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62. EARTH SCIENCES

Geosciences– a complex of sciences that study the Earth, its geosphere, their natural properties, population and the results of its economic activities. Geosciences include natural and social sciences. Any of the Earth sciences is divided into general and regional. General science studies the patterns inherent in all objects studied by this science, and regional science studies the characteristics of these objects in a certain territory.

The sciences that study our planet (geology, tectonics, climatology, hydrology, geography, etc.) are united in a section of natural science called geoscience. Let us give only the most modest list of sciences, the scope of which includes the study of our planet.

Geology– the science of the composition, structure, history of the development of the Earth’s interior, primarily the earth’s crust, as well as the distribution of minerals in the earth’s crust. The components of geology include mineralogy (the science of the composition and properties of minerals), petrography (the science of the composition and structure of rocks), paleontology (the science of extinct plants and animals), geochronology, tectonics (studies the occurrence of geological bodies, the movements of the earth crust), hydrogeology (the science of groundwater), geophysics (studies the physical properties of all geospheres and the physical processes occurring in the Earth’s shells), etc.

Geography– a system of natural, physical-geographical and social, economic-geographical sciences that study the geographical envelope of the Earth, natural and industrial territorial complexes, their components and the relationships between them.

The physical and geographical sciences include general geoscience (the study of the Earth as a world body and its geographic envelope as a whole), landscape science (the study of the patterns of territorial differentiation of the geographic envelope), sciences that study individual components of the geographic envelope: geomorphology (studies the structure, origin and development relief of the Earth), meteorology (the science of the Earth's atmosphere and the processes occurring in it), climatology, oceanology, land hydrology, glaciology, soil geography, biogeography, paleogeography (studies the history of the development of the geographical envelope for the period preceding the present).

Economic and socio-geographical sciences include population geography, demography, geography of industry, agriculture, transport, non-production spheres, political geography, social geography, economic geography, regional studies, geography of recreation and tourism and other areas.

Ecology– biological science about the relationship of organisms and their communities with the environment. Currently, ecology is characterized by a kind of “dispersion” of research and the subject of study.

The following areas were highlighted: environmental management, urban ecology, agroecology, industrial ecology, environmental engineering, etc.

Geodesy- a science that studies the shape and size of the Earth, methods for measuring distances, angles and heights on the earth's surface. The branch of geodesy, which includes the technology and organization of measurements on the ground to create maps and plans, is usually called topography. The science of maps, their creation and use is called cartography.

Lecture notes

Classification of Earth Sciences

Geosciences are a complex of sciences that study the Earth, its geosphere, their natural properties, population and the results of its economic activities.

Geology is a complex of sciences about the composition, structure, history of the development of the Earth, movements of the earth's crust and the distribution of minerals in the bowels of the Earth. The main object of study, based on the practical tasks of man, is the earth's crust.

Mineralogy and petrography – science of minerals and rocks; hydrogeology is the science of groundwater. Geology is the study of the laws of water on the surface of the earth; hydrometry is the science of measuring water.

Soil science is the science of soils, their formation (genesis), structure, composition and properties; about the patterns of their geographical distribution; about the processes of interaction with the external environment that determine the formation and development of the most important property of soils - fertility; about ways of rational use of soils in agriculture and national economy and about changes in soil cover in agricultural conditions.

Climatology is the science of climate that studies the causes of the formation of different types of climate, their geographical location and the relationships between climate and other natural phenomena. Climatology is closely related to meteorology - a branch of physics that studies short-term states of the atmosphere, i.e. weather.

Geology is one of the basic natural sciences and became an independent branch of natural science in the 18th – early 19th centuries. The great Russian scientist M.V. is rightfully considered among the founders of scientific geology. Lomonosov, and from foreign countries – D. Getton, Ch.

Lyayela et al.

The accumulation of empirical knowledge about soil began from the time when man moved from collecting wild plants to growing them in fields, to cultivating the soil. The first attempts to generalize this knowledge date back to the ancient period. As a scientific discipline, soil science originated in Russia at the end of the 19th century thanks to the works of outstanding Russian scientists V.V. Dokuchaeva, P.A. Kostycheva, N.A. Sibirtsev and others, who developed its scientific foundations and main research methods.

The first scientific definition of soil was given by V.V. Dokuchaev in his work “Analysis of the Main Soil Classifications” (1886): “I would suggest that by soil we mean exclusively those daytime or close to them horizons of rocks (no matter what), which are more or less naturally changed by the mutual influence of water, air and various kind of organisms - living and dead, which affects in a certain way the composition, structure and color of such weathering products."

Hydrology as an independent science arose in the 20th century, and before that time it was one of the branches of hydraulic engineering

Geosciences include:
— natural sciences: geology, physical geography, etc.; And
— social sciences: population geography, economic geography, etc.

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What is the name of earth science?

From the Greek words “astron” - star, “nomos” - law). This is the science of celestial bodies. She studies their structure, composition, movement in outer space, and origin.

From the Greek word "physis" - nature. Studies a variety of natural phenomena, many of which we often encounter in everyday life. For example, the movement of bodies, changes that occur with bodies when heated and cooled, electricity, sound, light. It is physics that answers the questions of why lightning flashes and thunder roars, how echoes arise, what a rainbow is...

From the Greek word "himeusis" - mixing. The science of substances, their properties and transformations. You already know that bodies are made of substances. Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sugar, starch, table salt are all examples of substances. There are now a lot of them known - several million. Thanks to chemistry, people have learned to obtain in laboratories and chemical plants those substances that are needed in the household and in everyday life.

From the Greek words “geo” - earth, “logos” - science, teaching. The science of the Earth, its shape, structure, composition and development. Certain branches of geology study rocks, minerals, fossil remains of organisms, and movements of the earth's crust. Without geology, it is impossible to search for mineral deposits.

From the Greek words “geo” - earth, “grapho” - write. This is another science of earth (“geographic description”). Indeed, geography describes our planet: what oceans and continents are there, seas, lakes and rivers, lowlands, hills and mountains, what countries, cities and villages arose on Earth, what is the life and economy of the families inhabiting our planet...

From the Greek words “bios” - life, “logos” - science, teaching. This is the science of living nature. A variety of creatures - bacteria, simple fungi, plants, animals - have populated the oceans and land, plains and mountains, soil and even deep, mysterious caves. Biology answers the questions: what living beings are on Earth and how many there are, how a living body is structured and works, how living organisms reproduce and develop, how they are connected to each other and inanimate nature.

Geography(from the Greek words: γέα - earth and γράφω - write, depict - the name “geography” means “description” or “image of the Earth”) - a set of sciences about planet Earth.

A very significant question in relation to the content, tasks and limits of geology is the difficult question of its delimitation from geology, which, especially its department of so-called dynamic geology (the study of forces, the action of which caused and causes the origin and change of rocks and the formation of the earth's surface ), enters the field of physical geography and even takes its place. The history of science shows us that geography began to study many physical-geographical issues earlier than geology. We find attempts to study these issues already in Vareny, Riccioli and others in the 17th century, in Thorburn Bergman, G. Forster, Saussure, etc. at the end of the 18th century, in Al. Humboldt, Schmidt, F. Hoffmann, Studer, Berghaus - in the first third of this century. But then geographers become interested in the connection between geography and cultural history, while geologists, especially under the influence of Lyell, Murchison, Forbes and others, begin to diligently study the forces currently operating and changing the earth's surface in order to find an explanation for the phenomena that caused the gradual formation of the earth's crust , changes in the boundaries and outlines of ancient land and sea, sedimentation, eruption of plutonic rocks, changes in climate and the organic world, etc. Geologists include in their science “all qualities, manifestations of forces and conditions of the globe, as far as they can be the subject of direct or mediocre knowledge." Nauman included in geology, in addition to geognosy and geogeny, also geodesy, geodynamics, geophysics, hydrography and meteorology. Kredler, in addition to petrography, petrogeny, stratigraphy, historical and dynamic geology, also accepts “physiographic geology,” the object of which is the study of the shape, size and appearance of the Earth’s surface and its physical relationships. However, this program was never actually implemented; about the limits of geology - see Geology.

There are questions that are equally important for physical geography and geology (for example, orography), and it must be admitted that the work of geographers and geologists can only replenish and illuminate themselves mutually. If for a geologist it is essential to have a thorough acquaintance with the map of the country and its geographical features, then for a geographer it is also inevitable to become familiar with the most important facts of the past of this country, with the distribution of the rocks and soils that form its surface, with the participation of tectonic and volcanic forces in the formation of this surface Earth.

It is necessary to dwell a little more on the term geophysics, with which Gerland replaces the name “physical geography”. This term came into use relatively recently, namely in the sixties, when it was used by Mury (M ü hry). Later it was adopted by Zoeprits in his reports on the successes of physical geology, published in Geograph. Jahrbuch. Finally, in modern times, Professor Gunther used it for the title of his extensive manual: “Lehrbuch der Geophysik und physikalischen Geographie” (). The preface to it says, however, that the names “physical geography, geophysics, physics of the Earth” are essentially synonymous. However, Gunter also admits some difference between the concepts of “geophysics” and “physical geography” - the first name is suitable, in his opinion, more to that department of geographical science that considers the Earth as a whole, as a world body, especially in its internal properties, while the name “physical geography” is more appropriate when it comes to studying the earth’s surface. In accordance with this, Gunther calls “geophysics in the narrow sense” that department of physical geology, which includes consideration of the internal heat of the Earth, guesses about the composition and state of the Earth’s core, and the study of volcanic and seismic phenomena, and he identifies this department with dynamic geology, which, however, as is known, it is understood by geologists in a much broader sense. Richthofen is also inclined to call that department of general geoscience geophysics, adding to it the study of the density of the Earth, the influences of earthly and cosmic gravity, magnetic forces, etc. G. Wagner also agrees with this distinction. Richthofen notes that geophysics is being developed through the combined efforts of astronomers, geologists and geographers. Geophysics could include the study of seismic phenomena in general and even all meteorology. Thus, geophysics could include: studies on the exact shape of the geoid (changes in gravity, ocean levels, tides) and on deviations in its rotational motion; the doctrine of terrestrial magnetism (which some geographers, for example, Zupan, completely separate from physical geology due to the fact that magnetic phenomena do not interact with others and do not have a noticeable influence on them); meteorology and seismology. All these branches of knowledge, which require careful observations with the help of various precision instruments and special observatories and are more or less suitable for mathematical processing, are able to develop, so to speak, in addition to geometry itself; Nevertheless, we do not separate geophysics from geophysics. in the broad sense of the word (see below).

In general, we can say that geometry in its modern development is not a strictly closed science, but is a complex of a number of sciences, each capable of being developed on its own. In this respect, however, G. does not represent anything exceptional; many other branches of knowledge also split up over time into a number of separate sciences. G. represents a complex of at least seven sciences, which can be listed in this order: 1) astronomical, or mathematical, G., closely related to astronomy and geodesy and providing the basis for cartographer, that is, the art of compiling and drawing maps in various projections; 2) geophysics, or physics of the globe, related to physics, astronomy and partly geology; 3) physical G., decaying into a) orography, closely related to some departments of geology, b) oceanography and c) climatology, based on meteorology, but whose task is not so much the analysis of thermal, light and electrical phenomena, but rather the synthesis of data to characterize climatic differences on the earth's surface; 4) biological G.: a) G. plants and b) G. animals(both of these branches are closely related to botany and zoology and are developed mainly by specialists in these sciences); 5) anthropogeography based, on the one hand, on physical and biological data, and on the other, on data from anthropology, ethnography, statistics, and history; all the last three departments (3, 4, 5) together constitute the so-called “general geography”; 6) private G., or regional studies, that is, the study of individual countries in relation to the three departments of “general geoscience” just mentioned; 7) history G. both in the sense of spatial expansion of information about the earth's surface, and the development of geographical concepts and views. In this list we did not include sciences that are more or less in contact with geography, but pursue their own special tasks, such as, for example, astronomy (although some facts from it that are not directly related to the Earth continue to be cited in many geographical manuals and textbooks) or anthropology, ethnography, statistics, although data from these sciences are often also introduced into geography and although geographers sometimes take an active part in their processing (we point out, for example, works on ethnography by Peschel and Ratzel, ethnographic reviews by Gerland, statistical . Wagner, etc.). In essence, however, these sciences, as having their own goals and methods, can be and are indeed developed separately from geography, and therefore should not be combined or confused with it.

The disintegration of geography into various departments, processed more or less independently, is noticeable not only in Germany, where geoscience now ranks highest, being represented by a number of departments at universities, many famous scientists, exemplary textbooks, journals, observatories, cartographic institutes, etc. - but also in other European countries, where, however, various departments of geographies managed to demarcate themselves without entering into methodological wrangling, on which a lot of effort has been spent on the part of German geographers in recent years. Thus, in England, a school of geophysicists has long been isolated, one of the prominent representatives of which is currently J. Darwin; on the other hand, there were also a number of geologists who provided significant services to orography, several specialist hydrographers (for example, Buchanan), meteorologists and, finally, a number of geographers themselves who, following Ritter, allow for the significant participation of the anthropogeographical element (for example, D. Freshfield , Keltie, Mackinder, etc.). In France, where cartography, physics of the Earth, meteorology, history of geosciences, etc. have long been isolated, geology itself always maintains a close connection between the physical-geographical element and the anthropogeographical element; the best example of this is Al. Reclus, who, having published a wonderful essay on physical geography for his time (La Terre), began to present the geography of individual countries (Géographie Universelle), in which he gave excellent examples of how a geographer should combine the latest physical data on the earth’s surface with bio- and anthropogeographical data. It is interesting that the best representatives of G. in France, for example, Vivien de St. Martin, Levasseur, etc., in their geographical works even give preference to the historical and statistical elements.

The complexity of geographical science, which requires the assistance of various specialties, is clearly confirmed by geographical congresses, at which astronomers, physicists, geologists, ethnographers, statisticians, etc. present alongside geographers; then geographical yearbooks and magazines, which contain on their pages articles and reviews on various branches of knowledge that are more or less closely related to geography; finally, projects on the founding of special geographical institutes for higher teaching of geography in its entirety - projects that have appeared recently in Italy, France, and here in Russia (the project of the Imperial Geographical Society and the project for the founding of a special department at St. Petersburg. university). Leaving even such grandiose plans aside, one cannot but admit that geography, for the purpose of more rational higher teaching, should be represented by at least two departments: one, which could be given the name geophysics, which would require special physical and mathematical training and which would be connected with a well furnished and adapted geophysical observatory; and the other - geography, i.e. general geosciences and private geography of individual countries. This department requires special natural history and geographical training and assumes a certain familiarity with cartography, the history of geosciences and sciences auxiliary to anthropogeography; it should be equipped with a geographical office with a sufficient number of maps, books, magazines and other aids for desk study and excursions. One of the most important tasks of a geographer should be the development of the geography of individual countries, which is unthinkable without a thorough acquaintance with general geoscience, which in turn is closely related to the successes of private geography. The connection between general and specific geosciences, obvious in itself, is confirmed by the example of Western universities - especially the best established ones, German ones - in which "L änd erdkunde" is developed and read by the same professors who teach "Allgemeine Erdkunde". The isolation of geophysics is expressed in the fact that courses in its departments (for example, meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, etc.) are taught by other specialists in more or less connection with physics courses. The study and teaching of specific geography also presupposes a more or less broad assumption of the human element, as we see in the best synthetic works of foreign geographers and as Professor Zupan specifically insisted on this recently. The development of private geography requires no less attention, critical tact, and observation and can bring even more direct benefits in clarifying some practical life issues.

Literature: A) Astronomical geography: Scharngorst, “Initial foundations of astronomy and mathematical geography” (St. Petersburg, ); Günther, "Handbuch der mathem. Geographie"; By cartography: Zö pprits "Leitfaden der Kartenentwurfslehre" (); Struve, "Landkarten" (). - B) Geophysics: Günther, "Lehrbuch der Geophysik" (2 B-de, , with extensive literary references); By meteorology: Bebber, "Lehrbuch der Meteorologie" (), according to seismology: De Rossi, "La Meteorologia endogena" (1879-82); Milne, "Earthquakes" (). - IN) General Geography: Hann, Hochstetter und Pokorny, "Unser Wissen von der Erde, Allgemeine Erdkunde" (ed. Kirchhoff, ); Supan, "Grundz ü ge der phys. Erdkunde" (); Klöden, “Physical Geography” ( , obsolete); Berghaus, "Physikalischer Atlas" (new ed., 1889-92). - A) Physical geography: Gü nther, "Lehrbuch der physik. Geographie" (); Peschel-Leipoldt, "Phys. Erdkunde" (1884-85); Reclus, "La terre" (obsolete). - α) Orography: Sonklar, "Allgem. Orographie" (, obsolete); Mushketov, “Physical Geology” (1888-91); v. Richthofen, "F ührer für die Forschungsreisenden"; Neumayr, "Erdgeschichte" (Bd. I, ); Süss, "Das Antlitz der Erde" ( , ff.) - β) Oceanography: Krümmel, "Der Ocean" (); Thoulet, "Oceanographie" ( .); Boguslavsky und Krümmel, "Handb. d. Oceanographie". - γ) Climatology: Voeikov, “Climates of the Globe” () and his: “Die Klimate der Erde” (); his: “Snow cover” (); Hann, "Handb. der Klimatologie". - b) Biogeography. - α) plant geography: Drude, "Handb. der Pflanzengeographie"; β) Geography of animals: Wallace, "Geographie Distribution of Animals" and others - c) anthropogeography: Ratzel, "Antropogeographie". - G) Private geography, or regional studies: Reclus, "Nouv. Gé ographie universelle", 17 volumes (11 editions in Russian translation so far); "Unser Wissen von der Erde", Bd. II and III. "Länderkunde", ed. Kirchoff (Europe); popular: De Varigny, "Nouv. G éographie moderne" (1890-91). History of Geography: Peschel, "Geschichte der Erdkunde (2nd ed.); Oppel, "Terra incognita" (); Vivien de St. Martin, "Historie de la gé graphie" with atlas; according to geography among the ancients: Beyer, "Gesch. d. wiss. Erdkunde der Griechen" (1887-91, 3rd issue, unfinished); Bunbury, "History of anc. Geography" (); according to medieval: Kretschmer, "Die phys. Erdkunde im christl. Mittelalter" (); for the Middle Ages and the Age of Discovery: S. Ruge, "Gesch. d. Zeitalters der Entdekungen" (); on the discovery of America: Cronau, "America. Die Geschichte seiner Entdeckung" (); S. Ruge, "Ch. Columbus" (); Fiske, "The Discovery of America" ​​(Moscow, vol. I); Winsor, "Ch. Columbus" (); XVI century: Nordenskiöld, "Facsimile Atlas" (); Gallois, "Les Géographes allemands de la Renaissance" (). - E) Atlases: Stieler's "Hand-Atlas" (, 95 cards); Schrader, Prudent et Anthome, "Atlas de géographie moderne" (1890-91); pocket atlases: German Habenicht "a, English Bartolomew (); Russian atlases of Ilyin and Linberg; Berghaus, "Chart of the World" (updated). - F) Geogr. dictionaries:"Nouv. Dictionnaire de géo graphie moderne et ancienne" p. Vivien de St. Martin, 5 volume. (not finished); Metzger, "Geogr.-stat. Welt-Lexicon (); Embacher, "Lexikon der Reisen und Entdeckungen (); Egli, "Nomina geographica" (

The first ideas about the earth's surface were among primitive hunters and gatherers. Passing on information about the world around them to future generations, ancient people left drawings on stone and bone, on tree bark and animal skins. This is how the initial foundations of geographical knowledge were laid.

Birth of Earth Science

Geography is one of the most ancient sciences. Its name comes from two Greek words: geo - Earth, grapho - write (description). Having emerged in ancient times, geography at first really had a descriptive character. Travelers and sailors, generals and traders took scientists with them to compile descriptions of new lands and peoples. The Greek scientist Eratosthenes, more than 2200 years ago, first collected these descriptions into a scientific work on the nature of the Earth and called it “Geography”.

About 500 years ago - during the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries - geography was the queen of sciences for two centuries. Monarchs and wealthy merchants personally discussed plans for future expeditions with geographers and generously financed their travel in the hope of obtaining untold treasures. In a short historical period, most of the oceanic spaces and inhabited lands appeared on the world map. At this time, geography was a collection of a wide variety of information. She gave answers to the questions “what is this?” and “where is it located?”, indicating the location of various objects on the surface of the Earth. However, even in the 18th century, the Arctic, Australia, and many inland areas of the continents remained white spots on the maps.

But as geography developed, its main task became the study of the laws by which our planet lives and develops. Geography began to transform from a descriptive discipline into a science that answers the question “why?” To do this, geographers needed to understand and explain the reasons for the appearance and changes of objects and natural phenomena.

Geographical Sciences

Modern geography is a complex branched system, or “tree” of sciences. Geography is the only science that unites diverse (knowledge about nature and people. All geographical objects and phenomena created by nature are studied by physical geography. Population and objects created by human activity are studied by social geography. One of the most important tasks of modern geographical science in general is the study of diverse interaction between nature and society to solve global (world) problems facing humanity, for example, the problem of providing the population with food, natural resources, including fuel and water. The tasks of exploring the World Ocean and space occupy a special place among the geographical sciences. about geographical maps. Closely related to geography is the related science of geology.

Geographers today are specialists in many professions. The waters of the land are studied by a hydrologist, the ice by a glaciologist, the irregularities of the Earth's surface by a biotheographer, and the flora and fauna of the planet by a biotheographer. Geoecologists predict the consequences of human impact on nature. The system of geographical sciences also includes disciplines of a practical nature, such as medical and military geography.

Paleontology, title- The word paleontology comes from three Greek words: ancient, being and doctrine. Thus, in an exact translation into Russian, this term means: the science of ancient creatures.

Paleontology is the science of organisms that existed in past (geological) times. Since the main natural material for paleontological research is fossil remains or fossils, paleontology is often defined as the science of the fossil remains of organisms.

The term “paleontology” was proposed by the famous French scientist Blainville (N. M. Ducrotay de Blainville) in 1825 in his great work “Guide to Malacology and Conchiliology.” He, in his words, created this word “to denote the science that deals with the study of fossil organic bodies.” At first, few scientists used this term; it became widely known only after the famous naturalist, professor at Moscow University G.I. Fischer von Waldheim advocated replacing the term “pegromatognosy,” which he had previously designated “the study of fossil organic bodies,” with the term “paleontology.” In 1834, G.I. Fisher’s book “Bibliographia paleonthologica animatium systematica” was published in Moscow, where such a replacement is justified by the fact that, on the one hand, “it is desirable to include geological principles in this teaching,” and on the other, that “he equally needs zoological and zootomic concepts.”

The word “paleontology,” according to G.I. Fischer, “better expresses and combines these two conditions” than “petromatognosy.” Fischer began using the term “paleontology” in lectures he gave to students at Moscow University, as well as in his subsequent works. He contributed so much to the rooting of this term in scientific literature that he is often considered the author of the latter. Thus, the author of the first major reference guide to paleontology, the famous German scientist K. Zittel, in his major work “History of Geology and Paleontology until the End of the 19th Century,” argued that this name was introduced in the early 30s. last century “almost simultaneously” by Blainville and G.I. Fischer von Waldheim, and this mistake is repeatedly repeated in the specialized literature to this day. For example, the English scientist Stubblefield recently wrote that “The term paleontology has existed since 1834, when it was used by both Blainville and Fischer von Waldheim” (Stubblefield, 1954).
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