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Genetic engineering. What's this? Genetic engineering (genetic engineering) is a set of techniques, methods and technologies for obtaining recombinant RNA and DNA, isolating genes from an organism (cells), manipulating genes and introducing them into other organisms. Genetic engineering is not a science in the broad sense, but is a tool biotechnology, using the methods of such biological sciences as molecular and cellular biology, cytology, genetics, microbiology, virology. GENE ENGINEERING, or recombinant DNA technology, changing chromosomal material, the main hereditary substance of cells, using biochemical and genetic methods. Chromosomal material is made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Biologists isolate certain sections of DNA, connect them in new combinations and transfer them from one cell to another. As a result, it is possible to carry out such changes in the genome that could hardly have occurred naturally.

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History of development and the achieved level of technology In the second half of the twentieth century, several important discoveries and inventions were made that underlie genetic engineering. Many years of attempts to "read" the biological information that is "recorded" in the genes have been successfully completed. This work was started by the English scientist F. Sanger and the American scientist W. Gilbert (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980). As you know, genes contain information-instruction for the synthesis of RNA molecules and proteins in the body, including enzymes. In order to force a cell to synthesize new, unusual substances for it, it is necessary that the corresponding sets of enzymes be synthesized in it. And for this it is necessary either to purposefully change the genes in it, or to introduce new, previously absent genes into it. Changes in genes in living cells are mutations. They occur under the influence of, for example, mutagens - chemical poisons or radiation. But such changes cannot be controlled or directed. Therefore, scientists have concentrated their efforts on trying to develop methods for introducing into the cell new, very specific genes that a person needs.

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The main stages of solving the genetic engineering problem are as follows: 1. Obtaining an isolated gene. 2. Introduction of a gene into a vector for transfer to an organism. 3. Transfer of a vector with a gene into a modified organism. 4. Transformation of body cells. 5. Selection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and elimination of those that have not been successfully modified. The process of gene synthesis is currently very well developed and even largely automated. There are special devices equipped with computers, in the memory of which programs for the synthesis of various nucleotide sequences are stored. Such an apparatus synthesizes DNA segments up to 100-120 nitrogenous bases in length (oligonucleotides). A technique has become widespread that allows the use of polymerase chain reaction for DNA synthesis, including mutant DNA. A thermostable enzyme, DNA polymerase, is used in it for template synthesis of DNA, which is used as a seed for artificially synthesized pieces of nucleic acid - oligonucleotides. The reverse transcriptase enzyme makes it possible to synthesize DNA using such primers (primers) on a matrix of RNA isolated from cells. DNA synthesized in this way is called complementary (RNA) or cDNA. An isolated, "chemically pure" gene can also be obtained from a phage library. This is the name of a bacteriophage preparation whose genome contains random fragments from the genome or cDNA, which are reproduced by the phage along with all its DNA.

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To insert a gene into a vector, restriction enzymes and ligases are used, which are also useful tools for genetic engineering. With the help of restriction enzymes, the gene and the vector can be cut into pieces. With the help of ligases, such pieces can be “glued together”, connected in a different combination, constructing a new gene or enclosing it in a vector. For the discovery of restrictases, Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans and Hamilton Smith were also awarded the Nobel Prize (1978). The technique of introducing genes into bacteria was developed after Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of bacterial transformation. This phenomenon is based on a primitive sexual process, which in bacteria is accompanied by the exchange of small fragments of non-chromosomal DNA, plasmids. Plasmid technologies formed the basis for the introduction of artificial genes into bacterial cells. Significant difficulties were associated with the introduction of a ready-made gene into the hereditary apparatus of plant and animal cells. However, in nature, there are cases when foreign DNA (of a virus or a bacteriophage) is included in the genetic apparatus of a cell and, with the help of its metabolic mechanisms, begins to synthesize “its own” protein. Scientists studied the features of the introduction of foreign DNA and used it as a principle for introducing genetic material into a cell. This process is called transfection. If unicellular organisms or cultures of multicellular cells are modified, then cloning begins at this stage, that is, the selection of those organisms and their descendants (clones) that have undergone modification. When the task is to obtain multicellular organisms, then cells with a changed genotype are used for vegetative propagation of plants or injected into the blastocysts of a surrogate mother when it comes to animals. As a result, cubs with a changed or unchanged genotype are born, among which only those that show the expected changes are selected and crossed with each other.

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Benefits of Genetic Engineering Genetic engineering is used to obtain the desired qualities of a modified or genetically modified organism. Unlike traditional breeding, during which the genotype is only indirectly changed, genetic engineering allows you to directly interfere with the genetic apparatus, using the technique of molecular cloning. Examples of the application of genetic engineering are the production of new genetically modified varieties of crops, the production of human insulin using genetically modified bacteria, the production of erythropoietin in cell culture or new breeds of experimental mice for scientific research. methods of active influence on the cell - from treatment with highly effective poisons to radioactive irradiation.

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The purpose of these techniques is the same - to achieve a change in the hereditary, genetic apparatus of the cell. Their result is the production of numerous mutant microbes, from hundreds and thousands of which scientists then try to select the most suitable for a particular purpose. The creation of techniques for chemical or radiation mutagenesis was an outstanding achievement in biology and is widely used in modern biotechnology. A number of drugs have already been obtained by genetic engineering, including human insulin and the antiviral drug interferon. And although this technology is still being developed, it promises to achieve huge successes in both medicine and agriculture. In medicine, for example, this is a very promising way to create and produce vaccines. In agriculture, crop varieties resistant to drought, cold, disease, insect pests and herbicides can be obtained using recombinant DNA.

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Practical application Now they already know how to synthesize genes, and with the help of such synthesized genes introduced into bacteria, a number of substances are obtained, in particular hormones and interferon. Their production constituted an important branch of biotechnology. Interferon, a protein synthesized by the body in response to a viral infection, is now being studied as a possible treatment for cancer and AIDS. It would take thousands of liters of human blood to produce the amount of interferon that only one liter of bacterial culture produces. It is clear that the gain from the mass production of this substance is very large. Insulin, obtained from microbiological synthesis, which is necessary for the treatment of diabetes, also plays a very important role. A number of vaccines have also been genetically engineered and are being tested to test their effectiveness against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS. With the help of recombinant DNA, human growth hormone is also obtained in sufficient quantities, the only treatment for a rare childhood disease - pituitary dwarfism.

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Practical application Another promising direction in medicine associated with recombinant DNA is the so-called. gene therapy. In these works, which have not yet left the experimental stage, a genetically engineered copy of a gene encoding a powerful antitumor enzyme is introduced into the body to fight a tumor. Gene therapy has also begun to be used to combat hereditary disorders in the immune system. Agriculture has succeeded in genetically modifying dozens of food and fodder crops. In animal husbandry, the use of biotechnologically produced growth hormone has increased milk yields; using a genetically modified virus created a vaccine against herpes in pigs.

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Human Genetic Engineering As applied to humans, genetic engineering could be used to treat hereditary diseases. However, technically, there is a significant difference between treating the patient himself and changing the genome of his descendants. Currently, effective methods for modifying the human genome are under development. For a long time, the genetic engineering of monkeys faced serious difficulties, but in 2009 the experiments were crowned with success: the first genetically modified primate, the common marmoset, gave offspring. In the same year, Nature published a publication on the successful treatment of an adult male monkey from color blindness.

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Human Genetic Engineering Although on a small scale, genetic engineering is already being used to give women with some types of infertility a chance to get pregnant. To do this, use the eggs of a healthy woman. The child as a result inherits the genotype from one father and two mothers. With the help of genetic engineering, it is possible to obtain descendants with improved appearance, mental and physical abilities, character and behavior. With the help of gene therapy in the future, it is possible to improve the genome and current people. In principle, more serious changes can be created, but on the way to such transformations, humanity needs to solve many ethical problems.

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Scientific hazards of genetic engineering 1. Genetic engineering is fundamentally different from breeding new varieties and breeds. The artificial addition of foreign genes greatly disrupts the finely tuned genetic control of a normal cell. The manipulation of genes is fundamentally different from the combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes that occurs in natural crossing.2. Currently, genetic engineering is technically imperfect, since it is not able to control the process of inserting a new gene. Therefore, it is not possible to predict the insertion site and the effects of the added gene. Even if the location of the gene can be determined after its insertion into the genome, the available DNA knowledge is very incomplete in order to predict the results.

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3. As a result of the artificial addition of a foreign gene, hazardous substances may unexpectedly be formed. In the worst case, these can be toxic substances, allergens, or other unhealthy substances. Information about this kind of possibilities is still very incomplete. 4. There are no absolutely reliable methods of testing for harmlessness. More than 10% of serious side effects of new drugs cannot be detected despite carefully conducted safety studies. The risk that the dangerous properties of new, genetically engineered foods will go unnoticed is probably much greater than in the case of drugs. 5. The current requirements for testing for harmlessness are extremely insufficient. They are clearly drafted in such a way as to simplify the approval process. They allow the use of extremely insensitive methods of testing for harmlessness. Therefore, there is a significant risk that unhealthy foodstuffs can pass inspection undetected.

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6. Genetically engineered food so far has no significant value to mankind. These products serve mainly commercial interests only. 7. Knowledge about the effect on the environment of organisms modified by genetic engineering and brought there is completely insufficient. It has not yet been proven that organisms modified by genetic engineering will not have a harmful effect on the environment. Ecologists have speculated about various potential environmental complications. For example, there are many opportunities for the uncontrolled spread of potentially harmful genes used by genetic engineering, including gene transfer by bacteria and viruses. Complications caused in the environment are likely to be unrepairable, since released genes cannot be taken back.

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8. New and dangerous viruses may emerge. It has been experimentally shown that the genes of viruses built into the genome can combine with the genes of infectious viruses (the so-called recombination). These new viruses may be more aggressive than the original ones. Viruses may also become less species-specific. For example, plant viruses can become harmful to beneficial insects, animals as well as humans. 9. Knowledge of the hereditary substance, DNA, is very incomplete. Only 3% of DNA is known to function. it is risky to manipulate complex systems about which knowledge is incomplete. Extensive experience in the field of biology, ecology and medicine shows that this can cause serious unpredictable problems and disorders. 10. Genetic engineering will not solve the problem of world hunger. The claim that genetic engineering can make a significant contribution to solving the problem of world hunger is a scientifically unfounded myth.

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Dietary supplements - contain yeastFruit juices - may contain genetically modified fruits Glucose syrupIce cream - may contain soy, glucose syrupCorn (maize)Pasta (spaghetti, vermicelli) - may contain soyPotatosLight drinks - may contain glucose syrupSoybeans, foods, meatSoda Fruit drinksTofu TomatoesYeast (sourdough) Sugar

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Animal cloning Dolly the sheep, cloned from the udder cells of another, dead animal, flooded the papers in 1997. Researchers at the University of Roslyn (USA) rang about the successes without focusing the public on the hundreds of failures that had gone before. Dolly was not the first animal clone, but she was the most famous. In fact, the world has been cloning animals for the past decade. Roslyn kept the success a secret until they managed to patent not only Dolly, but the entire process of its creation. WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) granted Roslyn University exclusive patent rights to clone all animals, including humans, until 2017. Dolly's success has inspired scientists around the globe to dabble in creation and play God despite the negative effects on animals and the environment. In Thailand, scientists are trying to clone the famous white elephant of King Rama III, who died 100 years ago. Of the 50 thousand wild elephants that lived in the 60s, only 2000 remained in Thailand. The Thais want to revive the herd. But at the same time, they do not understand that if modern anthropogenic disturbances and destruction of habitats do not stop, the same fate awaits the clones. Cloning, like all genetic engineering in general, is a pathetic attempt to solve problems by ignoring their root causes.

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Museums, inspired by the Jurassic Park movies and the success of cloning technology in the real world, are scouring their collections for DNA samples from extinct animals. There is a plan to try to clone a mammoth whose tissues are well preserved in the Arctic ice. Shortly after Dolly, Roslin fathered Polly, a cloned lamb carrying the human protein gene in every cell of the body. This was seen as a step towards the mass production of human proteins in animals to treat human diseases such as thrombosis. As in the case of Dolly, the fact that success was preceded by many failures - in the birth of very large cubs, twice the normal size - up to 9 kg at a rate of 4.75 kg, was not particularly advertised. This cannot be the norm even in cases where the science of cloning is developing rapidly. In 1998, US and French researchers were able to clone Holstein calves from fetal cells. If earlier the process of creating a clone required 3 years, now it takes only 9 months. On the other hand, every ninth clone failed and died or was destroyed. Cloning is a serious health risk. Researchers have encountered many cases of fetal death, postpartum deaths, placental abnormalities, abnormal edema, three and four times the incidence of umbilical cord problems, and severe immunological deficiency. In large mammals such as sheep and cows, researchers find that about half of the clones contain serious disorders, including specific defects in the heart, lungs, and other organs leading to perinatal mortality. Accumulated genetic errors infect and affect generations of clones. But after all, it is impossible to give a defective clone for repair as a broken machine.

Genetic engineering finds wide practical application in the sectors of the national economy, such as the microbiological industry, the pharmaceutical industry, the food industry and agriculture. Genetic engineering finds wide practical application in the sectors of the national economy, such as the microbiological industry, the pharmaceutical industry, the food industry and agriculture.

One of the most significant industries in genetic engineering is the production of drugs. Modern technologies for the production of various drugs make it possible to cure the most serious diseases, or at least slow down their development. One of the most significant industries in genetic engineering is the production of drugs. Modern technologies for the production of various drugs make it possible to cure the most serious diseases, or at least slow down their development.

With the development of genetic engineering, they increasingly began to conduct various experiments on animals, as a result of which scientists achieved a kind of mutation of organisms. With the development of genetic engineering, they increasingly began to conduct various experiments on animals, as a result of which scientists achieved a kind of mutation of organisms. For example, Lifestyle Pets has genetically engineered a hypoallergenic cat named Ashera GD. A certain gene was introduced into the body of the animal, which made it possible to “bypass diseases”. For example, Lifestyle Pets has genetically engineered a hypoallergenic cat named Ashera GD. A certain gene was introduced into the body of the animal, which made it possible to “bypass diseases”.

Using genetic engineering, researchers at the University of Pennsylvania have introduced a new method for producing vaccines: using genetically engineered fungi. As a result, the production of vaccines has been accelerated, which, according to Pennsylvanians, could come in handy in the event of a bioterrorist attack or an outbreak of bird flu. Using genetic engineering, researchers at the University of Pennsylvania have introduced a new method for producing vaccines: using genetically engineered fungi. As a result, the production of vaccines has been accelerated, which, according to Pennsylvanians, could come in handy in the event of a bioterrorist attack or an outbreak of bird flu.

As mentioned above, the development of genetic engineering could not but affect the production of drugs that contribute to the speedy recovery of the patient. So, obtained by the same genetic engineering, bacteria of the Clostridium family, introduced into the body, grow and multiply only in the oxygen-poor parts of tumors, which are the most difficult to treat to this day. As mentioned above, the development of genetic engineering could not but affect the production of drugs that contribute to the speedy recovery of the patient. So, obtained by the same genetic engineering, bacteria of the Clostridium family, introduced into the body, grow and multiply only in the oxygen-poor parts of tumors, which are the most difficult to treat to this day.

Now they already know how to synthesize genes, and with the help of such synthesized genes introduced into bacteria, a number of substances are obtained, in particular hormones and interferon. Their production constituted an important branch of biotechnology. Now they already know how to synthesize genes, and with the help of such synthesized genes introduced into bacteria, a number of substances are obtained, in particular hormones and interferon. Their production constituted an important branch of biotechnology. Interferon, a protein synthesized by the body in response to a viral infection, is now being studied as a possible treatment for cancer and AIDS. It would take thousands of liters of human blood to produce the amount of interferon that only one liter of bacterial culture produces. It is clear that the gain from the mass production of this substance is very large. Insulin, obtained from microbiological synthesis, which is necessary for the treatment of diabetes, also plays a very important role. A number of vaccines have also been genetically engineered and are being tested to test their effectiveness against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS. With the help of recombinant DNA, human growth hormone is also obtained in sufficient quantities, the only treatment for a rare childhood disease - pituitary dwarfism. Interferon, a protein synthesized by the body in response to a viral infection, is now being studied as a possible treatment for cancer and AIDS. It would take thousands of liters of human blood to produce the amount of interferon that only one liter of bacterial culture produces. It is clear that the gain from the mass production of this substance is very large. Insulin, obtained from microbiological synthesis, which is necessary for the treatment of diabetes, also plays a very important role. A number of vaccines have also been genetically engineered and are being tested to test their effectiveness against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS. With the help of recombinant DNA, human growth hormone is also obtained in sufficient quantities, the only treatment for a rare childhood disease - pituitary dwarfism.

Another promising area in medicine associated with recombinant DNA is the so-called. gene therapy. In these works, which have not yet left the experimental stage, a genetically engineered copy of a gene encoding a powerful antitumor enzyme is introduced into the body to fight a tumor. Gene therapy has also begun to be used to combat hereditary disorders in the immune system. Another promising area in medicine associated with recombinant DNA is the so-called. gene therapy. In these works, which have not yet left the experimental stage, a genetically engineered copy of a gene encoding a powerful antitumor enzyme is introduced into the body to fight a tumor. Gene therapy has also begun to be used to combat hereditary disorders in the immune system. Agriculture has succeeded in genetically modifying dozens of food and fodder crops. In animal husbandry, the use of biotechnologically produced growth hormone has increased milk yields; using a genetically modified virus created a vaccine against herpes in pigs. Agriculture has succeeded in genetically modifying dozens of food and fodder crops. In animal husbandry, the use of biotechnologically produced growth hormone has increased milk yields; using a genetically modified virus created a vaccine against herpes in pigs.

Human Genetic Engineering As applied to humans, genetic engineering could be used to treat hereditary diseases. However, technically, there is a significant difference between treating the patient himself and changing the genome of his descendants. When applied to humans, genetic engineering could be used to treat hereditary diseases. However, technically, there is a significant difference between treating the patient himself and changing the genome of his descendants. Genome Currently, effective methods for changing the human genome are under development. For a long time, the genetic engineering of monkeys faced serious difficulties, but in 2009 the experiments were crowned with success: the first genetically modified primate, the common marmoset, gave offspring. In the same year, Nature published a publication on the successful treatment of an adult male monkey from color blindness. Currently, effective methods for modifying the human genome are under development. For a long time, the genetic engineering of monkeys faced serious difficulties, but in 2009 the experiments were crowned with success: the first genetically modified primate, the common marmoset, gave offspring. In the same year, Nature published a publication on the successful treatment of an adult male monkey from color blindness.

Human Genetic Engineering Although on a small scale, genetic engineering is already being used to give women with some types of infertility a chance to get pregnant. To do this, use the eggs of a healthy woman. The child as a result inherits the genotype from one father and two mothers. Albeit on a small scale, genetic engineering is already being used to give women with some types of infertility a chance to get pregnant. To do this, use the eggs of a healthy woman. As a result, the child inherits the genotype from one father and two mothers. Genotype With the help of genetic engineering, it is possible to obtain offspring with improved appearance, mental and physical abilities, character and behavior. With the help of gene therapy in the future, it is possible to improve the genome and current people. In principle, more serious changes can be created, but on the way to such transformations, humanity needs to solve many ethical problems. With the help of genetic engineering, it is possible to obtain descendants with improved appearance, mental and physical abilities, character and behavior. With the help of gene therapy in the future, it is possible to improve the genome and current people. In principle, more serious changes can be created, but on the way to such transformations, humanity needs to solve many ethical problems. gene therapy

Scientific hazards of genetic engineering 1. Genetic engineering is fundamentally different from breeding new varieties and breeds. The artificial addition of foreign genes greatly disrupts the finely tuned genetic control of a normal cell. Gene manipulation is fundamentally different from the combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes that occurs in natural crossing. 2. Currently, genetic engineering is technically imperfect, since it is not able to control the process of inserting a new gene. Therefore, it is not possible to predict the insertion site and the effects of the added gene. Even if the location of the gene can be determined after its insertion into the genome, the available DNA knowledge is very incomplete in order to predict the results.

3. As a result of the artificial addition of a foreign gene, hazardous substances may unexpectedly be formed. In the worst case, these can be toxic substances, allergens, or other unhealthy substances. Information about this kind of possibilities is still very incomplete. 4. There are no absolutely reliable methods of testing for harmlessness. More than 10% of serious side effects of new drugs cannot be detected despite carefully conducted safety studies. The risk that the dangerous properties of new, genetically engineered foods will go unnoticed is probably much greater than in the case of drugs. 5. The current requirements for testing for harmlessness are extremely insufficient. They are clearly drafted in such a way as to simplify the approval process. They allow the use of extremely insensitive methods of testing for harmlessness. Therefore, there is a significant risk that unhealthy foodstuffs can pass inspection undetected.

6. Genetically engineered food so far has no significant value to mankind. These products serve mainly commercial interests only. 7. Knowledge about the effect on the environment of organisms modified by genetic engineering and brought there is completely insufficient. It has not yet been proven that organisms modified by genetic engineering will not have a harmful effect on the environment. Ecologists have speculated about various potential environmental complications. For example, there are many opportunities for the uncontrolled spread of potentially harmful genes used by genetic engineering, including gene transfer by bacteria and viruses. Complications caused in the environment are likely to be unrepairable, since released genes cannot be taken back.

8. New and dangerous viruses may emerge. It has been experimentally shown that the genes of viruses built into the genome can combine with the genes of infectious viruses (the so-called recombination). These new viruses may be more aggressive than the original ones. Viruses may also become less species-specific. For example, plant viruses can become harmful to beneficial insects, animals as well as humans. 9. Knowledge of the hereditary substance, DNA, is very incomplete. Only 3% of DNA is known to function. it is risky to manipulate complex systems about which knowledge is incomplete. Extensive experience in the field of biology, ecology and medicine shows that this can cause serious unpredictable problems and disorders. 10. Genetic engineering will not solve the problem of world hunger. The claim that genetic engineering can make a significant contribution to solving the problem of world hunger is a scientifically unfounded myth.

Foods that have been genetically engineered or may contain genetically engineered ingredients Amylase - used in the preparation of bread flour, starch Amylase - used in the preparation of bread flour, starch Cider, wine, beer, etc. Cider, wine, beer, etc. powder) - additives Baking powder (baking powder) - additives Bread - contains soy Bread - contains soy Canola oil Canola oil Catalase - used in beverages, egg powder, whey Catalase - used in beverages, egg powder, whey Cereals (cereals) - contain soy Cereals (cereals) - contain soy Chymosin Chymosin Cereal products (cereals) Cereal products (cereals) Cereal starch Cereal starch Cereal syrup Cereal syrup

Dietary Supplements - Contains Yeast Food Supplements - Contains Yeast Fruit Juices - May Be Made From Genetically Modified Fruit Fruit Juices - May Be Made From Genetically Modified Fruit Glucose Syrup Glucose Syrup Ice Cream - May Contain Soy, Glucose Syrup Ice Cream - May Contain Soy, Glucose Syrup Corn ( maize) Corn (maize) Pasta (spaghetti, vermicelli) - may contain soy Pasta (spaghetti, vermicelli) - may contain soy Potato Potato Soft drinks - may contain glucose syrup Light drinks - may contain glucose syrup Soybeans, foods, meat Soybeans , food, meat Carbonated fruit drinks Carbonated fruit drinks Tofu Tofu Tomato Tomato Yeast (sourdough) Yeast (sourdough) Sugar Sugar

What are the prospects for genetic engineering? With the development of genetic technologies, for the first time in history, humanity has the opportunity, with the help of medical genetics, to reduce the burden of pathological heredity accumulated in the process of evolution, to get rid of many hereditary diseases, in particular, by replacing a pathological gene with a normal one.

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Animal cloning Dolly the sheep, cloned from the udder cells of another, dead animal, flooded the papers in 1997. Researchers at the University of Roslyn (USA) rang out about the successes without focusing the public on the hundreds of failures that had gone before. Dolly was not the first animal clone, but she was the most famous. In fact, the world has been cloning animals for the past decade. Roslyn kept the success a secret until they managed to patent not only Dolly, but the entire process of its creation. WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) granted Roslyn University exclusive patent rights to clone all animals, including humans, until 2017. Dolly's success has inspired scientists around the globe to dabble in creation and play God despite the negative effects on animals and the environment. In Thailand, scientists are trying to clone the famous white elephant of King Rama III, who died 100 years ago. Of the 50 thousand wild elephants that lived in the 60s, only 2000 remained in Thailand. The Thais want to revive the herd. But at the same time, they do not understand that if modern anthropogenic disturbances and destruction of habitats do not stop, the same fate awaits the clones. Cloning, like all genetic engineering in general, is a pathetic attempt to solve problems by ignoring their root causes.

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History of development In the second half of the 20th century, several important discoveries and inventions were made that underlie genetic engineering. Many years of attempts to "read" the biological information that is "recorded" in the genes have been successfully completed. This work was started by the English scientist F. Sanger and the American scientist W. Gilbert (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980). Walter Gilbert Frederick Senger

The main stages of solving a genetic engineering problem: 1. Obtaining an isolated gene. 1. Obtaining an isolated gene. 2. Introduction of a gene into a vector for transfer to an organism. 2. Introduction of a gene into a vector for transfer to an organism. 3. Transfer of a vector with a gene into a modified organism. 3. Transfer of a vector with a gene into a modified organism. 4. Transformation of body cells. 4. Transformation of body cells. 5. Selection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and elimination of those that have not been successfully modified. 5. Selection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and elimination of those that have not been successfully modified.

With the help of gene therapy in the future, it is possible to change the human genome. Currently, effective methods for modifying the human genome are under development and testing in primates. With the help of gene therapy in the future, it is possible to change the human genome. Currently, effective methods for modifying the human genome are under development and testing in primates. Albeit on a small scale, genetic engineering is already being used to give women with some types of infertility a chance to get pregnant. To do this, use the eggs of a healthy woman.

The Human Genome Project In 1990, the Human Genome Project was launched in the United States, the purpose of which was to determine the entire genetic year of a person. The project, in which Russian geneticists also played an important role, was completed in 2003. As a result of the project, 99% of the genome was identified with 99.99% accuracy.

Incredible examples of genetic engineering In 2007, a South Korean scientist changed the DNA of a cat to make it glow in the dark, and then took this DNA and cloned other cats from it, creating a whole group of fluffy fluorescent feline Eco-pig, or as critics also call it Frankensvin - it is a pig that has been genetically modified to better digest and process phosphorus.

Scientists at the University of Washington are working to develop poplar trees that can clean up polluted areas by absorbing pollutants from groundwater through their roots. Scientists have recently isolated the venom gene in the scorpion's tail and have begun looking for ways to inject it into cabbages. Scientists have recently isolated the venom gene in the scorpion's tail and have begun looking for ways to inject it into cabbages.

Web-spinning goats Researchers have inserted the gene for the skeletal filament of the web into the goat's DNA so that the animal will only produce the web protein in its milk. AquaBounty's genetically engineered salmon grows twice as fast as regular fish of this species. AquaBounty's genetically engineered salmon grows twice as fast as regular fish of this species.

The Flavr Savr tomato was the first commercially grown and genetically engineered food to be licensed for human consumption. The Flavr Savr tomato was the first commercially grown and genetically engineered food to be licensed for human consumption. Banana vaccines. When people eat a piece of a genetically engineered banana filled with viral proteins, their immune system creates antibodies to fight the disease; the same thing happens with conventional vaccines.

Trees are genetically modified to grow faster, better timber, and even to detect biological attacks. Cows produce milk identical to that produced by lactating women. Cows produce milk identical to that produced by lactating women.

Dangers of genetic engineering: 1. As a result of the artificial addition of a foreign gene, hazardous substances may unexpectedly be formed. 1. As a result of the artificial addition of a foreign gene, hazardous substances may unexpectedly be formed. 2. New and dangerous viruses may emerge. 3. Knowledge about the impact on the environment of organisms modified with the help of genetic engineering, introduced there, is completely insufficient. 4. There are no absolutely reliable methods of testing for harmlessness. 5. Currently, genetic engineering is technically imperfect, since it is not able to control the process of inserting a new gene, so it is impossible to predict the results.

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Genetic engineering is a set of methods that allow, through in vitro operations (in vitro, outside the body), to transfer genetic information from one organism to another.

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The goal of genetic engineering is to obtain cells (primarily bacterial) capable of producing some "human" proteins on an industrial scale; in the ability to overcome interspecific barriers and transfer individual hereditary traits of some organisms to others (use in plant and animal breeding)

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The formal date of birth of genetic engineering is 1972. Its ancestor was the American biochemist Paul Berg.

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A group of researchers led by Paul Berg, who worked at Stanford University, near San Francisco in California, announced the creation of the first recombinant (hybrid) DNA outside the body. The first recombinant DNA molecule consisted of fragments of Escherichia coli (Eschherihia coli), a group of genes from the bacterium itself, and the entire DNA of the SV40 virus that causes the development of tumors in monkeys. Such a recombinant structure could theoretically have functional activity in both E. coli and monkey cells. She could, like a shuttle, "walk" between a bacterium and an animal. For this work, Paul Berg was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1980.

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SV40 virus