembles) were common in Russia in the seventies.

History tells us one of the possible ways of forming an ensemble: another instrumental “voice” joins the poetic melody of the shepherd’s horn; it timidly seeks its way and finds it, entwining the melody of the first performer with an expressive ornament of sound laces that do not interfere with listening to this melody, but highlight its beauty , as if emphasizing inventive finds.

Several singers cheerfully perform a Russian folk round dance song. They sing it together. One simply would not have been able to produce such a variety of emotional shades, the multicolored vocal patterns created by various combinations of voices. This is also an ensemble. This is not a competition of singers, where each of the contenders for victory strives to show, first of all, their own skills. In an ensemble, on the contrary, everyone tries to balance their artistic individuality, their performing style, and technical techniques with the individuality, style, and performance techniques of their partners, which ensures coherence and harmony in the performance of a particular piece of music as a whole. The same can be said about the art of dance ensembles.

The composition of instrumental ensembles is small. Each part is performed by one musician (chamber ensembles: duet, trio, quartet, quintet, etc.). The most common compositions: piano duet, string quartet, wind instrument quintet, violin and piano duet, trio (violin, cello, piano) and others - can often be heard on the domestic and foreign concert stage.

In the 16th-18th centuries, there were various forms of polyphonic ensemble. In the era of the Viennese classics, characteristic ensemble genres were formed that have retained their significance to this day (violin duet with piano, string quartet, etc.).

We live in the heyday of ensemble music-making, which has given rise to a wide variety of ensembles: percussion instruments, ancient music (“Madrigal”), etc. “Moscow Virtuosi” are also very famous. There are usually few participants in the ensemble, so when playing music together, each of them can be heard playing, which places special demands on the performer’s skill: he must have special sensitivity, responsiveness, creative intuition, which suggests a certain mood in a complex and exciting ensemble playing with partners.

The ability to balance one’s own capabilities and the capabilities of another is called ensemble performance. High examples of the ensemble were shown by the trio L. N. Oborin, D. F. Oistrakh, S. N. Knushevitsky or the duet S. T. Richter and Oistrakh. Violinist V. T. Spivakov and violist Yu. A. Bashmet, who interpret duets by V. A. Mozart, are considered true virtuosos. Their playing captivates them with its temperament, unexpected sound and at the same time an extraordinary degree of mutual understanding, without which a true ensemble is impossible.

Each VIA has its own leader (perhaps more than one). This is a highly professional musician who composes and arranges for the ensemble, and an artistic director who cares about the overall “class” of the ensemble, its style, the creation and constant updating of the repertoire; this is also a manager who is able to combine a reasonable touring load for the ensemble with the rehearsal period necessary for the creative growth of the musicians; finally, it is often a director who knows how to build a single program from many disparate musical works in compliance with the specific laws of pop entertainment. It is the leaders who bear the main responsibility for the creative destiny of the ensemble, for the selection of techniques and means that, given the general characteristics of the genre, give a particular VIA “a face that is not a general expression.”

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Polyphony

Polyphony (from the Greek “poly” - “many”, “phon” - “sound”) is a type of polyphonic music in which several independent equal melodies sound simultaneously. This is its difference from homophony (from the Greek “homo” - “equal”), where only one voice is leading, and the others accompany it...

An ensemble is a joint performance of a musical composition by several participants. It can be vocal, instrumental and dance. An ensemble itself is also called an ensemble intended for a small group of performers. Depending on their number, it can have different names and be called a quartet, quintet, sextet, and so on.

An ensemble can be an independent work that belongs to the field of chamber music. They are found in choral music and also in cantatas, operas, oratorios, etc. The name, born in the field of academic music, “migrated” and successfully took root in others. For example, in Soviet music of the 1970s, the genre of the vocal-instrumental ensemble - VIA - was very widespread.

In choral studies

An ensemble is an artistic unity, a harmonious whole, mutual consistency. In choral practice there is a distinction between a private ensemble and a general one. The first of them is characterized by a unison group of singers, predominantly of the same type in composition. The general ensemble is a combination of unison groups of the entire choir. Its main difference from the private one is that it is independent. The formation of a high-quality ensemble is a rather complex, lengthy and labor-intensive process. This is an entire art that requires singers to have an ensemble sense and the ability to hear the voices of their partners. The choir sounds ideal only if it is correctly assembled.

Inadmissible and necessary moments for creating the best ensemble

The vocal ensemble will sound harmonious and beautiful if you take into account some important points. Among the unacceptable factors, the following should be highlighted:

• the parts should not be unequal in sound strength, quality and timbre;
• in the collective composition of singers, large disproportions should be avoided;
• The presence of “swinging” and “trembling” voices is highly undesirable;
• Singers with a harsh “throaty”, “flat” or “squeezed” sound should not participate;
• Participants who have speech impairments ("lisp", "burr" and others) will make it more difficult to work with the ensemble.

Among the necessary points it should be noted:

• singers must have good solo voices;
• all voices must be similar in timbre to each other. This results in a more cohesive and unison sound;
• correct placement of singers within each part. The presence of gradual transitions from lighter voices to heavier ones;
• quantitative and qualitative balance of parties;
• All singers must have musicality and the ability to listen to each other.

Varieties

There are several types of vocal ensemble:

• pitch-intonation,
• tempo-rhythmic,
• metro-rhythmic,
• dynamic,
• timbre,
• agogic,
• articulatory,
• homophonic-harmonic,
• polyphonic.

Each of them has its own characteristics. The purpose of the pitch-intonation ensemble is the tight unity of absolutely all voices. Singers of a tempo-rhythmic ensemble are distinguished by their ability to simultaneously begin (finish) the whole work and its individual parts. At the same time, they constantly feel the metrical beat, sing at a given tempo and accurately convey the rhythmic pattern. The main task of the timbre ensemble is the attentive attitude of the participants to the overall sound and tone color. They pay due attention to the proportionality of shades and the softness of the sound of voices. A dynamic ensemble is, first of all, the balance of the strength of the voices within each part, as well as the consistency of the sound volume. Dynamic balance is inextricably linked with tempo-rhythmic and timbre ensembles. Articulatory - involves the development of a unified manner of pronouncing the text. The difficulty of a polyphonic ensemble lies in the combination of the unity of the compositional plan with the originality of each line. It is equally important to preserve the expressiveness of the second and third plan.

Folklore ensemble

It seems that folklore is a thing of the past. However, it still exists. After all, a living tradition fades into the past, but is then resurrected.

At the moment, folklore holidays and festivals are widely popular. Therefore, we should not forget that in our country there are people who are engaged in folk culture.

This is the Russian ensemble “Theatre of Folk Music”. Its leader is Tamara Smyslova. The repertoire of the folklore ensemble includes motifs of the ancient Slavs, Cossack songs, and collections of the Russian North and South. The material was collected over many years throughout Russia and made it possible to create such programs as “Russian People's Theater”, “Peasant Calendar Holidays”, “Russian Wedding Rite” and others. Therefore, such teams should be proud.

Cheonan World Dance Festival 2014

Among the grandiose events of dance art in 2014, it is worth noting the international festival-competition held in the Republic of Korea. It took place from September 30 to October 5. 38 teams from 22 countries took part.

The Grand Prix (the highest award) was shared between representatives of Turkey and North Ossetia. The top five best groups included a folk dance ensemble from Yakutsk (which represented Russia). Many producers were fascinated by its participants and became interested in the national color, repertoire and originality of movements.

Probably every person is partial to music. It accompanies humanity inextricably; it is impossible to determine exactly when a person learned to perceive it. Most likely, this happened when our ancestor, trying to express his emotions, hit the hollow. Since then, man and music are inextricably linked; today there are many of its genres, styles and directions. This is folklore, spiritual and, finally, classical instrumental - symphonic and chamber music. Almost everyone knows what this movement is and how chamber music exists, but few know what its differences and features are. Let's try to figure this out later in the article.

The history of chamber music

The history of chamber music dates back to the Middle Ages. In the 16th century, music began to go beyond the confines of churches. Some authors began to write works that were performed outside church walls for a small circle of connoisseurs. It should be noted that at first these were only vocal parts, and chamber instrumental music appeared much later. But first things first.

The chamber music is mesmerizing. Everyone probably remembers that this name comes from the Italian word camera (“room”). Unlike church and theater music, chamber music was originally intended to be performed indoors by a small group for a narrow circle of listeners. As a rule, performances took place at home, and later in small concert halls. Chamber instrumental music reached the peak of its popularity in the 18th-19th centuries, when similar concerts were held in all the living rooms of wealthy houses. Later, aristocrats even introduced full-time positions for musicians.

Images of chamber music

Initially, chamber music was intended to be performed in front of a small circle of people who were its connoisseurs and experts. And the size of the room where the concert took place allowed performers and listeners to be in close contact with each other. All this created a unique atmosphere of belonging. Perhaps this is why such art is characterized by a high ability to reveal lyrical emotions and various nuances of human experiences.

The genres of chamber music could not be more precisely designed to be conveyed using laconic, but at the same time, detailed means. Unlike where parts are performed by groups of instruments, in such works a separate part is written for each instrument, and all of them are practically equal to each other.

Types of chamber instrumental ensemble

As history progressed, so did chamber music. That such a direction should have some peculiarities in relation to the performers does not require proof. Modern instrumental ensembles are:

• duets (two performers);
• trio (three members);
• quartets (four);
• quintets (five);
• sextets (six);
• septets (seven);
• octets (eight);
• nonet (nine);
• decimetes (ten).

At the same time, the instrumental composition can be very diverse. It can include both strings, and one ensemble can include only strings or only winds. There may also be mixed chamber ensembles - the piano is especially often included in them. In general, their composition is limited by only one thing - the composer’s imagination, and it is most often limitless. In addition, there are also chamber orchestras - groups that include no more than 25 musicians.

Genres of instrumental chamber music

Modern genres of chamber music were formed under the influence of the works of such great composers as W. A. ​​Mozart, L. Beethoven, I. Haydn. It was these masters who created works unsurpassed in terms of refinement of content and emotional depth. The most famous romantics of the 19th century paid tribute to sonatas, duets, trios, quartets and quintets: F. Mendelssohn, R. Schumann, F. Schubert, F. Chopin. In addition, the genre of instrumental miniatures (nocturnes, intermezzos) also gained enormous popularity at this time.

There are also chamber concerts, suites, fugues, and cantatas. Even in the 18th century, the genres of chamber music were extremely diverse. In addition, they absorbed stylistic features of other trends and styles. For example, L. Beethoven’s desire to push the boundaries of such a phenomenon as chamber music is so clearly visible that his work such as the “Kreutzer Sonata” is in no way inferior to symphonic works in its monumentalism and emotional intensity.

Genres of vocal chamber music

In the 19th century, vocal chamber music gained enormous popularity. The likes of R. Schumann, F. Schubert, and J. Brahms paid tribute to the emerging new genres of art song and romance. Russian composers have made an invaluable contribution to the world collection of chamber music works. The magnificent romances of M. I. Glinka, P. I. Tchaikovsky, M. P. Mussorgsky, M. A. Rimsky-Korsakov even today do not leave anyone indifferent. In addition to small works, there is also a genre of chamber opera. It involves a small number of performers and does not require a large room for production.

Chamber music today

Of course, today there are practically no such houses where, as in past centuries, chamber ensembles play surrounded by a limited circle of people. However, contrary to existing stereotypes, this direction remains in great demand. Organ and chamber music halls around the world attract millions of fans of both the works of classical composers and contemporary authors. Festivals are held regularly where famous and emerging artists share their art.

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The article examines the historical aspect of the emergence and development of chamber ensembles, as well as the specifics and basic principles of work in a chamber instrumental ensemble of a mixed type. Ensemble music-making is revealed not only as a type of performing activity, but also as a type and form of teaching music. Sustained interest of students in ensemble music making allows them to effectively solve narrow technological problems of improving performing skills, develop the entire range of musical abilities, and solve problems of general and musical development of students. Attention is drawn to the main problems that arise in the process of work: the formation of interpersonal interaction and compatibility of performers; transformation of ideas about the role functions of instrumental partners of the ensemble; development of dynamic, line and metro-rhythmic synchrony of performance; Features of the arrangement of the score for the ensemble.

synchronization of execution

interpersonal compatibility

score arrangement

mixed ensemble

chamber music

1. Byaly I. From the history of the piano trio: Genesis and formation of the genre / I. Byaly. – M.: Muzyka, 1989. – 94 p.

2. Davidyan R.R. Quartet art: Problems of performance - theoretical foundations, practical experience / R.R. Davidyan. – 2nd ed., add. and processed – M.: Muzyka, 1994. – 318 p.

3. Lukyanova E.P. Chamber ensemble as a type of musical performing art (psychological aspect) / E.P. Lukyanova // Problems of ensemble performance: Interuniversity collection of articles / Ural. State Conservatory named after M.P. Mussorgsky. – Ekaterinburg, 2007. –S. 6 -17.

4. Milman M.V. Thoughts on chamber ensemble pedagogy and performance / M.V. Milman // Chamber ensemble: Pedagogy and performance - M.: Muzyka, 1979. - p. 64-76.

5. Mironov L.N. Beethoven Trio / L.N. Mironov. – M.: Muzyka, 1974. – 125 s.

6. Nemykina I.N., Grishkova O.Yu. Features of interpersonal interaction between musicians in a chamber ensemble / I.N. Nemykina, O.Yu. Grishkova // Modern problems of science and education. – 2013. – No. 6; URL: http://www..12.2013).

7. Stokowski L. Music for all of us / L. Stokowski. – M: Soviet composer, 1963. – 378 p.

8. Farfel V.S. Movement control in sports / V.S. Farfel. – M.: Soviet Sport, 2010. – 200 p.

Ensemble performance is an important component of the process of educating a musician. Playing in an ensemble, as a rule, is perceived by students with great enthusiasm and enthusiasm, which is due to the specifics of this type of performance - a piece of music is scored in the joint work of several participants.

The modern system of music education allows the use of non-standard forms of joint music making in lessons. However, in order to identify the features of the work of a teacher-musician with non-standard chamber ensembles, one should consider the historical aspect of the emergence and development of chamber ensembles in general, as well as the basic principles of work in a chamber instrumental ensemble of a mixed type.

Chamber instrumental music as a specific type of musical art differs significantly from theatrical, symphonic and concert music, as it was originally intended for home music-making and performance in small spaces. This is what led to its name. The instrumental composition of a chamber ensemble ranges from one soloist to ten or twelve.

The first stage in the evolution of chamber ensemble genres took place in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance and was associated with the formation of instrumental and vocal polyphony. Instrumental genres were characterized by free counterpointing of parts. In the 17th century, a process of genre differentiation of chamber-ensemble music took place, as well as its division into church and chamber music. Within the framework of formation during this period, there was no precise division into solos, duets, trios, and quartets. At the request of the performers, the composition of the ensemble could be transformed into any other, because the number of voices in the ensemble did not necessarily correlate with the number of participants. According to I. Bialy, ensembles of the Baroque era “are motley combinations of strings, winds, keyboards and plucked instruments.” For example, trio sonatas, which were widespread at that time, could contain from one to five instrumental parts.

In the era of Classicism, the types and forms of joint group performance began to acquire their own specificity, the process of crystallization of the main chamber-ensemble genres took place - string trios and quartets, trios, piano duets, sonatas for strings or wind instruments with piano. The main types of chamber instrumental ensemble were formed in the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school I. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart, L. Beethoven, who created samples that were deep in content and perfect in form. The improvisational principle in performance is used less frequently, and the level of fixity of the composer's text increases.

Further, chamber music found its development in the works of romantic composers (F. Schubert, F. Mendelssohn, R. Schumann). In the era of Romanticism, the classical genre features of the chamber-instrumental ensemble were established and consolidated, composers wrote works for the piano trio, and quintets, sextets, septets and octets were also often found.

In the 20th century, the chamber ensemble became the leading sphere of creativity for composers and performers. Its specificity is associated with the leading trends of this historical period - post-romanticism, impressionism, expressionism and neoclassicism. We find all this in the chamber works of outstanding Russian composers (P. I. Tchaikovsky, A. P. Borodin, A. K. Glazunov, etc.), whose traditions were continued by N. Ya. Myaskovsky, S. S. Prokofiev, D. D. Shostakovich and others.

The chamber instrumental ensemble not only has rich expressive capabilities, but also creates conditions for the development of the professional culture of a performing musician of any specialty. As an academic discipline, chamber ensemble is included in the curricula of professional and special music educational institutions. The chamber ensemble is included in the list of state exams of professional music educational institutions, which once again shows its importance in the education of a professional musician.

The modern sociocultural situation has made its own adjustments to the traditional understanding of the chamber ensemble. Today in performing practice we encounter many musical phenomena that did not exist in the 20th century, not to mention the 19th century. Thus, in chamber practice, mixed ensembles have appeared that combine previously incompatible instruments: keyboards, strings, winds, folk and percussion. This situation has sharply aggravated the situation with the methodological support of the educational musical process, since most of the available teaching aids discuss the problems of teaching methods in chamber ensembles exclusively of the classical type (string quartets, piano duets and trios).

Despite the fact that historically mixed ensembles were the primary form of coexistence of musicians, in the pedagogical support of the educational process today there is a clear imbalance between the wide distribution of completely original mixed ensembles and the absence, firstly, of transcriptions of musical works and, secondly, the lack of development of teaching methods in such ensembles.

In this article we strive to substantiate the basic principles of work in a chamber instrumental ensemble of a mixed type using the example of a chamber ensemble that exists on the basis of the Sunday school of the Church of the Icon of the Mother of God “Joy of All Who Sorrow” on Kalitniki (Moscow). One of the main problems of working here is the unification in a chamber ensemble of participants of different age categories playing different musical instruments. In such ensembles you can often observe a combination of wind, strings, folk instruments, piano, guitar and drums.

Sunday schools are parish schools at churches, where children are taught about the basics of the Law of God, taught drawing, modeling, Russian history, and singing. With older children they study the New Testament, the Old Testament, Liturgics, Church history, church singing and the Slavic language. Also, children who have basic musical education at children's art schools and children's music schools study chamber instrumental ensemble. Since there are few such children, they are collected into a single ensemble, and the teacher is given the task of teaching children of different ages and specialties: mixed types of ensembles appear, consisting of students of different age groups, musical training, temperaments and instruments.

Modern composers also write works for mixed ensembles, but in the context of working in Sunday schools it is not possible to make requests to composers, since the composition of participants can vary throughout the year. In this regard, the teacher himself needs to make arrangements for the chamber ensemble. When transcribing a score for a mixed ensemble, it is necessary to pay attention to the age and training of the performers.

The mixed ensemble in question includes the following performers: recorder (A.N. - 10 years old, 3rd grade Children's Music School), flute (S.A. - 17 years old, graduated from Children's Music School in flute class 3 years ago), violin (A.M. . - 7 years old, 1st grade. Children's Music School), violin (S.M. - 17 years old, 8th grade. Music School, 4th year of studying violin, previously studied piano), saxophone (N.Z. - 18 years old, graduated from the Children's Music School in saxophone class 4 years ago), piano (S.A. - 10 years, 4th grade. Children's Music School).

In this case, there are two possible options for writing transcriptions for an ensemble: simplifying orchestral scores and dividing piano works into voices. Since the main condition in the ensemble is the principle of equality, it is advisable to write the melody in such a way that it moves from one instrument to another, taking into account timbre-dynamic synchrony.

In the proposed version of the ensemble, in most cases the main melodic role is taken by the violin and flute, since they are in equal tessitura conditions, and the melody can either move from one instrument to another or sound in unison.

A special place in such an ensemble is occupied by the saxophone, which differs from others primarily in the volume of its sound. It is advisable to perform it with a mute so as not to disturb the overall dynamic balance. Depending on the piece, the saxophone can play a melody (possible overlap with several instruments at once), or a bass line (thus not competing in tessitura with other instruments). With general nuances in the score, it makes more sense to write pauses in the saxophone part.

The piano in such an ensemble most often plays a harmonizing role and performs transitions between parts. The pianist in such an ensemble needs to be given special attention. If other instruments from the first grades have the practice of playing together (with an accompanist, in ensembles, orchestra), then the initial education of a pianist involves the acquisition of solo playing skills.

Thus, from the very beginning of classes, the teacher needs to pay attention to the difference in the methods of solo and ensemble performance. The pianist's performance involves a timbral fusion with the instrumentalists, ensuring technical and dynamic synchrony. L. Stokowski emphasized that: “Chamber performance develops an understanding of sound balance, teaches the combination of the sound of individual instruments and performing manners.”

You should also pay attention to the sequence of work in the ensemble. We focus on three stages: introductory, preparatory and performance.

The familiarization stage involves activating attention and perception of a musical work. During this period, it is recommended that the teacher work individually with each ensemble member. The student needs to learn to listen not only to his part, but also to the general framework of the work.

The goal of the preparatory stage is to go through the piece with groups of instruments, the tessitura of which allows, if possible, to interchange parts (for example, violins and flutes can change parts). At this stage, it is useful to sight-read not complex works, which allows the performers to develop quick orientation in new works, and also develops the conductor's beginnings.

The performing stage is based on the study of the work by the entire ensemble; performers face such tasks as strengthening auditory attention in connection with the expansion of the instrumental composition, sharpening the individual beginning of each instrumentalist, as well as working on synchronicity.

At all stages, the harmonious development of interpersonal relationships based on the principles of friendliness and mutual understanding is important. These relationships differ from other performing types by the equal nature of the ensemble members’ communication. As M.V. emphasizes Milman: “...in ensemble playing the principle of equality prevails. ... In the accompaniment there is a soloist and a participant accompanying the soloist; in the ensemble everyone is equal, all parts are equally valuable.”

There are two options for forming a chamber ensemble as a single whole: by suppressing or self-limiting the individuality of the partners, or by demonstrating the personal nature of each ensemble player. We assume that these options do not contradict, but complement each other, and the need to subordinate the performer to the ensemble helps to identify his artistic individuality. The process of adaptation of participants to each other on the basis of equality requires complex psychological work, and the larger the composition of the ensemble, the longer this period. To achieve synchrony with other ensemble players, successful solution of problems is required, such as psychological compatibility, dynamic, line, metro-rhythmic synchrony, etc. Let's consider some of them.

One of the main tasks of ensemble performance is the correct balance of sound. First of all, the pianist and saxophonist are required to carefully regulate the sound, bringing the strength and character closer to the sound of other instruments. As L. N. Mironov points out, the piano part “being, due to its usually polyphonic and more rich and developed texture, as if leading (first among equals), ... often gives the pianist a reason to perform it too loudly, suppressing the sound of bowed instruments. The truth is that the other extreme is no better - a situation in which the piano loses its natural sound and acquires the character of a cautious, timid accompaniment of bowed instruments.” The pianist and saxophonist are required to balance the sonority with string and wind instruments, and also take into account the difference in the strength and character of the sound of the registers.

Work on strokes also requires significant attention. Ensemblists need to thoroughly study the technology and shading specifics of the instruments participating in the ensemble in order to bring their sound closer in appropriate places. Thus, in the works of a chamber ensemble there is often a line detache, which string players perform with a separate movement of the bow without leaving the string, and wind players with a clear attack of individual sounds with smooth breathing. On the piano this line corresponds to legato, in which the hand is removed from the key just before the next note is played.

One of the most difficult tasks in a chamber ensemble is the sense of metro rhythm, which is the main organizing factor. Rhythmic errors lead to a false sound (for example, when one of the ensemble players finished a phrase, and the other, without counting the required number of beats, began the next one), which results in a distortion of the author's text.

Metro-rhythmic synchrony presupposes such qualities of performers as emotional reaction, intuition, memory based on muscle and auditory sensations, which depend on the type of temperament and nervous system. It should be noted that the motor and emotional nature of the sense of rhythm for each performer is individual, so it is important to determine how ensemble players perceive the metro-rhythmic organization in music.

To determine the ensemble players’ sense of personal tempo, the following experiment can be conducted: a stopwatch is turned on and the ensemble players are asked to mentally count one minute. When, in the opinion of the performers, the minute is over, the stopwatch is stopped. The difference in the feeling of internal time can reach up to 30-35 seconds. In this case, it is necessary to devote a lot of time to working on the metro rhythm in the ensemble in order to reduce the intermediate time sensation between performers. According to physiologist V.S. Farfel, as a result of training, you can learn to control the time of movement with an accuracy of a fraction of a second. As a rule, after such experiments, ensemble players are more demanding of themselves and their partners regarding issues of metro-rhythmic synchrony.

Thus, when working with a chamber instrumental ensemble of a mixed type, the teacher must solve such basic problems as the lack of original works for such a composition, the formation of interpersonal interaction and a sense of collectivism among performers. Joint performance develops a culture of musical communication, enriches the imagination of partners, allows you to be more confident on stage, and within the framework of Sunday school, a chamber ensemble is also a necessary link in the spiritual and moral development of children.

Reviewers:

Nemykina I.N., Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor, Professor of the Department of Musicology and Music Education, Moscow State Humanitarian University. M.A. Sholokhov" Ministry of Education and Science of Russia, Moscow;

Rapatskaya L.A., Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor, Dean of the Faculty of Culture and Musical Art of the Moscow State Humanitarian University. M.A. Sholokhov" Ministry of Education and Science of Russia, Moscow.

Bibliographic link

Grishkova O.Yu. FEATURES OF THE WORK OF A MUSICIAN TEACHER WITH A MIXED TYPE CHAMBER ENSEMBLE // Modern problems of science and education. – 2014. – No. 5.;
URL: http://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=15221 (access date: 10/28/2019). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"

MUSICAL FORM
“Form” in music refers to the organization of the musical whole, ways of developing musical material, as well as the genre designations that authors give to their works. In the process of creativity, the composer inevitably comes to a certain formal structure, a kind of plan, a scheme, which serves as the basis for the manifestations of creative imagination and skill. The concept of form in music has many meanings. Some prefer to use this term only in relation to the structure of the work. Others classify it under different genre designations, which may a) indicate the general nature of the music (for example, nocturne); b) involve a special composition technique (for example, motet or fugue); c) be based on a rhythmic model or tempo (minuet); d) include extra-musical meanings or terms (for example, symphonic poem); e) indicate the manner of performance (concert) or the number of performers (quartet); f) be associated with a specific historical era and its tastes (waltz), as well as with national flavor (polonaise). In reality, despite the abundance of such definitions, there are only a few fundamental formal structures, and if a composer settles on one or another genre designation, this does not mean that he is tied to any particular structural type. The main compositional schemes or plans in music are based on three principles: repetition, variation and contrast, and are manifested in it through the interaction of rhythm, melody, harmony, timbre and texture. Forms based on repetition, variation and contrast are characteristic of both vocal and instrumental genres. Vocal works are often characterized by a strophic form, within which different poetic stanzas correspond to the same melody and the element of contrast is introduced only by the poetic text: this is why the strophic form in its pure form is not found in instrumental genres. Both vocal and instrumental compositions are characterized by a form with a repeating section - a refrain. Sometimes the strophic form is modified by the introduction of one or more contrasting stanzas, in which case it approaches the so-called. composite composition. The main strophic structures are as follows: Verse form A-A-A-A-A, etc. Two-part form A-B Three-part form A-B-A Form with refrain (rondo) A-B-A-C-A Variation form A-A1-A2-A3-A4-A5, etc. More complex forms arise from changes or extensions of basic structures (for example, rondo is often written according to the pattern: A-B-A-C-A-B-A). There are works that are based on the principle of continuous continuation: such is the “endless melody” in Wagner’s musical dramas - here it is impossible to draw a clear boundary between sections. The German term durchkomponiert (“based on cross-cutting development”) is attached to such forms. This type of organization is typical for works related to words or oriented towards a literary program, often towards a specific literary work. The principle of development, which originated in music much later than the principle of repetition, is especially typical for purely instrumental compositions. It differs from the strophic structures described above in that the thematic material is treated not only as a structural unit suitable for repetition and variation: it identifies elements that change and interact with each other and with other themes (sonata form demonstrates this principle especially clearly).
See also SONATA. When combining musical fragments, each of which is written according to its own structural model, into a larger whole, the so-called. cyclic form (opera, oratorio, sonata, quartet, symphony, suite, concert, etc.). In this case, each fragment is called a “part” and has its own designation of tempo and nature of performance. Form in music is an evolving, dynamic phenomenon. In the past, new forms arose as responses to liturgical needs, or to changes in social life, or to the invention of new instruments and new ways of playing them, etc. We can safely say that new functions of music, new conditions of social life, new compositional and performing techniques, new inventions (for example, electronic instruments) will lead to the emergence of new forms (in the sense of genre designations) and new methods of composition.
DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL FORMS
INTERMISSION
(French entracte, from entre, “between” and acte, “action”). Instrumental music heard between acts of a dramatic play, opera, ballet, etc. Arioso (Italian: arioso). Literally - “little aria”; the term refers to a vocal lyric work with a freer form than an aria, incorporating recitative elements.
ARIA
(English and French air, Italian aria). In the most general sense - a melody, as well as: 1) a song for voice with accompaniment (for example, in English music of the Elizabethan era - a song with lute accompaniment); 2) aria in French or English opera of the 17th-18th centuries. The term is also applied to an instrumental piece of a lyrical nature, written in the manner of an aria (for example, in J. S. Bach's Third Orchestral Suite). 3) In early opera (17th century) - a short strophic song with accompaniment. In the opera and oratorio of subsequent centuries (up to Wagner) there are solo vocal fragments. The basic form of early operatic aria is the da capo aria, using a symmetrical A-B-A structural pattern. See also OPERA.
BAGATELLE
(French bagatelle "trinket"). A short instrumental piece (usually for keyboard instruments). The first to use this name was F. Couperin, a composer of the late Baroque; however, the genre became quite widespread in the music of the 19th century. only after Beethoven created his bagatelles op. 33, 119, 126.
BALLAD (English ballad, German Ballade, French ballade). Its origin is a dance song. Already in the 13th century. The English ballad became a special solo song form, and in subsequent periods this genre did not undergo significant changes. Nowadays a ballad is a romantic-narrative, often sentimental song of a popular type.
In the French tradition, this term refers to a medieval form cultivated by trouvères - musicians of the knightly era in northern France. The French ballad is similar to the canzone genre in the art of the troubadours of Provence and the so-called form. bar at the German Minnesingers. Basically, this is a strophic solo song without accompaniment, usually consisting of three stanzas, with each stanza corresponding to the musical structure A-A-B and in each stanza the last two lines form a refrain - unchanged for all stanzas. Master of the French school of the 14th century. Guillaume de Machaut was one of the first to introduce this structure into polyphonic works. In the 15th century other famous masters, for example, Guillaume Dufay and Josquin des Pres, composed polyphonic ballads, and this form retained its significance throughout the 16th century.
In the German tradition, the term "ballad" refers to vocal and instrumental works of the 19th century based on romantic plots, often with the intervention of otherworldly forces: for example, Schubert's famous ballad The King of the Forest according to Goethe. Piano ballads of lyrical-dramatic content - not necessarily having a literary program, but implying some kind of romantic conflict - were composed by Chopin, Brahms, and Fauré.
BALLATA
(Italian: ballata). The Italian ballata does not come from the French ballad, but from the French virelay (virelai, chanson ballade) - a dance song performed by a soloist or several singers. In the 13th century ballata was monophonic, but in the 14th century, during the era of the Italian ars nova, it became polyphonic. Typically the ballata consists of three stanzas, each containing six lines, with a single-voice refrain repeated at the beginning and end of the stanza. Famous ballatas belong to the Italian composer Francesco Landino.
BALLETTO
(Italian balletto). A type of madrigal, a vocal composition of a dance nature, more chordal than polyphonic in nature; a feature of the genre is the introduction of additional “meaningless” syllables into the text, such as “fa-la-la”: hence another name for the genre - “fa-la”, first noted by the English composer and theorist Thomas Morley (1597). This use of syllables, which became widespread in England, turned some sections of balletto into purely rhythmic passages reminiscent of instrumental dances. The same term is applied to purely instrumental sections in orchestral suites and keyboard cycles by authors of the 17th and 18th centuries. (for example, Balletti by Girolamo Frescobaldi) - as if to remind us of the vocal origin of the genre.
BARCAROLA
(Italian barcarola). An instrumental or vocal piece based on the songs of Venetian gondoliers (from Italian barca "boat"). Barcarolle usually has a calm tempo and is composed in 6/8 or 12/8 time, with an accompaniment depicting the splashing of waves outside the gondola. The barcarolles of Chopin, Mendelssohn, Fauré (piano), Schubert (for voice and piano) and Offenbach (for soloists, chorus and orchestra in the opera The Tales of Hoffmann) are famous.
VARIATIONS
(Latin variatio, “change”). Variation is one of the fundamental principles of musical composition (see the introductory section of this article); variations can also be an independent instrumental form, which can be easily represented in the form of the following diagram: A (theme)-A1-A2-A3-A4-A5, etc.
DIVERTISSEMENT
(Italian divertimento, French divertissement, “entertainment”). A form of light, entertaining instrumental music, especially popular in Vienna in the late 18th century. The divertimento was composed for a small ensemble of wind or strings and in form resembled an ancient suite consisting of different dances. On the other hand, the divertissement contained some features of the future symphony. Many divertissements can be found in the heritage of Haydn and Mozart.
DUET
(Italian duetto from Latin duo, “two”). A vocal or instrumental piece for two performers with or without accompaniment; the parties are equal in rights.
INVENTION
(Latin inventio, "invention"). This term was first used by a 16th century composer. Clément Janequin to designate chansons of complex shape. Later the term was applied (like the term "fantasy") to plays of the polyphonic type. In the works of Francesco Bonporti it refers to works for violin and basso continuo (1712); in the works of J. S. Bach, the name of the Invention is the famous keyboard cycle, consisting of 15 two-voice polyphonic pieces. The second part of the cycle, including 15 three-voice pieces, bears the author's name Sinfonia, but today they are more often called "inventions".
INTERMEZZO
(Italian intermezzo, “between”). Performed between sections of a work (for example, between scenes in an opera), usually in order to indicate a gap in time between the action of the previous and subsequent scenes or to fill a pause necessary for a change of scenery (for example, in Mascagni's Rural Honour). In another sense, the term "intermezzo" appears in Italian opera of the late 17th and early 18th centuries: this was the name for a small entertainment performance with characters of a folk type, whose adventures are very different from the "high" feelings of the heroes of "serious" opera. These intermezzos, performed between acts of the opera, enjoyed great success; a striking example is the Servant-Mistress G. Pergolesi. They were also performed separately, thus serving as the basis for the comic opera genre. In the music of the Romantic era, the term "intermezzo" refers to short pieces of a meditative nature, such as the piano intermezzos of Schumann (op. 4) and Brahms (op. 76, 117).
CANON
(Greek kanon, “rule”, “model”, “measurement”). A polyphonic piece based on exact imitation: voices enter alternately with the same theme. In early examples of the genre, the word canon denoted a remark in the notes, indicating the method of performing the canon. Canonical techniques were first developed in 14th century forms. - company (Italian rota, “wheel”) and caccia (Italian caccia, “hunt”). If the melodic line can return to the beginning and repeat itself again, a so-called endless, circular canon (rota, rondola, round). The canons are quite typical of ars nova music in the 14th century. and for the art of the Renaissance: for example, the so-called. rakokhod - a canon in counter-movement, where the melody is combined with its imitation, performed from end to beginning. A well-known example of such a canon is Guillaume de Machaut's chanson My end is my beginning, and my beginning is my end. There are wonderful instrumental canons in J. S. Bach’s cycles Goldberg Variations and Musical Offering, in Haydn’s quartet op.76 (No. 2), in S. Frank’s violin sonata in A major.
See also FUGA.
CANTATA (Italian: cantata). The name first appears in the 17th century, when the rapid development of instrumentalism brought forward the need for a clear distinction between genres, on the one hand, including voices (from Italian cantare, “to sing”), and on the other, those written only for instruments (for example, sonata, from Italian. sonare, "to sound"). The name "cantata" could refer to either a sacred or a secular work; in the latter case, a form reminiscent of early opera was meant, only on a smaller scale: it consisted of a series of arias and recitatives for one or more singers with accompaniment. The cantata genre reached its highest point of development in the work of Bach, who usually wrote cantatas based on Lutheran hymns (chorales) for soloists, choir and orchestra.
See also ORATORY.
CANZONA
(Italian canzone, "song"). In the 16th century This was the name given to secular polyphonic songs of a simpler structure than a madrigal. "Canzone" could also mean an instrumental piece (canzone de sonar, "song for playing"). The instrumental canzone is similar in form to the ricercar or fantasia, differing only in a more agile tempo. In opera of the 18th and 19th centuries. A canzone was a small, simple aria in form - in contrast to the usual, more detailed aria: such, for example, is the canzone "Voi che sapete" in Mozart's Marriage of Figaro. In the era of romanticism, a canzona could be called an instrumental form based on themes of a song nature: for example, the second movement of Tchaikovsky’s Fourth Symphony.
CANZONETTA
(Italian canzonetta). Small canzone.
CAPRICCIO
capriccio, caprice (Italian capriccio, French caprice). An instrumental piece of completely free form. In the 16th-18th centuries. A capriccio was a polyphonic, fugue work, similar to a fantasia, ricercar or canzone ("Capriccio sopra il cucu" by G. Frescobaldi or capriccio from Bach's Second Clavier Partita). In the 19th century the term began to refer to a highly virtuosic work (24 caprices for solo violin by Paganini), or to a short piece of an improvisational nature (Piano Caprices op. 116 by Brahms), or to an orchestral composition such as a medley on folk or well-known themes (Tchaikovsky's Italian Capriccio).
QUARTET
(Italian quartetto; from Latin quartus, “fourth”). A work for four instrumentalists, usually in the form of a sonata cycle. The most common string quartet: two violins, viola, cello. The literature for this ensemble is extremely rich (Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms, a number of authors of the 20th century - for example, M. Ravel, B. Bartok, P. Hindemith, D. D. Shostakovich). The string quartet gained great importance by the mid-18th century. The name "quartet" can also refer to an ensemble of four singers with or without accompaniment (for example, the quartet from Verdi's Rigoletto). There are also other compositions of instrumental quartets.
QUINTET
(Italian quintetto; from Latin quintus, “fifth”). A work for five instrumentalists, usually in the form of a sonata cycle. Usually another instrument is added to a string quartet - for example, a clarinet (Mozart's Quintet in A major, K. 581) or a piano (Brahms' Quintet in F minor, op. 88). Like the term "quartet", "quintet" can refer to an ensemble of singers (Wagner, Die Meistersinger of Nuremberg). Quintet of wind instruments is quite common.
CONDUCT
(Latin conductus, from conduco, “I lead”, “I accompany”). In the 12th-13th centuries. a choral work on a Latin text, secular or sacred. Conducts were first single-voice, and then polyphonic - for two, three or even four voices. Unlike other forms of early polyphony, the conduction is a free composition; it does not use one or another pre-existing melody (the so-called cantus firmus). Another characteristic feature of the conduction is the use of a single text and a single rhythmic pattern in all voices.
CONCERT (Italian concerto, from Latin concertare, “to compete”). Usually - a composition in cyclic form for one or more soloists and orchestra. After 1750, the concerto and symphony are created according to approximately the same model, but, unlike a symphony, the concerto usually consists of three parts. See also CONCERT.
CONCERTO GROSSO
(Italian: concerto grosso, “big concert”). The genre, typical of the High Baroque era (early 18th century), is usually a three-movement (fast - slow - fast) or four-movement (slow - fast - slow - fast) cycle in which two or more concerto soloists (concertino) "compete" with the rest of the orchestra or ensemble (tutti or ripieno).
KECH
(English catch, from Italian caccia, “hunt”). A circular, endless canon (English synonym - “round”) for three or more voices, common in English music of the 17th and 18th centuries. There are about fifty known ketches composed by Henry Purcell.
MADRIGAL
(Italian madrigale). One of the main genres of polyphonic choral music. The early, medieval madrigal (Jacopo da Bologna, Francesco Landino) was a two- or three-voice work that used techniques of imitative polyphony. Instrumental accompaniment served to support the voices or represented interludes - “acting out”. As a rule, the madrigal was composed in strophic form, but necessarily contained a final “ritornello”, in which new musical material appeared. The developed form of the madrigal of the Renaissance was first influenced by frottola. One of the highest achievements of music of its time, the Renaissance madrigal remained a polyphonic form (four-, five- or six-voice), but the homophonic (vertical, chordal) principle was also quite strongly manifested in it. The evolution of the genre on Italian soil went from the simple, harsh choirs of Jacob Arcadelt or Orazio Vecchi to the complex in texture and emotionally rich works of such authors as Luca Marenzio, Carlo Gesualdo and Claudio Monteverdi. The heyday of the English madrigal (William Byrd, Thomas Morley, Orlando Gibbons) dates back to a later period. The French analogue of the madrigal - chanson (Clément Janequin) was distinguished by the widespread use of visual and onomatopoeic techniques. In German art, the polyphonic song (Lied) as a national version of the madrigal did not become as widespread as in other countries, and the brightest masters of this genre were not Germans (Dutchman Orlando Lasso, Flemish Jacob Regnard).
MARCH (French marche). Instrumental music, usually in two-beat meter, originally intended to accompany various kinds of processions, military or civilian. The march exists in two forms - applied and stylized; the second form can be represented either as independent works or as parts of cycles. The structure of the march is in principle tripartite; first section - the main theme is replaced by a trio (there may be one or more of them), followed by a reprise of the first section. Marches were composed for military brass bands (for example, popular plays in America by J.F. Sousa), as well as for a symphony orchestra (Beethoven, Wagner, Verdi, Prokofiev), for piano (for example, Beethoven, op. 26 and 35) and for other compositions. See also MARCH. MINUET. See DANCE. MASS (Latin missa, German Messe, English mass). The Mass, the Eucharistic celebration, is the main service of the Catholic Church (similar to the Orthodox liturgy). The Mass contains unchangeable sections, used in any service (ordinary), and sections dedicated to certain days of the church year (propria). The structure and texts of the mass were finally formed by the 11th century. The service consists of five main parts, named after the first words of the chants that open these parts: Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei. They are followed by the end of the mass (Ite, Missa est ecclesia, “Go, the assembly is dissolved”; in the Orthodox liturgy - dismissal). The musical incarnations of the mass reflected the styles of different eras, while the most artistic works often turned out to be of little use for use during worship; It also happened that masses were composed by composers who did not profess Catholicism. Among the most famous examples of the genre are the masses of Guillaume de Machaut, Guillaume Dufay, Jean Ockeghem, Josquin des Pres, Giovanni Palestrina, as well as Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Berlioz, Verdi, Fauré, Stravinsky and others.
See also MASS.
MOTET
(English, French motet). The name appears in the 13th century. and refers to vocal works in which the melody of the Gregorian chant (tenor) is polyphonically combined with two other melodic lines (duplum and triplum). Works of this kind began to be called motets when the verbal text (denoted by the word mot) began to be transferred to a duplum (therefore called a motet), i.e. into a voice that was previously simply vocalized. In the 13th century motets were, as a rule, multi-textual, i.e. Different parties sounded different texts, both church and secular, and sometimes even in different languages. Unlike the medieval one, the Renaissance motet was written only on a church text, the same for a given work. However, even in this form, the non-simultaneous pronunciation of words in different voices remained - most often this was the result of the widespread use of imitations, and such a feature became the most characteristic feature of the motet genre in general.
In the Baroque era, when instrumental genres became widespread, the role of the motet passed to the cantata, i.e. to the vocal-instrumental form, but the purely vocal motet continues to exist: motets were composed for various kinds of celebrations, and among their authors we find the greatest masters of the era. The history of the motet dates back about seven centuries, and in the field of Western church music this genre is second in importance only to the mass. Excellent examples of motets can be found in the works of Perotin, Guillaume de Machaut, John Dunstable, Guillaume Dufay, Jean Ockeghem, Jacob Obrecht, Josquin des Pres, Orlando Lasso, Palestrina, Thomas Luis de Victoria, William Byrd, Heinrich Schutz, Bach, Mozart, Mendelssohn , Brahms et al.
MUSICAL DRAMA
The term is used mainly in application to the operas of Wagner and his imitators. See OPERA; WAGNER Richard.
NOCTURNE
(French nocturne, Italian notturno, “night”). At the end of the 18th century. The Italian word notturno was used to describe chamber music intended for evening entertainment. In the era of romanticism, a nocturne was a lyrical instrumental piece, often distinguished by a developed chord texture. The Irish composer and pianist J. Field was the first to call his piano pieces “nocturnes”; his compositions served as a model for Chopin's nocturnes and other literature of this genre. Orchestral nocturnes can also be found in the works of Mendelssohn and Debussy.
OPERA. OPERETTA. ORATORY.
ORGANUM
(Latin organum from Greek organon, “instrument”, “weapon”). One of the earliest polyphonic forms, first described in the theoretical treatise Musica Enchiriadis (c. 900). The oldest type of organum, parallel, consisted of two voices - the main one, containing the melody of a Gregorian chant (vox principalis) and an additional one, in which the same melody sounded a fourth or fifth higher or lower (vox organalis). Later they began to add a third voice - free counterpoint. In the early organum, all voices had the same rhythmic pattern and were recorded in free meter, without bar lines; later vox organalis acquired a melismatic character, i.e. There were already several rhythmic units per syllable of the text. Among the examples of the organum created by the French masters of the school of the Parisian Notre Dame Cathedral (Leonin, Perotin), there are those in which sections where there are several sounds of counterpoint for one sound of the main text alternate with sections in which the voices move in one meter, but contain different melodic material. Subsequently, the application of different texts to such metrically homogeneous lines gave impetus to the emergence of a new polyphonic form - the motet.
PARTITA
(Italian partita from Latin pars, “part”). Literally - a multi-part composition; the name was used by J. S. Bach for a number of his instrumental suites.
PASSACAGLIA
(Italian passacaglia; Spanish pasacalle, “street song”). The origin of the genre is a slow dance in three-beat time, possibly of Spanish origin. Later, passacaglia began to be called variations on a constantly recurring theme, which was most often located in the bass, but sometimes in other voices. Thus, this form is very close to chaconne, and often identical to it. Both the passacaglia and chaconne appear in music for keyboard instruments of the 17th century. The most famous examples of the genre are the passacaglia in C minor for organ by J. S. Bach, and, more recently, the passacaglia in the finale of J. Brahms's Fourth Symphony, in P. Hindemith's Fourth String Quartet and in S. Barber's First Symphony.
PASSIONS
(literally “passion”; from Latin passio, “suffering”). A work of an oratorio nature, which sets out the story of the last days of the Savior’s life and his death on the cross; text - according to one of the four gospels. See ORATORY.
PASTORAL
(French pastorale, "shepherd's music"). The piece is in 6/8 or 12/8 time with a graceful, wistful melody, often supported by the lingering sounds in the bass, reminiscent of shepherd's bagpipes. The pastoral genre is often found in works related to the theme of the Nativity of Christ (for example, Concerto Grosso No. 8 by A. Corelli, written for the Christmas holiday; Bach's Christmas Oratorio, Handel's Messiah).
SONG
(romance). In the Russian language, there is a fundamental difference between the terms “song” and “romance”: the first refers primarily to folk genres, as well as to different types of their treatments and modifications in composers’ work; the second - to works for voice with accompaniment, mainly professional and on professional poetic texts, but sometimes also to folklore (for example, Russian urban romance of the 19th century, which is a popular, folklorized version of the professional genre). In German, the term Lied, corresponding to the English song, is widely used; both of them can refer to different phenomena. The term Lied appears in the chivalric songs of the Minnesingers (Walter von der Vogelweide); later it was used to designate: the works of the Mastersingers (for example, the most famous among them - Hans Sachs); polyphonic songs of the 16th century. (Ludwig Senfl, Orlando Lasso); songs of the 17th century with accompaniment of the basso continuo type, which was performed on any keyboard instrument (or in general on any instrument where it is possible to extract chords), sometimes together with strings or wind instruments (Adam Krieger); songs of the 18th century, in which folklore simplicity is combined with sophisticated lyricism; magnificent songs by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven; The art song of Germany from the Romantic era is a huge corpus of wonderful vocal lyrics. The most important authors of romantic art songs were Schubert (more than 600 songs), Schumann, G. Wolf, R. Franz, R. Strauss and G. Mahler. In Russian, both the term “song” and the term “romance” are used in relation to these works. Likewise, both terms can be applied to works in this genre by Russian classics, from Glinka to Prokofiev; the works of modern authors are more often called “romances”, but sometimes also “songs” (for example, songs by Sviridov based on poems by Burns, Yesenin, Blok). The expression "song form" often indicates a simple two-part (A-B) or three-part (A-B-A) instrumental form, having its source in a song, usually folklore.
PRELUDE
(French prelude; from Latin praeludere, “to play before”). An instrumental piece that serves as an introduction to subsequent music. In the 15th and 16th centuries. Preludes were sometimes called small pieces for the lute (Francesco Spinaccino) or for the clavier (William Byrd, John Bull) in chord texture. Since the 17th century. the prelude forms a cycle with the fugue, as, for example, in Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier, or opens a suite (Bach's English Suites), or serves as an introduction to the singing of the chorale (choral preludes). In the 19th century An operatic overture, especially one written in free form, can also be called a prelude. At the same time, the name “prelude” as a designation of an independent genre appears in piano literature (Chopin, Rachmaninov, Scriabin), as well as in orchestral literature (Debussy’s symphonic prelude The Afternoon of a Faun).
RHAPSODY
(Greek: rhapsodia; from rhaptein, “to stitch,” “to compose,” “to compose,” and ode, “song”). A rhapsody can be called an instrumental (occasionally vocal - for example, Brahms) composition written in a free, improvisational, epic style, sometimes including genuine folk motifs (Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies, Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue).
RECITATIVE
(Italian: recitativo; from recitare, “to recite”, “to read aloud”, “to tell”). Melodic speech, or musical recitation, was first used in the early operas of the 16th century, although the roots of the recitative undoubtedly go back to the ancient singing of the Catholic liturgy (cantus planus). As an independent means of expression, recitative was especially cultivated in the early Baroque period: in recitative, composers tried to reproduce natural speech intonations in a generalized form, enhancing their meaning by means of melody and harmony. At that time, recitatives were usually accompanied by a clavier or organ, with the bass line being duplicated by strings or wind instruments. In opera and oratorio 17-19 centuries. recitative served to develop dramatic action: it reproduced conversations or monologues of characters, which were placed between arias, ensembles and choirs. The simplest recitative was called in Italian recitativo secco (“dry recitative”): it was performed in a free rhythm and only occasionally supported by chords. Then a more melodic and expressive recitative began to predominate (well known from the operas of K.V. Gluck, written after his operatic reform): it was called recitativo accompagnato (or stromentato) - “accompanied” or “instrumental” recitative - and was accompanied by the entire orchestra . A brilliant example of expressive instrumental recitative is contained in the finale of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.
See also OPERA.
RICHERKAR
(Italian ricercar; from ricercare, “to search”). An instrumental form very common in the art of the 16th and 17th centuries. It is characterized by a constant search (as reflected in the name) for recurring themes and their place in the overall structure of the composition. Like a fantasy, the ricercar in the instrumental field corresponds to the motet in the vocal field: the form arises from the successive fugue development of several melodies. Unlike the motet, where the emergence of new themes is due to the appearance of new poetic (or prose) lines, in ricercar the primacy still belongs to one theme, and therefore this form can be considered the predecessor of the highly developed fugue of Bach's era. The term "ricercar" can also refer to a non-imitative work written in a free instrumental style and reminiscent of a toccata in character.
See FUGA.
RONDO
(French rondeau; from rond, “circle”). One of the oldest vocal and dance forms. Typical 13th century roundel. was a homophonic (non-polyphonic) work: the trouvères of Northern France surrounded each stanza of their songs with a repeating refrain (the “virele” form). Among composers such as Guillaume de Machaut, Gilles Benchois and Guillaume Dufay, rondo-vireles became polyphonic. In Spanish cantigas of the 13th century. - hymns dedicated to the Virgin Mary - similar structures were used, and they also took place in the Italian ballata of the 14th century. and Spanish Villancicos of the 16th century. In the 17th century the rondo acted as part of an instrumental suite of dances (F. Couperin, J. Chambonnière, J. F. Rameau): repeating refrains separated various episodes from each other. The Italian analogue of the French form (rondo) began to be widely used from the beginning of the 18th century. to denote independent instrumental pieces. The structural principle of this rondo was the appearance of a repeating section as a frame for episodes exhibiting new themes. Basic type of rondo: A-B-A-C-A. By the end of the 18th century. rondo-shaped forms became more complex (A-B-A-C-A-B-A) and approached variational (A-B-A1-B-A2-C-A3...) or even (as a result of the end-to-end development of the main themes) to sonatas.
SEQUENCE
(Latin sequentia, “following”, “that which follows”). A musical and textual expansion of the Hallelujah chant in the Catholic Mass. Around the 10th century. the custom of attaching an additional Latin text (trope) to the jubilee (the melismatic chant that ends Hallelujah) spread, previously using different vowels (most often “a” as the final vowel sound of the word “hallelujah”). As a result, an independent genre of Latin liturgical poetry arose - sequence, associated primarily with the holidays of the church year. In the Middle Ages, hundreds of different sequences were performed, but by the decree of the Council of Trent (1545) they were removed from the liturgy, with the exception of four sequences: the famous Dies irae (about the Day of Judgment), Lauda Sion Salvatorem (on the feast of Corpus Christi), Veni sancte spiritus (on the feast of Trinity), Victimae paschali laudes (Easter); later the sequence Stabat Mater (Mother of God) was also accepted.
SEXTET
(German: Sextett; from Latin: sextus, “sixth”). This term usually denotes a work written in the form of a sonata cycle for six performers. The composition of a sextet may vary; most often it is a string quartet with two instruments added (for example, Mozart's Sextet in F major, K. 522, for quartet and two horns, Brahms' Sextet in B flat major, Op. 18, for two violins, two violas and two cellos). The name "sextet" can also refer to a vocal ensemble with or without accompaniment (sextets in the operas Le nozze di Figaro by Mozart and Lucia di Lammermoor by Donizetti).
SERENADE
(French serenade, Italian serenata, “evening music” or “evening entertainment”). By the end of the 18th century. this name no longer implied evening or night performance (for example, Little Night Music, Eine kleine Nachtmusik by Mozart). Like the divertissement, the serenade was a common genre of composition for a small instrumental ensemble, which combined the features of the outgoing genre of the suite and the forward-looking genre of the symphony. The serenade included, on the one hand, minuets, marches and the like, and on the other, variations and movements written in the form of a sonata or rondo sonata. Very famous instrumental serenades can be found in the heritage of Mozart, Brahms, Tchaikovsky and Dvorak. As a vocal genre, a serenade is an appeal to a beloved, once performed at night under a lady’s window (examples: a serenade from Mozart’s Don Juan, Schubert’s romance Evening Serenade).
SYMPHONY POEM
Program orchestral composition is a genre that became widespread in the era of romanticism and includes the features of a program symphony and concert overture (R. Strauss, Liszt, Smetana, Rimsky-Korsakov, etc.).
SCHERZO
(Italian: scherzo, “joke”). From the middle of the 18th century. this word appears in the titles of instrumental or vocal pieces of a humorous nature (Claudio Monteverdi, Scherzi Musicali, 1607; Johann Gottlieb Walter, Scherzo for solo violin, 1676). After 1750, the scherzo became an exclusively instrumental genre, characterized by a fast tempo and, as a rule, a three-beat meter. At this time, the scherzo was found mainly as part of a sonata cycle (symphony, quartet). The scherzo acquires particular importance in Beethoven's symphonies (starting with the Second), where it finally displaces the minuet that was previously in this place. The scherzo usually retains the three-part form inherited from the minuet (scherzo - trio - scherzo); Sometimes several trios may appear (for example, in Brahms's Second Symphony). In the works of Chopin, Brahms and other composers of the same era, the scherzo also becomes an independent piano genre: these are small pieces of a rhapsodic, rapid nature with a trio of predominantly lyrical content. P. Dukas gave the subtitle "scherzo" to his symphonic poem The Sorcerer's Apprentice.
See also SYMPHONY.
SONATA (Italian sonata; from sonare, “to sound”). In the precise meaning of the term, it is a multi-movement composition for piano or a string or wind instrument with piano. Sonata form is a fundamental structure, very often used in the first (as well as other) movements of solo instrumental sonatas, works for instrumental ensembles, symphonies, concerts, etc. The meaning of the sonata form is that the first appearance of themes (exposition) is replaced by their development (development) and then return (reprise). For more information on the history of sonata form and the possible meanings of the term "sonata", see SONATA. Varieties of the form are: rondo-sonata - a type that often appears in the finales of symphonic cycles and combines the features of a sonata (exposition, development, reprise) and rondo (return of the first theme in developing sections); sonatina (literally: “small sonata”) - it either has fewer parts than a regular sonata, or the parts themselves are simpler and shorter (sonatinas for piano by M. Clementi, for violin and piano by F. Schubert). In principle, the term “sonatina” is applied to easy pieces for beginners, but there are also sonatinas (for example, M. Ravel’s piano cycle) that require significant technical skill from the performer. SUITE
(French suite, "sequence"). The name implies a sequence of instrumental pieces (stylized dances) or instrumental fragments from opera, ballet, drama music, etc.
See SUITE
TOCCATA
(Italian: toccata). From the end of the 16th century. this name refers to works for keyboard instruments written in a free improvisational manner. The word toccata means “touch”, “strike”, in this case a short strike on the keys, in contrast to sonata, i.e. the drawn-out “sound” of strings or wind instruments. In addition, the origin of the term "toccata" points to an even earlier era, when this word was used to refer to the rhythm beaten by a military drum or a brass fanfare (for example, the toccata from Monteverdi's Orpheus). Toccatas for keyboards in the 16th century. (Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, Luzzasco Luzzachi) used typical clavier technique and turned into virtuosic works, where improvisational passages alternated with solemn choral sounds. In some toccatas (especially those by Claudio Perulo and G. Frescobaldi) there are polyphonic sections. The toccata was also used as an introduction to ricercar or fugue. Toccatas of modern times (Schumann, Debussy, Ravel, Prokofiev) are piano pieces that are close in genre to a concert etude.
TRIO
(Italian trio; from Latin tres, tria, “three”). A piece of music for three performers. The trio became widespread in the classical era as a type of instrumental music that used the sonata form. The most common are piano (violin, cello, piano) and string (violin, viola, cello) trios. A vocal trio (with or without accompaniment) is usually called a terzetto. The term "trio" also refers to the middle part of a minuet, scherzo, march or other three-part form (see DANCE). In this sense, the trio can be generally understood as a contrasting section between the exposition of the main thematic material and its repetition. In the old days, this section was composed for three solo instruments, and the term “trio” itself remained in use after the golden age of the concerto grosso genre, although the middle sections of the works were no longer instrumented for three, but for a larger number of instruments.
TRIO SONATA
(Italian trio-sonata). The main form of chamber instrumental music of the Baroque era. The trio sonata was composed for two high instruments, usually violins, and a basso continuo, usually represented by a cello and some kind of keyboard instrument or lute - thus requiring not three, but four performers. The heyday of the trio sonata in all European musical centers was the period from 1625 to 1750, then, due to the disappearance of basso continuo as a functionally necessary element of composition, the trio sonata was reborn into a string quartet. The trio sonata genre combines the features of the old instrumental dance suite with elements of the new virtuoso string playing technique, the old polyphonic and new homophonic styles; For the trio sonata, a direct anticipation of the methods of thematic development in sonata form is typical. The main types of trio sonata were: sonata da chiesa ("church sonata", intended for concert performance) and sonata da camera ("home sonata", performed at home). The second type resembled a suite in many ways; the first, containing four movements (slow - fast - slow - fast), to some extent approached the Baroque overture. By the beginning of the 18th century. the differences between them have almost disappeared. Among the outstanding authors of trio sonatas we find S. Rossi, G. Legrenzi, A. Corelli, D. Buxtehude, J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel and J. M. Leclerc; This genre is also found later - for example, in Gluck and Haydn.
See also SONATA.
OVERTURE
(French ouverture, “opening”). This name originally referred to the orchestral introduction performed before an opera, but soon came to mean introductions to works of other genres, such as cantatas or instrumental suites. This term acquired a completely definite meaning in the French court opera of the 17th century, namely in J.B. Lully. Such a French overture necessarily contained three sections: slow - fast - slow. Slow sections, usually kept in a punctuated rhythm, were associated with solemn court ceremony; in the fast sections, the musical texture of the work was ensured by the fugue development of themes. The Italian opera overture, which finally took shape in the work of A. Scarlatti, was called a “sinphony” and also consisted of three sections, but in the reverse sequence of tempos: fast - slow - fast. The genre of the symphony grew out of such an overture (see SYMPHONY), and even in 1793 Haydn’s symphonies, when performed in London, were still called “overtures.” At the end of the 18th century. Opera overtures were composed primarily in sonata form and practically represented nothing more than the first part of the classical sonata-symphonic cycle. Some composers (among them Gluck, Mozart and Beethoven) began to include themes from the corresponding opera in opera overtures. Classical overtures are also found in the genre of music for dramatic theater (the most striking example is Beethoven's Egmont). Overtures in the opera of the subsequent era, while retaining the features of the sonata form, are increasingly turning into a brief musical retelling of the content of the opera based on its thematic material. Concert overtures also appear as an independent genre of program-type symphonic music (Mendelssohn, Brahms, Tchaikovsky).
See also OPERA.
FANTASY
(Greek: phantasia). The instrumental composition is of very free construction; in it, as the English composer and theorist T. Morley put it, “the composer is not tied to anything” (Morley meant the verbal text). In the 16th century the fantasia was composed, as a rule, for lute, clavier or instrumental ensemble in a polyphonic style reminiscent of the ricercar or canzona style. In the 17th-18th centuries. the genre is increasingly enriched with elements of an improvisational nature - for example, in the organ and clavier works of Buxtehude, Bach, and Mozart. In the 19th century The name "fantasy" refers to instrumental, mainly piano, pieces, to a certain extent free from established forms (for example, Sonata quasi una fantasia - Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata, fantasies of Chopin and Schumann). Fantasy could also be called an improvisation on a chosen theme (for example, Schubert's fantasy The Wanderer on the theme of the romance of the same name, Fantasia on a theme by Thomas Tallis Vaughan Williams). In English, the term voluntary, similar in meaning to "fantasy", can refer to the musical setting of an Anglican church service (improvisational sections played during processions or at the end of the service) or to instrumental works in free form (masters of this genre were John Blow and Henry Purcell).
FROTTOLA
(Italian frottola, from frotta "crowd"). The forerunner of the Renaissance madrigal, frottola was cultivated mainly in northern Italy in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Frottolas were distinguished by their lively rhythm, composed in three or four voices, and often performed by a singer with instrumental accompaniment.
FUGA (Latin, Italian fuga, “running”). A work based on the use of imitative polyphony. The fugue form, which reached perfection in Bach's work, is the result of a long development of various counterpoint techniques and various forms, including canon, motet and ricercar. Fugues can be composed for any number of voices (starting from two). The fugue opens with the presentation of the theme (the leader) in one voice, then other voices enter successively with the same theme. The second presentation of the topic, often with a variation of it, is called a response; While the answer sounds, the first voice continues to develop its melodic line - counterpoints the answer (counterposition). In double fugues, such counterpoint takes on the meaning of a second theme (counter-theme). The introductions of all voices form the exposition of the fugue. The exposition can be followed either by a counter-exposition (second exposition) or by a polyphonic development of the entire theme or its elements (episodes). In complex fugues, a variety of polyphonic techniques are used: increase (increasing the rhythmic value of all sounds of the theme), decrease, inversion (reversal: intervals of the theme are taken in the opposite direction - for example, instead of a fourth up, a fourth down), stretta (accelerated entry of voices that “climb” each other). on a friend), and sometimes a combination of similar techniques. The fugue genre is of great importance in both instrumental and vocal forms. Fugues can be independent pieces, combined with a prelude, toccata, etc., and finally, be part of a large work or cycle. Techniques characteristic of fugue are often used in developing sections of sonata form. The double fugue, as already said, is based on two themes, which can enter and develop together or separately, but in the final section they are necessarily united in counterpoint. See also FUGA.
CHORAL
(German: Choral). Originally, a chorale was a Gregorian monophonic church chant; later the name was assigned to Lutheran chants. Martin Luther, who wanted all parishioners to participate in worship, introduced hymns suitable for congregational singing. Thus the chorale - both as a separate chant and as part of a larger composition - became the center of Protestant liturgy. The musical sources of the chorale were: a) church chants that existed before the Reformation; b) secular songs; c) newly composed melodies with lyrics, among which the most famous is the reform hymn "Ein" feste Burg ist unser Gott (Our God is a strong stronghold). Almost all German masters of the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries worked on choral melodies. Chorals are the basis of others liturgical compositions, including: 1) chorale prelude - an organ piece based on the melody of the chorale and served as an introduction to community singing; 2) chorale fantasy - an organ piece developing the melody of the chorale in an improvisational manner; 3) chorale partita - a large-scale instrumental work on a theme; chorale; 4) chorale motet - an extended choral work; 5) chorale cantata - a large work for choir, soloists and orchestra (see CANTATA; MOTET) using the melodies of Lutheran hymns. The most perfect choral compositions that have come down to us belong to Michael Pretorius and I. .S.Bahu.
CHACONA
(Spanish chacona, Italian ciaconna). By origin - a slow three-beat dance; later - a composition based on variation of basso continuo or melodic line (or chord progression) in bass voices (basso ostinato). Chaconne is very close to passacaglia. Both first appear at the beginning of the 17th century. in works for keyboard instruments. The most famous example of the genre is Bach's chaconne from the partita in D minor for solo violin. Currently, there is a tendency to apply the name "chaconne" to any variation on an unchanged chord progression, but such a narrowed view does not correspond to the historical meaning of the term.
CHANSON
(French chanson, “song”; in Russian the term “chanson” is feminine and not inflected). This is the name given not only to songs, but also to instrumental pieces in a vocal style. In the secular music of France, there were a number of varieties of chanson: 1) songs of medieval troubadours and trouvères; 2) dance songs of the 14th century. (Guillaume de Machaut); 3) polyphonic polyphonic choirs of the 15th and 16th centuries. (Gilles Benchois and Guillaume Dufay, Jean Ockeghem, Jacob Obrecht, Josquin des Pres); this genre reaches the heights of its development in the French version of the Italian Renaissance madrigal (Clément Jeannequin, Orlando Lasso, Thomas Crequillon). Later, the name "chanson" could refer to a short strophic song of the popular type or to a French romance for voice with piano accompaniment, similar to the German Lied (Debussy, Fauré, Ravel, Poulenc). Modern French pop songs are also called chanson.
IMPROMPTU
(Latin expromptus from the verb expromo, “lay out”, “collapse”; French impromtu). The meaning of the Latin word suggests that impromptu is a play composed under the influence of a given moment, a given situation. In piano literature of the 19th century. These are small plays of free form, not necessarily of an improvisational nature. For example, Schubert's impromptu (op. 90) or Chopin's (op. 29, 36) have a clear, predominantly three-part structure.
ETUDE
(French étude, “study”). A piece for mastering and improving any technical technique: performing staccato, octaves, double notes (on string instruments), the “double or triple reed” technique (on wind instruments), etc. In the 19th century The concert etude became widespread (especially in piano literature). In this genre, the development of any technical technique is combined with the independent artistic value of the music. Brilliant concert etudes were composed by Chopin, Schumann and Liszt. The predecessor of the concert form of the genre can be considered the toccata of the 17th and 18th centuries, in which a purely virtuosic element played a special role.
- MUSICAL FORM, 1) a complex of expressive means that embody a certain artistic content in a musical work. 2) Structure, structure of a musical work. In each work the musical form is individual, however... ... Modern encyclopedia