The radar emits electromagnetic energy and detects echoes coming from reflected objects and also determines their characteristics. The purpose of the course project is to consider an all-round radar and calculate the tactical indicators of this radar: maximum range taking into account absorption; real resolution in range and azimuth; real accuracy of range and azimuth measurements. The theoretical part provides a functional diagram of a pulsed active radar for air targets for air traffic control.
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Radar systems (radars) are designed to detect and determine the current coordinates (range, speed, elevation and azimuth) of reflected objects.
The radar emits electromagnetic energy and detects echoes coming from reflected objects, and also determines their characteristics.
The purpose of the course project is to consider an all-round radar and calculate the tactical indicators of this radar: maximum range taking into account absorption; real resolution in range and azimuth; real accuracy of range and azimuth measurements.
The theoretical part provides a functional diagram of a pulsed active radar for air targets for air traffic control. The system parameters and formulas for its calculation are also given.
In the calculation part, the following parameters were determined: maximum range taking into account absorption, real range and azimuth resolution, range and azimuth measurement accuracy.
1. Theoretical part
1.1 Functional diagram of the radarall-round view
Radar the field of radio engineering, which provides radar observation of various objects, that is, their detection, measurement of coordinates and movement parameters, as well as the identification of certain structural or physical properties by using radio waves reflected or re-emitted by objects or their own radio emission. The information obtained during radar surveillance is called radar. Radio technical radar surveillance devices are called radar stations (radars) or radars. The radar surveillance objects themselves are called radar targets or simply targets. When using reflected radio waves, radar targets are any inhomogeneities in the electrical parameters of the medium (dielectric and magnetic permeability, conductivity) in which the primary wave propagates. This includes aircraft (airplanes, helicopters, weather balloons, etc.), hydrometeors (rain, snow, hail, clouds, etc.), river and sea vessels, ground objects (buildings, cars, airplanes at airports, etc.). ), all kinds of military objects, etc. A special type of radar targets are astronomical objects.
The source of radar information is the radar signal. Depending on the methods of obtaining it, the following types of radar surveillance are distinguished.
- Passive response radar,based on the fact that the oscillations emitted by the radar probing signal are reflected from the target and enter the radar receiver in the form of a reflected signal. This type of surveillance is sometimes also called active passive response radar.
Active response radar,called active radar with an active response, it is characterized by the fact that the response signal is not reflected, but re-emitted using a special transponder - a repeater. At the same time, the range and contrast of radar observation significantly increases.
Passive radar is based on receiving the targets' own radio emissions, mainly in the millimeter and centimeter ranges. If the sounding signal in the two previous cases can be used as a reference signal, which provides the fundamental possibility of measuring range and speed, then in this case there is no such possibility.
A radar system can be thought of as a radar channel, similar to radio communications or telemetry channels. The main components of a radar are a transmitter, a receiver, an antenna device, and a terminal device.
The main stages of radar surveillance are:detection, measurement, resolution and recognition.
Detection is the process of deciding on the presence of goals with an acceptable probability of an erroneous decision.
Measurement allows you to estimate the coordinates of targets and the parameters of their movement with acceptable errors.
Permission consists of performing the tasks of detecting and measuring the coordinates of one target in the presence of others that are close in range, speed, etc.
Recognition makes it possible to establish some characteristic features of the target: is it point or group, moving or group, etc.
Radar information coming from the radar is transmitted via radio channel or cable to the control point. The process of radar tracking of individual targets is automated and carried out using a computer.
Aircraft navigation along the route is provided by the same radars that are used in air traffic control. They are used both to monitor adherence to a given route and to determine location during the flight.
To perform landing and its automation, along with radio beacon systems, landing radars are widely used, providing monitoring of the aircraft’s deviation from the course and glide path.
A number of airborne radar devices are also used in civil aviation. This primarily includes on-board radar for detecting dangerous weather formations and obstacles. Usually it also serves to survey the earth in order to provide the possibility of autonomous navigation along characteristic ground-based radar landmarks.
Radar systems (radars) are designed to detect and determine the current coordinates (range, speed, elevation and azimuth) of reflected objects. The radar emits electromagnetic energy and detects echoes coming from reflected objects, and also determines their characteristics.
Let's consider the operation of a pulsed active radar for detecting air targets for air traffic control (ATC), the structure of which is shown in Figure 1. The view control device (antenna control) is used to view space (usually circular) with an antenna beam, narrow in the horizontal plane and wide in the vertical.
The radar in question uses a pulsed radiation mode, therefore, at the moment the next probing radio pulse ends, the only antenna switches from transmitter to receiver and is used for reception until the next probing radio pulse begins to be generated, after which the antenna is again connected to the transmitter, and so on.
This operation is performed by a transmit-receive switch (RTS). The trigger pulses, which set the repetition period of the probing signals and synchronize the operation of all radar subsystems, are generated by a synchronizer. The signal from the receiver after the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is supplied to the information processing equipment signal processor, where primary information processing is performed, consisting of detecting the signal and changing the coordinates of the target. Target marks and trajectory tracks are formed during the initial processing of information in the data processor.
The generated signals, together with information about the angular position of the antenna, are transmitted for further processing to the command post, as well as for monitoring to the all-round visibility indicator (PVI). When the radar operates autonomously, the PPI serves as the main element for monitoring the air situation. Such a radar usually processes information in digital form. For this purpose, a device for converting the signal into a digital code (ADC) is provided.
Figure 1 Functional diagram of all-round radar
1.2 Definitions and main parameters of the system. Formulas for calculation
Basic tactical characteristics of the radar
Maximum range
The maximum operating range is set by tactical requirements and depends on many technical characteristics of the radar, radio wave propagation conditions and target characteristics, which are subject to random changes in real conditions of use of stations. Therefore, the maximum range is a probabilistic characteristic.
The free-space range equation (i.e., without taking into account the influence of the ground and absorption in the atmosphere) for a point target establishes the relationship between all the main parameters of the radar.
where E isl - energy emitted in one pulse;
S a - effective antenna area;
S efo - effective reflective target area;
- wavelength;
k p - discriminability coefficient (signal-to-noise energy ratio at the receiver input, which ensures the reception of signals with a given probability of correct detection W by and the probability of a false alarm Wlt);
E sh - energy of noise acting during reception.
Where R and - and pulse power;
and , - pulse duration.
Where d ag - horizontal size of the antenna mirror;
d av - vertical size of the antenna mirror.
k r = k r.t. ,
where k r.t. - theoretical coefficient of distinguishability.
k r.t. =,
where q 0 - detection parameter;
N - the number of impulses received from the target.
where Wlt - probability of false alarm;
W by - probability of correct detection.
where t region,
F and - pulse sending frequency;
Q a0.5 - antenna radiation pattern width at 0.5 power level
where is the angular speed of rotation of the antenna.
where T review is the review period.
where k =1.38 10 -23 J/deg - Boltzmann's constant;
k sh - receiver noise figure;
T - receiver temperature in degrees Kelvin ( T =300K).
The maximum range of the radar, taking into account the absorption of radio wave energy.
where donkey - attenuation coefficient;
D - width of the weakening layer.
Minimum radar range
If the antenna system does not impose restrictions, then the minimum range of the radar is determined by the pulse duration and the recovery time of the antenna switch.
where c is the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum, c = 3∙10 8 ;
and , - pulse duration;
τ in - recovery time of the antenna switch.
Radar range resolution
The real range resolution when using an all-round visibility indicator as an output device will be determined by the formula
(D)= (D) sweat + (D) ind,
g de (D) sweat - potential range resolution;
(D) ind - range resolution of the indicator.
For a signal in the form of an incoherent train of rectangular pulses:
where c is the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic wave in a vacuum; c = 3∙10 8 ;
and , - pulse duration;
(D) ind - the range resolution of the indicator is calculated by the formula
g de D shk - limit value of the range scale;
k e = 0.4 - screen utilization factor,
Q f - focusing quality of the tube.
Radar azimuth resolution
The actual azimuth resolution is determined by the formula:
( az) = ( az) sweat + ( az) ind,
where ( az ) pot - potential azimuth resolution when approximating the radiation pattern of a Gaussian curve;
( az ) ind - azimuth resolution of the indicator
( az ) sweat =1.3 Q a 0.5 ,
( az ) ind = d n M f ,
where dn - spot diameter of the cathode ray tube;
Mf scale scale.
where r - removing the mark from the center of the screen.
Accuracy of determining coordinates by range And
The accuracy of range determination depends on the accuracy of measuring the delay of the reflected signal, errors due to suboptimal signal processing, the presence of unaccounted signal delays in the transmission, reception and indication paths, and random errors in range measurement in indicator devices.
Accuracy is characterized by measurement error. The resulting root mean square error of range measurement is determined by the formula:
where (D) sweat - potential range measurement error.
(D) distribution error due to non-linearity of propagation;
(D) app - hardware error.
where q 0 - double signal-to-noise ratio.
Azimuth coordinate determination accuracy
Systematic errors in azimuth measurements can occur due to inaccurate orientation of the radar antenna system and due to a mismatch between the antenna position and the electrical azimuth scale.
Random errors in measuring the target azimuth are caused by the instability of the antenna rotation system, the instability of the azimuth marking generation schemes, as well as reading errors.
The resulting root mean square error in azimuth measurement is determined by:
Initial data (option 5)
- Wavelength , [cm] …............................................. ........................... .... 6
- Pulse power R and , [kW] .............................................. .............. 600
- Pulse duration and , [μs] .................................................... ........... 2,2
- Pulse sending frequency F and , [Hz]................................................... ...... 700
- Horizontal size of antenna mirror d ag [m] ........................ 7
- Vertical size of antenna mirror d av , [m] ..................... 2.5
- Review period T review , [With] .............................................. .............................. 25
- Receiver noise figure k sh ................................................. ....... 5
- Probability of correct detection W by ............................. .......... 0,8
- Probability of false alarm W lt.. ................................................ ....... 10 -5
- Around View Indicator Screen Diameter d e , [mm] .................... 400
- Effective reflective target area S efo, [m 2 ] …...................... 30
- Focus quality Q f ............................................................... ...... 400
- Range scale limit D shk1 , [km] ........................... 50 D shk2 , [km] ......................... 400
- Range measuring marks D , [km] ......................................... 15
- Azimuth measuring marks , [deg] .......................................... 4
2. Calculation of tactical indicators of all-round radar
2.1 Calculation of maximum range taking into account absorption
First, the maximum range of the radar is calculated without taking into account the attenuation of radio wave energy during propagation. The calculation is carried out according to the formula:
(1)
Let's calculate and establish the quantities included in this expression:
E isl = P and and =600 10 3 2.2 10 -6 =1.32 [J]
S a = d ag d av = 7 2.5 = 8.75 [m 2 ]
k r = k r.t.
k r.t. =
101,2
0.51 [deg]
14.4 [deg/s]
Substituting the resulting values, we will have:
t region = 0.036 [s], N = 25 pulses and k r.t. = 2.02.
Let = 10, then k P =20.
E sh - energy of noise acting during reception:
E w =kk w T =1.38 10 -23 5 300=2.07 10 -20 [J]
Substituting all the obtained values into (1), we find 634.38 [km]
Now we determine the maximum range of the radar, taking into account the absorption of radio wave energy:
(2)
Value donkey we find it from the graphs. For =6 cm donkey taken equal to 0.01 dB/km. Let us assume that attenuation occurs over the entire range. Under this condition, formula (2) takes the form of a transcendental equation
(3)
We solve equation (3) graphically. For osl = 0.01 dB/km and D max = 634.38 km calculated D max.osl = 305.9 km.
Conclusion: From the calculations obtained it is clear that the maximum range of the radar, taking into account the attenuation of radio wave energy during propagation, is equal to D max.os l = 305.9 [km].
2.2 Calculation of real resolution in range and azimuth
The real range resolution when using an all-round visibility indicator as an output device will be determined by the formula:
(D) = (D) sweat + (D) ind
For a signal in the form of an incoherent train of rectangular pulses
0.33 [km]
for D shk1 =50 [km], (D) ind1 =0.31 [km]
for D shk2 =400 [km], (D) ind2 =2.50 [km]
Real range resolution:
for D wk1 =50 km (D) 1 = (D) sweat + (D) ind1 =0.33+0.31=0.64 [km]
for D wk2 =400 km (D) 2 = (D) sweat + (D) ind2 =0.33+2.50=2.83 [km]
We calculate the real azimuth resolution using the formula:
( az) = ( az) sweat + ( az) ind
( az ) sweat =1.3 Q a 0.5 =0.663 [deg]
( az ) ind = d n M f
Taking r = k e d e / 2 (mark on the edge of the screen), we get
0.717 [deg]
( az )=0.663+0.717=1.38 [deg]
Conclusion: The actual range resolution is:
for D shk1 = 0.64 [km], for D shk2 = 2.83 [km].
Real azimuth resolution:
( az )=1.38 [deg].
2.3 Calculation of real accuracy of range and azimuth measurements
Accuracy is characterized by measurement error. The resulting root mean square error in range measurement will be calculated using the formula:
40,86
(D) sweat =[km]
Error due to non-linearity of propagation (D) distribution neglected. Hardware errors (D) app are reduced to errors in reading on the indicator scale (D) ind . We adopt the method of counting by electronic marks (scale rings) on the all-round display indicator screen.
(D) ind = 0.1 D =1.5 [km], where D - scale division price.
(D) = = 5 [km]
We determine the resulting root-mean-square error in azimuth measurement in a similar way:
0,065
( az ) ind =0.1 = 0.4
Conclusion: Having calculated the resulting root mean square error of range measurement, we obtain (D) ( az) =0.4 [deg].
Conclusion
In this course work, the parameters of a pulsed active radar were calculated (maximum range taking into account absorption, real resolution in range and azimuth, accuracy of range and azimuth measurements) for detecting air targets for air traffic control.
During the calculations, the following data were obtained:
1. The maximum range of the radar, taking into account the attenuation of radio wave energy during propagation, is equal to D max.osl = 305.9 [km];
2. Real range resolution is equal to:
for D wk1 = 0.64 [km];
for D shk2 = 2.83 [km].
Real azimuth resolution: ( az )=1.38 [deg].
3. The resulting root mean square error of range measurement is obtained(D) =1.5 [km]. Root mean square error of azimuth measurement ( az ) =0.4 [deg].
The advantages of pulse radars include the ease of measuring distances to targets and their range resolution, especially when there are many targets in the viewing area, as well as almost complete time decoupling between received and emitted oscillations. The latter circumstance allows the use of the same antenna for both transmission and reception.
The disadvantage of pulsed radars is the need to use high peak power of emitted oscillations, as well as the inability to measure short ranges large dead zone.
Radars are used to solve a wide range of problems: from ensuring soft landing of spacecraft on the surface of planets to measuring the speed of human movement, from controlling weapons in anti-missile and anti-aircraft defense systems to personal protection.
References
- Vasin V.V. Range of radio engineering measuring systems. Methodological development. - M.:MIEM 1977
- Vasin V.V. Resolution and accuracy of measurements in radio engineering measuring systems. Methodological development. - M.: MIEM 1977
- Vasin V.V. Methods for measuring coordinates and radial speed of objects in radio engineering measuring systems. Lecture notes. - M.: MIEM 1975.
4. Bakulev P.A. Radar systems. Textbook for universities. M.: “Radio-
Technique" 2004
5. Radio systems: Textbook for universities / Yu. M. Kazarinov [etc.]; Ed. Yu. M. Kazarinova. M.: Academy, 2008. 590 p.:
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Chapter 13. General instructions for organizing the operation of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar
13.1. Responsibilities of the calculation numbers for organizing the operation of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar.................................................... .................................... 185
13.2. Safety requirements for operating the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar.................................................... ........................................................ ............ 186
Chapter 14. The procedure for placing, deploying and collapsing the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar
14.1. Requirements for the position, order of placement of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar by position................................................... ........................................................ .189
14.2. Transferring the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar to the working position (deployment)................................................. ........................................................ ............... 191
14.2.1. Deployment of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar in an open position... 191
14.2.2. Deployment of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar in a shelter (trench)........ 196
14.3. Translation of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar into the stowed position (collapse).................................................... ........................................................ ............... 201
Chapter 15. Preparing the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar for combat operation
15.1. General instructions for preparing the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar for combat operation.................................................... ........................................................ ............... 208
15.2. Orientation of radar 1RL134Sh (P-19) ..................................... 210
15.3. Switching on the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar equipment ....................... 215
15.3.1. Initial positions of controls before turning on the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar equipment .................................................... ........................... 215
15.3.2. Power supply management................................................................... .219
15.3.3. Switching on the station equipment................................................... .219
15.4. Checking the station equipment before work........................ 220
15.5. Transfer of station control from local to remote... 229
15.6. Checking the operation of communications radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)........... 229
15.7. Features of preparing the station for operation in various climatic conditions.................................................... ........................................... 230
15.8. Turning off the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar equipment.................................... 231
Chapter 16. Rules for combat operation on the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar
16.1. Selecting the operating mode of the radar equipment 1RL134Sh (P-19)..... 232
16.2. Selecting the power supply mode for the radar antennas 1RL134Sh (P-19)............... 232
16.3. General instructions for the operator’s work when detecting targets and determining their characteristics.................................................... .................... 233
16.4. Observation of equipment during combat work................................. 234
16.5. Peculiarities of combat work in various conditions................................ 235
16.5.1. Peculiarities of recognition of group targets.................................... 235
16.5.2. Combat work in conditions of interference................................................................. ... 235
16.5.3. Peculiarities of work when ensuring the guidance of fighters at other people's targets.................................................. ........................................................ .. 237
16.5.4. Features of the station’s combat operation in various climatic conditions.................................................... ........................................................ .238
16.5.5. Features of the station's operation in radio flicker mode.......... 238
16.6. Calculation training using a simulator........... 238
SECTION III
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
Radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)
Chapter 17. Measuring parameters and adjusting systems, blocks and mechanisms of radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)
17.1. General instructions for organizing the measurement of parameters and adjustment of systems, blocks and mechanisms of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar................... 240
17.2. Adjustment of power supplies VK-71, VP-71, VI-71................................. 241
17.3. Adjusting the indicator device and interface equipment.................................................... ........................................................ ....... 241
17.4. Setting up the transmitter................................................... 266
17.5. Adjusting the mechanism for rebuilding the Yu-60 block.................................. 270
17.6. Adjusting the Receiver................................................... 270
17.7. Adjusting the AFC system................................................................... .......... 276
17.8. Adjusting the SDC equipment.................................................... ... 280
17.9. Tuning a station when operating it on an equivalent antenna........ 285
17.10. Adjusting the T-60 block................................................... ................ 286
17.11. Measurements using an O-71 block oscilloscope.................................... 286
17.12. Monitoring the operation of the station using block I-76.................................... 287
17.13. Measuring the traveling wave coefficient (TWC) of the high-frequency path and checking the high-frequency path of the NRZ................................................... 288
17.14. Reorganizing the station's frequency program................................... 288
Chapter 18. Assessment of the technical condition of the radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)
18.1. General instructions and requirements of guidance documents for assessing the technical condition of a weapon model.................................... 290
18.2. List of checks for assessing the technical condition of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar.................................................... ........................................................ ........ 295
18.3. Methods for performing measurements when assessing the technical condition of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar................................................... .................................... 298
Chapter 19. Current repair of radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)
19.1. General Troubleshooting Guidelines 310
19.2. Basic troubleshooting methods............................................. 310
19.3. Check procedure when a malfunction is detected.................................... 312
19.4. Instructions for replacing parts and assemblies of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar.... 316
19.5. List of the most common or possible malfunctions of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar.................................................... .................... 317
19.6. List and procedure for replacing selected elements of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar.................................................... ........................................................ ......... 349
Chapter 20. Maintenance of radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)
20.1. General instructions for maintenance of radar 1RL134Sh (P-19).................................................... ........................................................ ............. 362
Chapter 21. Instructions for using spare parts for radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)
21.1. General information about spare parts for radar 1RL134Sh (P-19). Purpose and placement of spare parts.................................................... ........................................... 411
21.2. Purpose of devices and instruments of radar 1RL134Sh (P-19) 413
21.3. Storage of spare parts for radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)..................................................... 414
21.4. Instructions for using group spare parts (ZIP-G)......... 414
Chapter 22. Storage rules for radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)
22.1. General instructions for storing the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar ............... 415
22.2. Preservation of radar 1RL134Sh (P-19) .............................................. 415
22.3. Reactivation of radar 1RL134Sh (P-19) .................................... 416
Application................................................. ........................................... 417
Literature................................................. ................................................... 426
PREFACE
This textbook has been created over a number of years to support the educational process at the Department of Radar Weapons (Reconnaissance Radar and ACS) of the Military University of Military Air Defense of the Russian Armed Forces (branch in Orenburg).
The textbook was created on the basis of lecture courses and methodological recommendations for studying the 1RL134Sh radar, as well as on the basis of experience in operating the radar in military air defense units.
As a result of careful selection of material, it was possible, within a limited volume, to cover a complex of issues related to both the theoretical foundations of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar design and the features of operation and functional design, as well as practical issues related to preparing the radar for combat work, combat evaluation radar readiness and rules of combat work on the radar. The textbook also discusses the organization of maintenance and repair of the 1RL134Sh radar, and provides recommendations for quickly and effectively restoring the combat readiness of the radar.
It should be taken into account that with such a wide coverage of educational material, it was not possible to consider some issues in detail and we had to limit ourselves to presenting only the most necessary information. This concerns the presentation of general organizational issues, which are rather general educational and contain information “for general information.” At the same time, the main issues that carry a basic information load, the knowledge of which is mandatory, are considered with the greatest possible degree of detail.
The purpose of the textbook was not to examine the operation of devices and systems based on their schematic diagrams; however, for a deeper understanding of the physical meaning of the checks and settings described in the book, some issues of the device are considered in more detail.
To effectively understand the material presented, as well as to simplify the work with the textbook when operating the 1RL134Sh radar, it is composed of three sections. This structure was determined based on the experience of the department’s teachers, which shows that for a deeper and more effective study of the material, the logic of its presentation must be based on the close interaction of theory and its practical implementation. This principle was the basis of the textbook.
The presentation of the material is based on the assumption that students are already familiar with the basics of radar and radio engineering, and also have a sufficient level of knowledge in general engineering disciplines. It is advisable to study the material after listening to the course “Fundamentals of building reconnaissance radars and automated control systems.”
In the first section – "Radar device 1RL134Sh (P-19)" the purpose, composition, features of the functional structure, principles of operation of the main systems and devices of the 1RL134Sh radar, as well as the purpose of the radar control, monitoring and signaling organs are considered.
In the second section – “Operation of radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)” the principles of organizing the operation of the 1RL134Sh radar, the issues of preparing the radar for combat work, assessing the combat readiness of the radar, and also set out the basic rules for combat work on the radar.
Third section – “Maintenance and repair of radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)” dedicated to the organization of maintenance and repair of the 1RL134Sh radar. The section summarizes the experience accumulated at the Department of Radar Weapons (reconnaissance radars and automated control systems) of the Higher Air Defense Institution of the RF Armed Forces (Orenburg branch), as well as the experience of operating radars in military air defense units. The section provides methods for carrying out measurements and settings of individual parameters of radar systems and devices, discusses the main methods for identifying faults and the procedure for eliminating them. Particularly noteworthy in this section are the list of the most common and possible malfunctions of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar and the list and methodology for replacing selected elements of the 1RL134Sh (P-19) radar, which are compiled on the basis of operational documentation and generalization of the experience of officers from the troops.
It should be noted that the sections are not separate. For the best assimilation of the material, as well as to ensure the connection between theoretical knowledge of the material part of the radar, the principles of its combat use and the organization of maintenance and repair, thematic links have been created in each section to paragraphs of other sections that explain the material presented.
In each section, the material is presented from general to specific in accordance with the sequence of studying the disciplines “Design and operation of reconnaissance radars”, “Combat work on reconnaissance radars”, as well as carrying out operational and repair practice at the department of Radar weapons (reconnaissance radars and automated control systems) Military University of Military Air Defense of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (branch, Orenburg).
It should be noted that the textbook is not exhaustive in the study, combat use and maintenance and repair of the 1RL134Sh radar. It is also necessary to use the operational documentation for the product, a list of which is given in Table 1.
Table 1
List of operational documents required
additional guidance when studying
and operation of radar 1RL134Sh (P-19)
| No. | Name |
| Radar 1RL134Sh (P-19). Technical Description Part I | |
| Radar 1RL134Sh (P-19). Technical Description Part II | |
| Radar 1RL134Sh (P-19). Operating instructions | |
| VIKO-01. Technical description and operating instructions | |
| Car ZIL-131 and its modifications. Operating instructions. | |
| Automotive and tractor lead-acid batteries. Uniform rules for care and operation. | |
| Heating and ventilation units type OV-64. Operating instructions. | |
| Differential draft pressure meters TDM, TDM-1 models 2004, 2004T. Installation and operation instructions. | |
| Automotive filter ventilation unit FVUA. Technical description and instructions for installation and operation. | |
| Operating instructions for van bodies made of reinforced foam plastic K4.131 on the chassis of the ZIL-131 car. | |
| Manual carbon dioxide fire extinguisher type OU-2. Passport - instructions. | |
| Gasoline electric unit AB-16-T/230/Ch-400-M1. Technical description and operating instructions. | |
| Radio station R-123M. Operating instructions. | |
| Radio station R-111. Operating instructions. | |
| ASPD equipment. Operating instructions. Part 1 | |
| ASPD equipment. Operating instructions. Part 2 | |
| Switch P-193M. Technical description and operating instructions. | |
| Electrical measuring device Ts4353. Passport. | |
| Technical documentation for the periscope artillery compass PAB-2. | |
| Standard signal generator G4-76A. Technical description and operating instructions. | |
| Equipment NRZ 1L23-6. Operating instructions. | |
| Instructions for checking instrumentation. | |
| Calculation memo. | |
| Product 1RL134. T-80 block. Technical description and operating instructions. | |
| Guide to combat work at radar stations of the air defense forces of the ground forces part 5 |
When studying the material, it is necessary to remember that since its release the radar has undergone several modifications. In this regard, the nomenclature of blocks was also changed. The author in the book tried to provide for this issue. Thus, the textbook (Table 1.1) presents a list of blocks and subblocks with nomenclature. Blocks that have been modernized have a double (in parentheses) nomenclature. The material below is presented using one of the nomenclature options.
The textbook may be useful to students of military departments of universities of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, as well as institutions of the Commonwealth of Independent States.
The textbook was approved by the head of the military air defense of the RF Armed Forces. Recommended as the main literature in the discipline “Design and operation of reconnaissance radars” at a meeting of the Academic Council of the branch of the Military University, minutes No. 10 of December 3, 2003.
The author expresses his gratitude for consultations and comments made that contributed to the improvement of the textbook, to the team of the Department of Radar Weapons, consisting of: Associate Professor, Colonel Bostrikov G.A., Associate Professor, Colonel Lyapunov Yu.I., Associate Professor, Lieutenant Colonel Golchenko I.P., Candidate of Military Sciences, Associate Professor, Lieutenant Colonel Shchipakin A.Yu., Anashkin Yu.V., Grigoriev G.A. , Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences Kasatkina S.M., Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences Dudko A.V., Kalinina D.V., Nazarenko B.I., Vasiliev S.N., Candidate of Technical Sciences Captain Rychkov A.V., Reserve Colonels Alarin V.N. and Kadyrov R.Kh.
Related information.
Arterial hypertension can be compensated by using antihypertensive drugs. Beta-1 blockers are widely used. A good medicine of this type is Metozok.
The active substance of the drug is metoprolol succinate. The substance has antiarrhythmic, hypotensive and antianginal effects. The release form of Metozok is tablets for oral use.
There are tablets of 25, 50 and 100 mg. They differ from each other in the amount of active substance. The estimated cost of the medicine is 250-400 rubles. The price is for 30 tablets. Metozok is available in pharmacies with a prescription. The manufacturer of the medicine is the Akrikhin company, Russia.
The principle of operation of the product
Beta-1 blockers are widely used in cardiology. These drugs are even used for preventive purposes. It has been established that the drugs will help prevent myocardial infarction and hypertensive crises.
Metozok is a good domestic beta-1 blocker. The active substance of the drug is metoprolol succinate. Metozok tablets also contain auxiliary components that do not have a pharmacological effect - lactose monohydrate, silicon dioxide, magnesium stearate, etc.
Metoprolol blocks beta-1 adrenergic receptors of the heart, reduces the synthesis of AMP from ATP, and reduces heart rate. Another substance helps reduce the intracellular current of calcium ions, reduce myocardial contractility, and prevent the development of a heart attack.
The hypotonic effect is also due to the fact that metoprolol succinate reduces the minute volume of blood flow and suppresses the production of renin. Metozok helps prevent arrhythmia, due to the fact that the active substance of the drug reduces the myocardial oxygen demand and prevents tachycardia.
When using this beta-1 blocker, susceptibility to physical activity increases significantly and AV conduction slows down. The drug is well metabolized.
The maximum plasma concentration is observed after 6-12 hours, bioavailability increases during consumption of food, the drug binds to plasma proteins by 10%. The half-life is 3.5-7 hours, the drug is excreted through the liver and kidneys.
The hypotensive effect occurs within 1.5-2 hours. The effect lasts throughout the day.
Instructions for use of the drug
The drug Metozok is used in the treatment of arterial hypertension. The drug is equally effective for both hypertension and symptomatic hypertension.
Also indications for use are cardiac arrhythmias, cardiac dysfunction accompanied by tachycardia, coronary artery disease, and chronic heart failure.
Metozok tablet should be taken once a day. Cardiologists recommend taking it on an empty stomach. When treating hypertension, the starting dosage is 50 mg. If necessary, the dose is increased up to 100-200 mg.
For ischemic heart disease, CHF, tachycardia, heart rhythm disturbances, the starting dose is 12.5-25 mg. If necessary, the dosage can be increased to 100-200 mg. The daily dose should be increased progressively and only with the permission of the attending physician.
The duration of therapy is selected individually. Metozok can be taken for life if necessary.
Contraindications and side effects
Metozok has a number of contraindications for use. Firstly, the drug is contraindicated in patients with hypersensitivity to its components. Also, the medication is not prescribed to pregnant and lactating women.
The medicine is not used to treat people under age. The list of contraindications also includes cardiogenic shock, AV block of 2-3 degrees of severity, SSS (sick sinus syndrome), bradycardia, acute heart failure/decompensation of CHF, recent acute myocardial infarction, pheochromocytoma, taking MAO inhibitors, lactase deficiency, intolerance lactose, sinoatrial blockade, glucose/galactose malabsorption syndrome.
Side effects:
- Failures on the part of the SSS. Possible development of bradycardia, increased heart rate, cardiogenic shock, increased symptoms of heart failure, arrhythmia, impaired myocardial conduction.
- Disturbances in the functioning of the central nervous system. While taking pills, increased fatigue, decreased reaction speed, depression, insomnia/drowsiness may occur. When using high dosages - tremors of the limbs, anxiety, asthenia, memory impairment and hallucinations.
- Dry eyes, ringing in the ears, impaired taste. When using high dosages - conjunctivitis.
- Problems with the digestive system. They are manifested by a feeling of nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, constipation/diarrhea, dry mouth, and liver dysfunction.
- Allergic reactions.
- Dyspnea.
- Increase in BMI.
- Rhinitis.
- Increased plasma bilirubin concentration.
- Sexual dysfunction.
- Arthralgia.
- Increased activity of liver enzymes.
- Hypoglycemia. This complication occurs in type 1 diabetes. In type 2 diabetes mellitus, hyperglycemia may develop.
- Leukopenia.
- Agranulocytosis.
- Dry cough.
- Thrombocytopenia.
- Bronchospasm.
In case of overdose - respiratory failure, coma, loss of consciousness, peripheral circulatory disorders, bradycardia, excessive drop in blood pressure, AV block.
Reviews and analogues
There are positive reviews about the drug Metozok. For most hypertensive patients, the drug helped stabilize systolic and diastolic pressure, as well as prevent a hypertensive crisis.
Patients suffering from coronary artery disease, tachycardia, cardiac arrhythmias, chronic heart failure also respond positively to the medicine. People claim that while taking the pills they began to feel much better.
Substitutes for Metozok:
- Metocard (350-500 rubles).
- Betaxolol (95-120 rubles).
- Cordinorm (250-300 rubles).
- Vasocardin (80-120 rubles).
- Betalok (270-350 rubles).
- Nebilet (950-1100 rubles).
- Egilok (170-200 rubles).
Reviews from doctors
Metozok is a good highly selective beta-1 blocker. The drug is effective for hypertension and other diseases of the cardiovascular system.
The drug has both advantages and disadvantages. Advantages - rapid onset of the hypotensive effect, the ability to take the medicine for life, low cost, normal compatibility with other antihypertensive drugs.
There are also a number of disadvantages. The most significant is withdrawal syndrome. After you stop taking it, your blood pressure may rise again. Another disadvantage of the drug is that it often causes hypo- and hyperglycemia in diabetics.
The drug is not very well tolerated. Most patients experience shortness of breath, dry cough, dyspeptic disorders, and headaches while taking Metozok.
ASK A QUESTION TO THE DOCTOR
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Last questions for specialists:
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Instructions for use of the drug Lerkamen
Improper functioning of the cardiovascular system usually leads to problems with blood pressure. This has become a frequent ailment for almost every person, not only in old age, but also in young age. That is why many people who regularly experience such ailments are looking for the most effective method of influencing the body to bring this indicator back to normal. One of the most effective means that copes with this problem is Lerkamen - the instructions for use for it must be carefully studied, which is what we will do.
- Composition of the drug
- Directions for use
- Side effects
- Drug overdose
- Contraindications for use
- Lerkamen or Amlodipine: which is better?
- Other analogues
| Vinpocetine: instructions for use and contraindications |
Composition of the drug
The form in which this medicine is produced is tablets. Their active substance is lercanidipine hydrochloride. In addition, the following additional ingredients are used in Lerkamen:
- lactose monohydrate;
- crystalline cellulose;
- sodium carboxymethyl;
- Magnesium stearate.
Lerkamen is a medicine for blood pressure that is commercially available. You can buy it in almost all pharmacies. The average price of the drug in Russia is 330 rubles. In Ukraine, the drug can be bought for about 40 UAH.
What pressure is Lerkamen used for? This is an effective medication that has a beneficial effect on the body with high blood pressure. Therefore, it is actively used for the treatment of arterial hypertension at any stage of its development. This drug has no other effects on the body.
Directions for use
The daily dose of Lerkamen is 1 tablet. This method of treating hypertension should last about 2 weeks. If after a period of time the patient does not experience improvement, the dosage is increased to 2 tablets per day. In situations where this amount of medication is not enough for a hypertensive patient, the attending physician should evaluate the advisability of further use of Lerkamen blood pressure tablets. Most likely, the patient needs to be prescribed a similar drug.
Side effects
Long-term use of this medicine, especially in excessive doses, can cause a number of ailments. The patient may experience the following side effects:
- The central nervous system can cause minor migraines, confusion, and drowsiness.
- The circulatory system exhibits the following signs: high pulse, a feeling of intense heat, pain in the chest area, and in extreme cases, loss of consciousness may occur.
- The digestive system causes the following ailments: nausea, sometimes causing vomiting, diarrhea, bloating.
- Allergic rashes may appear on the skin. This is especially true for people with an atypical reaction to some components of the drug.
Also, at the time of treatment with Lerkamen, the patient may feel very tired and quickly become overtired.
Drug overdose
Excessive use of Lerkamen tablets usually leads to a significant decrease in blood pressure. A person may experience clouding of reason, up to loss of consciousness. If such a situation occurs, the patient should be brought back to consciousness, given activated charcoal to drink and call an ambulance.
Contraindications for use
There are a number of diseases for which it is not advisable to take this drug, since it may worsen the patient’s general condition. Contraindications to treatment with Lerkamen are:
- severe heart failure;
- improper functioning of the left ventricle;
- recovery period after a heart attack;
- severe liver or kidney disease;
- hypersensitivity or personal intolerance to certain components of the drug;
- pregnancy;
- women during the lactation period;
- childhood.
Lerkamen or Amlodipine: which is better?
Amlodipine is one of the analogues of Lerkamen. Which drug is more effective for hypertension? As for Amlodipine, this drug, in addition to lowering blood pressure, also improves the functioning of the cardiovascular system as a whole. It does not have many contraindications, and is also sold at a much lower price. At the same time, Amlodipine causes much more often ailments in the form of side effects. Therefore, which drug is better to use - Amlodipine or Lerkamen - it is better to consult with your doctor.
Other analogues
What can replace Lerkamen? Modern pharmacology does not stand still, so there are many similar drugs in such parameters as composition and effect on the body. The most common medications that lower blood pressure are:
- Nifedipine. An inexpensive drug that is used not only for hypertension. Also promotes normal heartbeat and blood circulation. Nifedipine should not be used in patients with low blood pressure, insufficient functioning of the kidneys and liver, in elderly people, or in persons under 18 years of age.
- Vaskopin. It has a beneficial effect on the body with high blood pressure and angina pectoris. It should not be used if there is an acute heart attack during pregnancy and lactation. It has a large number of pronounced side effects.
- Tenox. It is used for arterial hypertension, as well as for angina pectoris. Stop use if there is a sharp drop in pressure. The drug is not suitable for people with acute heart disease and impaired functioning of the left ventricle of the heart. Side effects are minor and occur quite rarely in humans.
- Azomex. It is prescribed not only for high blood pressure, but also for patients diagnosed with ischemia. There are almost no restrictions in treatment: it is not recommended to use Azomex for pregnant women, during lactation, as well as in childhood and adolescence. It has a large number of side effects, so during the period of therapy it is necessary to strictly adhere to the dosage prescribed by the attending physician.
- Corinfar. This drug is actively used for angina pectoris and arterial hypertension. Causes many side effects, especially with prolonged use in excessive quantities. As for contraindications, it is not recommended to use Corinfar during the recovery period after a heart attack, with a sharp decrease in blood pressure, during pregnancy and lactation, as well as under the age of 18 years.
- Lacipil. It is an effective medication for complex therapy for hypertension. It does not have any other functional effects on the body. There are no special restrictions on use, except for allergic manifestations to the components of the drug and age less than 18 years. As for side effects, Lacipil only affects blood circulation. With long-term treatment, mild dizziness, headaches, rapid heartbeat, and a sharp rush of blood may occur.
- Norvasc. The drug is highly effective not only for hypertension, but also for coronary heart disease and stable chronic angina. There are no restrictions in use, except for allergies or high sensitivity to components. Side effects are minor and do not cause any particular discomfort or trouble.
Regardless of the choice of medication for the treatment of arterial hypertension, your decision should be agreed with your doctor. He will help you choose the most effective and safe drug, and also prescribe the correct dosage, taking into account the individual characteristics of the course of the disease of each patient.
During experiments on radio communication between ships, he discovered the phenomenon of reflection of radio waves from the ship. The radio transmitter was installed on the upper bridge of the transport "Europe", which was at anchor, and the radio receiver was installed on the cruiser "Africa". In the report of the commission appointed to conduct these experiments, A. S. Popov wrote:
The influence of the ship's environment is reflected in the following: all metal objects (masts, pipes, gear) must interfere with the operation of instruments both at the sending station and at the receiving station, because when they get in the way of the electromagnetic wave, they disrupt its correctness, partly similar to how a breakwater acts on an ordinary wave propagating over the surface of water, partly due to the interference of the waves excited in them with the waves of the source, that is, they influence unfavorably.
...The influence of the intermediate vessel was also observed. So, during the experiments, the cruiser “Lieutenant Ilyin” got between “Europe” and “Africa”, and if this happened at large distances, then the interaction of the instruments stopped until the ships left the same straight line.
During Operation Bruneval Conducted by English commandos on the French coast in the province of Seine-Maritime (Haute-Normandy), the secret of German radars was revealed. To jam the radars, the Allies used transmitters that emitted interference in a certain frequency band with an average frequency of 560 megahertz. At first, bombers were equipped with such transmitters. When German pilots learned to guide fighters to jamming signals, as if to radio beacons, huge American Tuba transmitters were placed along the southern coast of England ( Project Tuba), developed in radio laboratory at Harvard University. Their powerful signals blinded German fighters in Europe, and Allied bombers, having gotten rid of their pursuers, calmly flew home across the English Channel.
In the USSR
In the Soviet Union, awareness of the need for aircraft detection means free from the disadvantages of sound and optical surveillance led to the development of research in the field of radar. The idea proposed by the young artilleryman Pavel Oshchepkov received the approval of the high command: the People's Commissar of Defense of the USSR K. E. Voroshilov and his deputy, M. N. Tukhachevsky.
In 1946, American experts Raymond and Hacherton, former employees of the US Embassy in Moscow, wrote: “Soviet scientists successfully developed the theory of radar several years before radar was invented in England.”
Much attention in the air defense system is paid to solving the problem of timely detection of low-flying air targets (English).
Classification
According to the scope of application there are:
- military radars;
- civil radars.
By purpose:
- detection radar;
- Control and tracking radar;
- panoramic radars;
- Side-view radar;
- weather radars;
- Target designation radar;
- Situation overview radar.
By the nature of the carrier:
- coastal radars;
- maritime radars;
- airborne radars;
- mobile radars.
By type of action:
- primary, or passive;
- secondary, or active;
- combined.
By method of action:
- over-horizon radar;
By wave range:
- meter;
- decimeter;
- centimeter;
- millimeter.
Primary radar
Primary (passive) radar mainly serves to detect targets by illuminating them with an electromagnetic wave and then receiving reflections (echoes) of this wave from the target. Since the speed of electromagnetic waves is constant (the speed of light), it becomes possible to determine the distance to the target based on the measurement of various signal propagation parameters.
A radar station is based on three components: transmitter, antenna and receiver.
Transmitter(transmitting device) is a source of high power electromagnetic signal. It can be a powerful pulse generator. For centimeter-range pulsed radars, it is usually a magnetron or a pulse generator operating according to the following scheme: the master oscillator is a powerful amplifier, most often using a traveling wave lamp (TWT) as a generator, and for meter-range radars a triode lamp is often used. Radars that use magnetrons are incoherent or pseudo-coherent, unlike TWT-based radars. Depending on the design, the transmitter operates either in pulse mode, generating repeating short powerful electromagnetic pulses, or emits a continuous electromagnetic signal.
Antenna performs focusing of the transmitter signal and formation of the radiation pattern, as well as receiving the signal reflected from the target and transmitting this signal to the receiver. Depending on the implementation, the reflected signal can be received either by the same antenna or by another, which can sometimes be located at a considerable distance from the transmitting device. If transmission and reception are combined in one antenna, these two actions are performed alternately, and so that the powerful signal leaking from the transmitting transmitter to the receiver does not blind the weak echo receiver, a special device is placed in front of the receiver that closes the receiver input at the moment of emission of the probing signal .
Receiver(receiving device) performs amplification and processing of the received signal. In the simplest case, the resulting signal is fed to a beam tube (screen), which displays an image synchronized with the movement of the antenna.
Different radars are based on different methods for measuring the parameters of the reflected signal:
Frequency method
The frequency range measurement method is based on the use of frequency modulation of emitted continuous signals. In this method, a frequency is emitted over a period that varies linearly from f1 to f2. The reflected signal will arrive modulated linearly at a time instant preceding the present by the delay time. That. the frequency of the reflected signal received at the radar will depend proportionally on time. The delay time is determined by a sharp change in the frequency of the difference signal.
Advantages:
- allows you to measure very short ranges;
- a low-power transmitter is used.
Flaws:
- two antennas are required;
- deterioration of the sensitivity of the receiver due to leakage through the antenna into the receiving path of the transmitter radiation, subject to random changes;
- high requirements for linearity of frequency changes.
Phase method
The phase (coherent) radar method is based on isolating and analyzing the phase difference between the sent and reflected signals, which arises due to the Doppler effect when the signal is reflected from a moving object. In this case, the transmitting device can operate both continuously and in pulse mode. The main advantage of this method is that it “allows you to observe only moving objects, and this eliminates interference from stationary objects located between the receiving equipment and the target or behind it.”
Since ultrashort waves are used, the unambiguous range of range measurement is on the order of several meters. Therefore, in practice, more complex circuits are used, in which two or more frequencies are present.
Advantages:
- low-power radiation, as undamped oscillations are generated;
- accuracy does not depend on the Doppler frequency shift of the reflection;
- a fairly simple device.
Flaws:
- lack of range resolution;
- deterioration in the sensitivity of the receiver due to penetration through the antenna into the receiving path of the transmitter radiation, subject to random changes.
Pulse method
Modern tracking radars are built as pulse radars. Pulse radar transmits the transmit signal only for a very short time, in a short pulse (usually about a microsecond), after which it goes into receive mode and listens for the echo reflected from the target while the radiated pulse propagates through space.
Since the pulse travels far from the radar at a constant speed, there is a direct relationship between the time elapsed from the moment the pulse is sent to the moment the echo response is received and the distance to the target. The next pulse can be sent only after some time, namely after the pulse comes back (this depends on the radar detection range, transmitter power, antenna gain, receiver sensitivity). If the pulse is sent earlier, the echo of the previous pulse from a distant target may be confused with the echo of a second pulse from a close target. The time interval between pulses is called pulse repetition interval(English) Pulse Repetition Interval, PRI), its inverse is an important parameter called pulse repetition rate(ChPI, English) Pulse Repetition Frequency, PRF). Long-range low-frequency radars typically have a repetition interval of several hundred pulses per second. The pulse repetition rate is one of the distinctive features by which remote determination of the radar model is possible.
Advantages of the pulse range measurement method:
- the ability to build a radar with one antenna;
- simplicity of the indicator device;
- Convenience of measuring the range of several targets;
- simplicity of emitted pulses, lasting a very short time, and received signals.
Flaws:
- the need to use high transmitter pulse powers;
- inability to measure short ranges;
- large dead zone.
Removing Passive Interference
One of the main problems of pulse radars is getting rid of the signal reflected from stationary objects: the earth's surface, high hills, etc. If, for example, an aircraft is located against the backdrop of a high hill, the reflected signal from this hill will completely block the signal from the aircraft. For ground-based radars, this problem manifests itself when working with low-flying objects. For airborne pulse radars, it is expressed in the fact that reflection from the earth's surface obscures all objects lying below the aircraft with the radar.
Methods for eliminating interference use, one way or another, the Doppler effect (the frequency of the wave reflected from an approaching object increases, and from a departing object it decreases).
The simplest radar that can detect a target in interference is radar with moving target selection(PDS) - a pulse radar that compares reflections from more than two or more pulse repetition intervals. Any target that moves relative to the radar produces a change in the signal parameter (stage in the serial SDS), while the interference remains unchanged. Elimination of interference occurs by subtracting reflections from two consecutive intervals. In practice, noise elimination can be carried out in special devices - through-period compensators or algorithms in software.
A fatal disadvantage of SDCs operating with constant PRF is the inability to detect targets with specific circular velocities (targets that produce phase changes of exactly 360 degrees). The speed at which a target becomes invisible to the radar depends on the operating frequency of the station and on the PRF. To eliminate the shortcoming, modern SDCs emit several pulses with different PRFs. PRFs are selected in such a way that the number of “invisible” speeds is minimal.
Pulse-Doppler radars, unlike radars with SDC, they use a different, more complex method of getting rid of interference. The received signal, containing information about targets and interference, is transmitted to the input of the Doppler filter block. Each filter passes a signal of a certain frequency. At the output of the filters, derivatives of the signals are calculated. The method helps to find targets with given speeds, can be implemented in hardware or software, does not allow (without modifications) to determine distances to targets. To determine distances to targets, you can divide the pulse repetition interval into segments (called range segments) and apply a signal to the input of the Doppler filter bank during this range segment. It is possible to calculate the distance only with multiple repetitions of pulses at different frequencies (the target appears at different range segments at different PRFs).
An important property of pulse-Doppler radars is signal coherence, the phase dependence of sent and received (reflected) signals.
Pulse-Doppler radars, in contrast to radars with SDC, are more successful in detecting low-flying targets. On modern fighters, these radars are used for airborne interception and fire control (AN/APG-63, 65, 66, 67 and 70 radars). Modern implementations are mainly software: the signal is digitized and sent to a separate processor for processing. Often a digital signal is converted into a form suitable for other algorithms using a fast Fourier transform. Using software implementation compared to hardware has a number of advantages:
- the ability to select algorithms from among those available;
- the ability to change algorithm parameters;
- the ability to add/change algorithms (by changing the firmware).
The listed advantages, along with the ability to store data in ROM) allow, if necessary, to quickly adapt to the technique of jamming the enemy.
Elimination of active interference
The most effective method of combating active interference is the use of a digital antenna array in the radar, which allows the formation of dips in the radiation pattern in the directions of the jammers. . .
Secondary radar
Secondary radar is used in aviation for identification. The main feature is the use of an active transponder on aircraft.
The operating principle of the secondary radar is somewhat different from that of the primary radar. The Secondary Radar Station is based on the following components: transmitter, antenna, azimuth marker generators, receiver, signal processor, indicator and aircraft transponder with antenna.
Transmitter serves to generate request pulses in the antenna at a frequency of 1030 MHz.
Antenna serves to emit request pulses and receive the reflected signal. According to ICAO standards for secondary radar, the antenna emits at 1030 MHz and receives at 1090 MHz.
Azimuth marker generators serve to generate azimuth marks(eng. Azimuth Change Pulse, ACP) and North marks(eng. Azimuth Reference Pulse, ARP). For one revolution of the radar antenna, 4096 low azimuth marks (for older systems) or 16384 improved low azimuth marks (English) are generated. Improved Azimuth Change pulse, IACP- for new systems), as well as one North mark. The north mark comes from the azimuth mark generator when the antenna is in such a position when it is directed to the North, and small azimuth marks are used to count the antenna rotation angle.
Receiver serves to receive pulses at a frequency of 1090 MHz.
Signal processor serves to process received signals.
Indicator serves to display processed information.
Aircraft transponder with antenna serves to transmit a pulse radio signal containing additional information back to the radar upon request.
The principle of operation of the secondary radar is to use the energy of the aircraft transponder to determine the position of the aircraft. The radar irradiates the surrounding space with interrogation pulses P1 and P3, as well as a suppression pulse P2 at a frequency of 1030 MHz. Aircraft equipped with transponders located within the coverage area of the interrogation beam, upon receiving interrogation pulses, if the condition P1,P3>P2 is in effect, respond to the requesting radar with a series of coded pulses at a frequency of 1090 MHz, which contain additional information about the aircraft number, altitude, and so on . The response of the aircraft transponder depends on the radar request mode, and the request mode is determined by the time interval between the request pulses P1 and P3, for example, in request mode A (mode A), the time interval between the station request pulses P1 and P3 is 8 microseconds and upon receiving such a request the transponder aircraft encodes its aircraft number in response pulses.
In request mode C (mode C), the time interval between station request pulses is 21 microseconds and upon receipt of such a request, the aircraft transponder encodes its altitude in the response pulses. The radar can also send a request in a mixed mode, for example, Mode A, Mode C, Mode A, Mode C. The azimuth of the aircraft is determined by the angle of rotation of the antenna, which, in turn, is determined by calculating small azimuth marks.
The range is determined by the delay of the received response. If the aircraft is in the range of the side lobes, and not the main beam, or is located behind the antenna, then the aircraft transponder, when receiving a request from the radar, will receive at its input the condition that pulses P1, P3 The signal received from the transponder is processed by the radar receiver, then goes to the signal processor, which processes the signals and provides information to the end user and (or) to the control indicator. Pros of a secondary radar: The 250 mg/125 mg tablets contain active ingredients amoxicillin(trihydrate form) and clavulanic acid(a form of potassium salt). The tablets also contain auxiliary components: MCC sodium croscarmellose. Amoxiclav 2X tablets 625 mg and 1000 mg contain the active ingredients amoxicillin and clavulanic acid, as well as additional components: anhydrous colloidal silicon dioxide, flavorings, aspartame, yellow iron oxide, talc, hydrogenated castor oil, silicated MCC. Amoxiclav Quiktab 500 mg and 875 mg tablets contain the active ingredients amoxicillin and clavulanic acid, as well as additional components: anhydrous colloidal silicon dioxide, flavorings, aspartame, yellow iron oxide, talc, hydrogenated castor oil, silicated MCC. The powder from which the Amoxiclav suspension is prepared also contains amoxicillin and clavulanic acid, and also contains sodium citrate, MCC, sodium benzoate, mannitol, and sodium saccharin as inactive components. The powder for preparing Amoxiclav IV infusion contains amoxicillin and clavulanic acid. Release form The drug is produced in the form of tablets. Amoxiclav 250 mg/125 mg – film-coated tablets, package contains 15 pieces. Amoxiclav 2X (500 mg/125 mg; 875 mg/125 mg) - coated tablets, the package may contain 10 or 14 pieces. Amoxiclav Quiktab (500 mg/125 mg; 875 mg/125 mg) is available in the form of dispersed tablets, 10 such tablets per package. The product is also produced in the form of a powder from which a suspension is made; the bottle contains powder for preparing 100 ml of the product. A powder is also produced, from which a solution is made, which is administered intravenously. The bottle holds 600 mg of the product (amoxicillin 500 mg, clavulanic acid 100 mg), 1.2 g bottles are also available (amoxicillin 1000 mg, clavulanic acid 200 mg), the package holds 5 bottles. Pharmacological action The abstract provides information that antibiotic Amoxiclav (INN Amoksiklav) is a broad-spectrum agent. Group of antibiotics: broad-spectrum penicillins. The medicine contains amoxicillin (semi-synthetic penicillin) and clavulanic acid (β-lactamase inhibitor). The presence of clavulanic acid in the drug makes amoxicillin resistant to the action of β-lactamases produced by microorganisms. The structure of clavulanic acid is similar to beta-lactam antibiotics, this substance also has an antibacterial effect. Amoxiclav is active against strains that demonstrate sensitivity to amoxicillin. This is a series gram-positive bacteria, aerobic gram-negative bacteria, gram-positive and gram-negative anaerobes. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics As the Vidal drug reference book informs, after oral administration, both substances are actively absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract; the absorption of the components is not affected by food intake, so it does not matter how to take it - before or after meals. Highest concentration in blood observed one hour after the drug was taken. Both active ingredients of the drug are distributed in fluids and tissues. Amoxicillin also enters the liver, synovial fluid, prostate, tonsils, gall bladder, muscle tissue, saliva, and bronchial secretions. If the membranes of the brain are not inflamed, both active substances do not penetrate through the BBB. At the same time, the active components penetrate the placental barrier, and traces of them are detected in breast milk. They bind to blood proteins to a small extent. In the body, amoxicillin undergoes partial metabolism, clavulanic acid is metabolized intensively. It is excreted from the body through the kidneys; small particles of active substances are excreted by the intestines and lungs. The half-life of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid is 1-1.5 hours. Indications for use of Amoxiclav Amoxiclav is prescribed for infectious and inflammatory diseases that develop due to the influence of microorganisms sensitive to this medicine. The following indications for the use of this drug are determined: What else Amoxiclav helps with, you should ask a specialist during an individual consultation. Contraindications When determining why tablets and other forms of the drug help, you should also take into account existing contraindications: It is prescribed with caution to people suffering from liver failure and people with severe kidney disease. Side effects When taking this antibiotic, patients may experience the following side effects: It is noted that such treatment, as a rule, does not provoke significant side effects. Instructions for use of Amoxiclav (Method and dosage of Amoxiclav for adults) Medicine in tablets is not prescribed to children under 12 years of age. When prescribing the drug, it should be taken into account that the permissible dose per day of clavulanic acid is 600 mg (adults) and 10 mg per 1 kg of weight (child). The permissible daily dose of amoxicillin is 6 g for an adult and 45 mg per 1 kg of weight for a child. The agent for parenteral administration is prepared by dissolving the contents of the vial in water for injection. To dissolve 600 mg of the product, you need 10 mol of water, to dissolve 1.2 g of the product - 20 ml of water. The solution should be administered slowly over 3-4 minutes. The intravenous infusion should continue for 30-40 minutes. The solution must not be frozen. Before anesthesia, to prevent purulent complications, 1.2 g of drugs should be administered intravenously. If there is a risk of complications, the drug is administered intravenously or taken orally in the period after surgery. The duration of the appointment is determined by the doctor. As a rule, adults and children (who weigh more than 40 kg) receive 1 tablet every eight hours. (375 mg), provided the infection is mild or moderate. Another acceptable treatment regimen in this case is to take 1 tablet every 12 hours. (500 mg+125 mg). For severe infectious diseases, as well as for infectious diseases of the respiratory tract, taking 1 tablet every eight hours is recommended. (500 mg+125 mg) or taken every 12 hours 1 tablet. (875 mg+125 mg). Depending on the disease, you need to take an antibiotic from five to fourteen days, but the doctor must individually prescribe a treatment regimen. Patients with odontogenic infections should take 1 tablet every 8 hours. (250 mg + 125 mg) or once 12 hours, 1 tablet. (500 mg + 125 mg) for five days. People suffering from moderate renal failure, the use of 1 table is indicated. (500 mg + 125 mg) every twelve hours. Severe renal failure is a reason to increase the interval between doses to 24 hours. The patient's childhood involves calculating the dose taking into account the child's weight. Before preparing the syrup, shake the bottle well. In two doses you need to add 86 ml of water to the bottle, each time you need to shake its contents well. Please note that the measuring spoon contains 5 ml of product. Prescribed in a dose depending on the age and weight of the child. Children from birth to three months are prescribed the drug at the rate of 30 mg per 1 kg of weight (dose per day), this dose should be divided equally and administered at equal intervals. From the age of three months, Amoxiclav is prescribed at a dose of 25 mg per 1 kg of weight, which is similarly divided equally into two administrations. For infectious diseases of moderate severity, the dose is prescribed at the rate of 20 mg per 1 kg of weight, divided into three administrations. For severe infectious diseases, the dose is prescribed at the rate of 45 mg per 1 kg of weight, divided into two doses per day. Before taking, the tablet must be dissolved in 100 ml of water (the amount of water may be more). Before taking, you need to stir the contents well. You can also chew the tablet; it is better to take the drug before meals. Adults and children after reaching 12 years of age should take 1 tablet per day. 625 mg 2-3 times a day. For severe infectious diseases, 1 tablet is prescribed. 1000 mg 2 times a day. Treatment should not last more than 2 weeks. Sometimes a doctor may prescribe analogues of the drug, for example, Flemoclav Solutab, etc. The drug Amoxiclav for sore throat an adult is prescribed 1 tablet. 325 mg once every 8 hours. Another treatment regimen involves taking 1 tablet once every 12 hours. A doctor may prescribe a higher dose of an antibiotic if the disease in an adult is severe. Treatment of sore throat in children involves the use of a suspension. As a rule, 1 spoon is prescribed (a dosage spoon is 5 ml). The frequency of administration is determined by the doctor, whose recommendations are important to follow. How to take Amoxiclav for children with sore throat depends on the severity of the disease. Does Amoxiclav help with sinusitis, depends on the causes and characteristics of the course of the disease. The dosage is determined by the otolaryngologist. It is recommended to take 500 mg tablets three times a day. How many days to take the medicine depends on the severity of the disease. But after the symptoms disappear, you need to take the drug for two more days. Overdose To avoid overdose, the prescribed dosage for children and the dosage of Amoxiclav for adults must be strictly observed. It is recommended to carefully study the instructions or watch a video on how to dilute the suspension. Wikipedia indicates that an overdose of the drug may result in a number of unpleasant symptoms, but there is no data on life-threatening conditions for the patient. Due to an overdose, the appearance of abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, excitement. In severe cases, seizures may occur. If the drug has been taken recently, gastric lavage is indicated. activated carbon. The patient must be monitored by a doctor. In this case it is effective hemodialysis. Interaction When taking the drug simultaneously with some drugs, undesirable manifestations may occur, which is why tablets, syrup and intravenous administration of the drug should not be used in parallel with a number of drugs. Simultaneous use of drugs with Glucosamine, antacids, aminoglycosides, laxatives slow down the absorption of Amoxiclav when taken simultaneously with Ascorbic acid– absorption accelerates. With simultaneous treatment with Phenylbutazone, diuretics, NSAIDs, Allopurinol and other drugs that block tubular secretion, the concentration of amoxicillin increases. If anticoagulants and Amoxiclav are taken simultaneously, the prothrombin time increases. Therefore, drugs in such a combination must be prescribed with caution. Amoxiclav increases toxicity Methotrexate when taken simultaneously. When taking Amoxiclav and Allopurinol the likelihood of exanthema occurring increases. Should not be taken at the same time Disulfiram and Amoxiclav. Antagonists when taken together are amoxicillin and Rifampicin. The drugs mutually weaken the antibacterial effect. You should not take Amoxiclav and bacteriostatic antibiotics (tetracyclines, macrolides), as well as sulfonamides at the same time, as these drugs can reduce the effectiveness of Amoxiclav. Probenecid increases the concentration of amoxicillin and slows down its elimination. When using Amoxiclav, the effectiveness of oral contraceptives may decrease. Terms of sale In pharmacies, Amoxiclav is sold by prescription; a specialist issues a prescription in Latin. Storage conditions The medicine belongs to list B. It must be stored in a place inaccessible to children, at a temperature of no more than 25°C. Best before date Special instructions Since the majority of people suffering from lymphocytic leukemia and infectious mononucleosis and receiving Ampicillin, subsequently noted the manifestation of an erythematous rash; such people are not recommended to take ampicillin antibiotics. Prescribed with caution to people with a tendency to allergies. If a course of treatment with the drug is prescribed for adults or children, it is important to monitor the functions of the kidneys, liver, and the process of hematopoiesis. People who have impaired renal function need to adjust the dose of the drug or increase the interval between taking the drug. It is optimal to take the product during meals to reduce the likelihood of side effects from the digestive system. Patients undergoing treatment with Amoxiclav may experience a false-positive reaction when determining glucose levels in urine when using Felling's solution or Benedict's reagent. There is no data on the negative impact of Amoxiclav on the ability to drive vehicles and work with precision machinery. Patients who are interested in whether Amoxiclav is an antibiotic or not should keep in mind that the product is an antibacterial drug. If Amoxiclav is prescribed, the patient's childhood age must be taken into account when prescribing the medication form and dosage. Analogues of Amoxiclav Level 4 ATX code matches: There are a number of analogues of this drug. The price of analogues depends, first of all, on the manufacturer of the drug. There are analogues on sale that are cheaper than Amoxiclav. For patients interested in what can replace this antibiotic, experts offer a large list of medications. These are the means Moxiclave, Co-Amoxiclav, Augmentin, Clavocin, Flemoklav, Honeyclave, Bactoclav, Ranklav, Amowycombe etc. However, any substitute should only be prescribed by a doctor. You can choose a cheaper analogue in tablets, for example, Augmentin. You can also choose a Russian analogue, for example, Amoxicillin. The active components of the drugs are similar. The difference between drugs is in the dosage of the active components in the release forms of these drugs. Both drugs fall into approximately the same price category. What is the composition of Amoxiclav and Augmentin, what is the difference between these drugs? Both of these products contain similar active ingredients, that is, in fact they are the same thing. Accordingly, the pharmacological action of the drugs is almost identical, as are the side effects. Only the manufacturers of these drugs differ. Sumamed contains azithromycin, which is a broad-spectrum antibiotic. Before prescribing any of the drugs, it is important to check the sensitivity of the microflora to their action. In the composition of the product Flemoxin contains only amoxicillin. Accordingly, its spectrum of influence is less than that of the drug Amoxiclav, which also contains clavulonic acid. Amoxiclav for children Children should take antibiotics only after a doctor's prescription. It is important to adhere to the specified dosage. Children under 12 years of age are usually prescribed a suspension. The dosage of Amoxiclav suspension for children depends on the severity of the disease and diagnosis. As a rule, children under 2 years of age are prescribed a dose of 62.5 mg, from 2 to 7 years of age - 125 mg, from 7 to 12 years of age - 250 mg. Amoxiclav and alcohol This drug should not be combined with alcohol. When taken simultaneously, the load on the liver increases significantly, and the likelihood of a number of negative effects also increases. Amoxiclav during pregnancy and lactation Amoxiclav at pregnancy can be used if the expected effect exceeds the possible harm to the fetus. It is undesirable to use the drug Amoxiclav in the early stages of pregnancy. The 2nd trimester and 3rd trimester are more preferable, but even during this period, the dosage of Amoxiclav during pregnancy must be observed very precisely. Amoxiclav at breastfeeding not prescribed, since the active components of the drug pass into breast milk. Reviews about Amoxiclav In the process of discussing the drug Amoxiclav, reviews from doctors and patients are predominantly positive. It is noted that the antibiotic is effective in the treatment of respiratory diseases, and it is suitable for both adults and children. Reviews mention the effectiveness of the product for sinusitis, otitis media, and genital tract infections. As a rule, adult patients take 875 mg + 125 mg tablets; if the dosage is correct, relief occurs quickly. The reviews note that after a course of antibiotic treatment, it is advisable to take drugs that restore normal microflora. Reviews of the Amoxiclav suspension are also positive. Parents write that it is convenient to give the product to children, as it has a pleasant taste and is normally perceived by children. Amoxiclav price, where to buy The price of Amoxiclav tablets 250 mg + 125 mg is on average 230 rubles for 15 pieces. You can buy an antibiotic 500 mg + 125 mg at a price of 360 – 400 rubles for 15 pcs. How much 875 mg + 125 mg tablets cost depends on the place of sale. On average, their cost is 420 – 470 rubles for 14 pieces. Price Amoxiclav Quiktab 625 mg – from 420 rubles for 14 pcs. The price of Amoxiclav suspension for children is 290 rubles (100 ml). Price Amoxiclav 1000 mg in Ukraine (Kyiv, Kharkov, etc.) – from 200 hryvnia for 14 pieces. Amoxiclav powder 400 mg+57 mg 17.5 g 70 ml Lek d. d. Amoxiclav tablets 375 mg 15 pcs. Lek d. d. Amoxiclav powder 25 g 100 ml 20 doses Amoxiclav powder 35 g Amoxiclav powder for injection 600 mg No. 5 bottle Lek D.D. Amoxiclav powder for injection 1200 mg No. 5 bottle Lek D.D. Amoxiclav Quiktab 1000 mg No. 14 tablets Lek D.D. Amoxiclav Quiktab 625 mg No. 14 tablets Lek D.D. Amoxiclav 375 mg No. 15 tablets Lek D.D. AmoksiklavLek, Slovenia AmoksiklavLek, Slovenia AmoksiklavLek, Slovenia Amoxiclav QuiktabLek, Slovenia show more AmoxiclavLek (Slovenia) Amoxiclav1 Amoxiclav 2x14 Amoxiclav 2x14 Amoxiclav quiktab dispersible tablets 875 mg/125 mg No. 10 Sandoz Amoxiclav 2 tablets p/o 875/125 mg No. 14 Sandoz Amoxiclav 2 tablets p/o 875/125 mg No. 14 Sandoz Amoxiclav 2 tablets p/o 875/125 mg No. 14 Sandoz Amoxiclav 2 tablets p/o 875/125 mg No. 14 Sandoz show more Amoxiclav 375 mg No. 15 tablet p.p.o. Amoxiclav 156.25 mg/5 ml 100 ml portions/susp. for oral administration Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d. (Slovenia) Amoxiclav 312.5 mg/5 ml 100 ml portions/susp. for oral administration Amoxiclav 625 mg No. 15 tablet p.p.o. Amoxiclav 2X 625 mg No. 14 tablet p.p.o. show more PLEASE NOTE! Information about medications on the site is for reference and general information, collected from publicly available sources and cannot serve as a basis for making a decision on the use of medications in the course of treatment. Before using the drug Amoxiclav, be sure to consult with your doctor. INSTRUCTIONS Read these instructions carefully before you start taking/using this medicine. Amoxiclav® amoxicillin + clavulanic acid Film-coated tablets Active substances (core): each 250 mg + 125 mg tablet contains 250 mg of amoxicillin in the form of trihydrate and 125 mg of clavulanic acid in the form of potassium salt; Description 250 mg + 125 mg tablets: white or off-white, oblong, octagonal, biconvex, film-coated tablets, imprinted “250/125” on one side and “AMC” on the other side. Antibiotic – semi-synthetic penicillin + beta-lactamase inhibitor ATX code: J01CR02. Pharmacodynamics Pharmacokinetics Cmax – maximum concentration in blood plasma; Tmax – time to reach maximum concentration in blood plasma; AUC – area under the concentration-time curve; T1/2 – half-life Distribution Indications for use Infections caused by sensitive strains of microorganisms: Contraindications Hypersensitivity to the components of the drug; With caution History of pseudomembranous colitis, diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, liver failure, severe renal dysfunction, pregnancy, lactation, when used simultaneously with anticoagulants. Animal studies have not revealed any evidence of harm from taking the drug during pregnancy or its effect on the embryonic development of the fetus. Directions for use and doses Inside. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), adverse effects are classified according to their frequency as follows: very often (≥1/10), often (≥1/100, Amoxiclav - new instructions for use of the drug, you can see contraindications, side effects, prices in pharmacies for Amoxiclav. Reviews about Amoxiclav - A broad-spectrum penicillin antibiotic with a beta-lactamase inhibitor. Powder for the preparation of a solution for intravenous administration is white to yellowish-white in color. Powder for preparing a solution for intravenous administration 1 fl. amoxicillin (sodium salt) 500 mg clavulanic acid (potassium salt) 100 mg The description of the drug is based on the officially approved instructions for use. Broad-spectrum antibiotic; contains semisynthetic penicillin amoxicillin and β-lactamase inhibitor clavulanic acid. Clavulanic acid forms a stable inactivated complex with β-lactamases and ensures the resistance of amoxicillin to their effects. The main pharmacokinetic parameters of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid are similar. Amoxicillin and clavulanic acid in combination do not affect each other. in special clinical cases Treatment of infectious and inflammatory diseases caused by microorganisms sensitive to the drug: The drug is administered intravenously. >0.5 ml/s (>30 ml/min) no dose adjustment required 0.166-0.5 ml/s (10-30 ml/min) first dose - 1.2 g (1000 mg + 200 mg), and then 600 mg (500 mg+100 mg) IV every 12 hours
Excipients Film shell composition: 15 pcs. - dark glass bottles (1) - cardboard packs. Film-coated tablets
white or almost white, oval, biconvex. Excipients: colloidal silicon dioxide, crospovidone, croscarmellose sodium, magnesium stearate, talc, microcrystalline cellulose. Film shell composition:
hypromellose, ethylcellulose, diethyl phthalate, macrogol 6000, titanium dioxide. Film-coated tablets
white or almost white, oblong, biconvex, with the imprint “AMC” on one side, with a notch and imprint “875” and “125” on the other. Excipients: colloidal silicon dioxide, crospovidone, croscarmellose sodium, magnesium stearate, talc, microcrystalline cellulose. Film shell composition:
hypromellose, ethylcellulose, povidone, triethyl citrate, titanium dioxide, talc. 5 pcs. - blisters (2) - cardboard packs. Radar ranges
Designation
/ITUEtymology
Frequencies
Wavelength
Notes
HF
English high frequency
3-30 MHz
10-100 m
Coast Guard radars, “over-the-horizon” radars
P
English previous
< 300 МГц
> 1 m
Used in early radars
VHF
English very high frequency
50-330 MHz
0.9-6 m
Long range detection, Earth exploration
UHF
English ultra high frequency
300-1000 MHz
0.3-1 m
Detection at long ranges (for example, artillery shelling), exploration of forests, the Earth's surface
L
English Long
1-2 GHz
15-30 cm
air traffic surveillance and control
S
English Short
2-4 GHz
7.5-15 cm
air traffic control, meteorology, maritime radar
C
English Compromise
4-8 GHz
3.75-7.5 cm
meteorology, satellite broadcasting, intermediate range between X and S
X
8-12 GHz
2.5-3.75 cm
weapons control, missile guidance, maritime radar, weather, medium resolution mapping; in the USA the 10.525 GHz ± 25 MHz band is used in airport radars
K u
English under K
12-18 GHz
1.67-2.5 cm
high resolution mapping, satellite altimetry
K
German kurz - “short”
18-27 GHz
1.11-1.67 cm
use is limited due to strong absorption by water vapor, so the K u and K a ranges are used. K-band is used for cloud detection, in police traffic radars (24.150 ± 0.100 GHz).
K a
English above K
27-40 GHz
0.75-1.11 cm
Mapping, short range air traffic control, special radars controlling traffic cameras (34.300 ± 0.100 GHz)
mm
40-300 GHz
1-7.5 mm
millimeter waves, divided into the following two ranges
V
40-75 GHz
4.0-7.5 mm
EHF medical devices used for physiotherapy
W
75-110 GHz
2.7-4.0 mm
sensors in experimental automated vehicles, high-precision weather research
Designations of frequency ranges adopted by the US Armed Forces and NATO since.
Designation
Frequencies, MHz
Wavelength, cm
Examples
A
< 100-250
120 - >300
Early warning and air traffic control radars, e.g. Radar 1Л13 “NEBO-SV”
B
250 - 500
60 - 120
C
500 −1 000
30 - 60
D
1 000 - 2 000
15 - 30
E
2 000 - 3 000
10 - 15
F
3 000 - 4 000
7.5 - 10
G
4 000 - 6 000
5 - 7.5
H
6 000 - 8 000
3.75 - 5.00
I
8 000 - 10 000
3.00 - 3.75
Airborne multifunctional radars (BRLS)
J
10 000 - 20 000
1.50 - 3.00
Target guidance and illumination radar (RPN), e.g. 30N6, 9S32
K
20 000 - 40 000
0.75 - 1.50
L
40 000 - 60 000
0.50 - 0.75
M
60 000-100 000
0.30 - 0.50
See also
Radar station on Wikimedia Commons
Radar station in Wikinews
Notes
Amoxiclav tablets, instructions for use
Amoxiclav suspension, instructions for use
Instructions for use Amoxiclav for children
Instructions for use Amoxiclav Quiktab
Amoxiclav for sore throat
Dosage of Amoxiclav for sinusitis
Flemoklav Solutab and Amoxiclav: the difference between the drugs
Which is better: Amoxiclav or Augmentin?
Which is better: Sumamed or Amoxiclav?
Which is better: Flemoxin Solutab or Amoxiclav?
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BIOSPHERE
on the use of the drug
for medical use
Save the instructions, you may need them again.
If you have any questions, consult your doctor.
This medicine is for you personally and should not be given to others because it may harm them even if they have the same symptoms as you.Registration number
Trade name
Group name
Dosage form
Compound
each 500 mg + 125 mg tablet contains 500 mg of amoxicillin in the form of trihydrate and 125 mg of clavulanic acid in the form of potassium salt;
Each 875 mg + 125 mg tablet contains 875 mg of amoxicillin in the form of trihydrate and 125 mg of clavulanic acid in the form of potassium salt.
Excipients (respectively for each dosage): colloidal silicon dioxide 5.40 mg/9.00 mg/12.00 mg, crospovidone 27.40 mg/45.00 mg/61.00 mg, croscarmellose sodium 27.40 mg/ 35.00 mg/47.00, magnesium stearate 12.00 mg/20.00 mg/17.22 mg, talc 13.40 mg (for dosage 250 mg + 125 mg), microcrystalline cellulose up to 650 mg/up to 1060 mg/up 1435 mg;
film coating tablets 250 mg + 125 mg - hypromellose 14.378 mg, ethylcellulose 0.702 mg, polysorbate 80 - 0.780 mg, triethyl citrate 0.793 mg, titanium dioxide 7.605 mg, talc 1.742 mg;
film coating tablets 500 mg + 125 mg - hypromellose 17.696 mg, ethylcellulose 0.864 mg, polysorbate 80 - 0.960 mg, triethyl citrate 0.976 mg, titanium dioxide 9.360 mg, talc 2.144 mg;
film coating tablets 875 mg + 125 mg - hypromellose 23.226 mg, ethylcellulose 1.134 mg, polysorbate 80 - 1.260 mg, triethyl citrate 1.280 mg, titanium dioxide 12.286 mg, talc 2.814 mg.
Tablets 500 mg + 125 mg: white or almost white, oval, biconvex film-coated tablets.
Tablets 875 mg + 125 mg: white or off-white, oblong, biconvex, film-coated tablets, scored and imprinted “875/125” on one side and “AMC” on the other side.
Fracture appearance: yellowish mass.Pharmacotherapeutic group
Pharmacological properties
Mechanism of action
Amoxicillin is a semisynthetic penicillin that is active against many gram-positive and gram-negative microorganisms. Amoxicillin disrupts the biosynthesis of peptidoglycan, which is a structural component of the bacterial cell wall. Violation of peptidoglycan synthesis leads to loss of cell wall strength, which causes lysis and death of microorganism cells. At the same time, amoxicillin is susceptible to destruction by beta-lactamases, and therefore the spectrum of activity of amoxicillin does not extend to microorganisms that produce this enzyme.
Clavulanic acid is a beta-lactamase inhibitor, structurally related to penicillins, and has the ability to inactivate a wide range of beta-lactamases found in microorganisms resistant to penicillins and cephalosporins. Clavulanic acid is sufficiently effective against plasmid beta-lactamases, which most often cause bacterial resistance, and is not effective against type I chromosomal beta-lactamases, which are not inhibited by clavulanic acid.
The presence of clavulanic acid in the drug protects amoxicillin from destruction by enzymes - beta-lactamases, which allows expanding the antibacterial spectrum of amoxicillin.
Below is the activity of the combination of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid in vitro.Bacteria, usually sensitive
Gram-positive aerobes: Bacillus anthracis, Enterococcus faecalis, Listeria monocytogenes, Nocardia asteroides, Streptococcus pyogenes and other beta-hemolytic streptococci1,2, Streptococcus agalactiae1,2, Staphylococcus aureus (sensitive to methicillin)1, Staphylococcus saprophyticus (sensitive to methicillin), gulase-negative staphylococci (methicillin sensitive).
Gram-negative aerobes: Bordetella pertussis, Haemophilus influenzae1, Helicobacter pylori, Moraxella catarrhalis1, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Pasteurella multocida, Vibrio cholerae.
Other: Borrelia burgdorferi, Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae, Treponema pallidum.
Gram-positive anaerobes: species of the genus Clostridium, Peptococcus niger, Peptostreptococcus magnus, Peptostreptococcus micros, species of the genus Peptostreptococcus.
Gram-negative anaerobes:
Bacteroides fragilis, species of the genus Bacteroides, species of the genus Capnocytophaga, Eikenella corrodens, Fusobacterium nucleatum, species of the genus Fusobacterium, species of the genus Porphyromonas, species of the genus Prevotella.Bacteria for which acquired resistance is likely
to a combination of amoxicillin and clavulanic acidGram-negative aerobes: Escherichia сoli1, Klebsiella oxytoca, Klebsiella pneumoniae, species of the genus Klebsiella, Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, species of the genus Proteus, species of the genus Salmonella, species of the genus Shigella.
Gram-positive aerobes: species of the genus Corynebacterium, Enterococcus faecium, Streptococcus pneumoniae1,2, streptococci of the Viridans group.Naturally resistant bacteria
to a combination of amoxicillin and clavulanic acidGram-negative aerobes: species of the genus Acinetobacter, Citrobacter freundii, species of the genus Enterobacter, Hafnia alvei, Legionella pneumophila, Morganella morganii, species of the genus Providencia, species of the genus Pseudomonas, species of the genus Serratia, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Yersinia enterocolitica.
Other: Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Chlamydophila psittaci, species of the genus Chlamydia, Coxiella burnetii, species of the genus Mycoplasma.
1 For these bacteria, the clinical effectiveness of the combination of amoxicillin with clavulanic acid has been demonstrated in clinical studies.
2 strains of these bacterial species do not produce beta-lactamases. Sensitivity with amoxicillin monotherapy suggests similar sensitivity to the combination of amoxicillin with clavulanic acid.
The main pharmacokinetic parameters of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid are similar. Amoxicillin and clavulanic acid are highly soluble in aqueous solutions with a physiological pH value and, after taking Amoxiclav® orally, they are quickly and completely absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Absorption of the active substances amoxicillin and clavulanic acid is optimal when taken at the beginning of a meal.
The bioavailability of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid after oral administration is about 70%.
The following are the pharmacokinetic parameters of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid after administration at a dose of 875 mg/125 mg and 500 mg/125 mg twice daily, 250 mg/125 mg three times daily in healthy volunteers.Mean (±SD) pharmacokinetic parameters
Active
substances
Amoxicillin/
clavulanic acidOne-time
dose
(mg)Cmax
(µg/ml)Tmax
(hour)AUC (0-24h)
(mcg.hour/ml)T1/2
(hour)Amoxicillin
875 mg/125 mg
875
11.64±2.78
1.50 (1.0-2.5)
53.52±12.31
1.19±0.21
500 mg/125 mg
500
7.19±2.26
1.50 (1.0-2.5)
53.5±8.87
1.15±0.20
250 mg/125 mg
250
3.3±1.12
1,5 (1,0-2,0)
26.7±4.56
1.36±0.56
Clavulanic acid
875 mg/125 mg
125
2.18±0.99
1.25 (1.0-2.0)
10.16±3.04
0.96±0.12
500 mg/125 mg
125
2.40±0.83
1.5 (1.0-2.0)
15.72±3.86
0.98±0.12
250 mg/125 mg
125
1.5±0.70
1,2 (1,0-2,0)
12.6±3.25
1.01±0.11
Both components are characterized by a good volume of distribution in various organs, tissues and fluids of the body (including the lungs, abdominal organs; adipose, bone and muscle tissues; pleural, synovial and peritoneal fluids; skin, bile, urine, purulent discharge, sputum, interstitial fluid).
Plasma protein binding is moderate: 25% for clavulanic acid and 18% for amoxicillin.
The volume of distribution is approximately 0.3-0.4 l/kg for amoxicillin and approximately 0.2 l/kg for clavulanic acid.
Amoxicillin and clavulanic acid do not penetrate the blood-brain barrier when the meninges are not inflamed.
Amoxicillin (like most penicillins) is excreted in breast milk. Trace amounts of clavulanic acid are also found in breast milk. Amoxicillin and clavulanic acid penetrate the placental barrier.
Metabolism
About 10-25% of the initial dose of amoxicillin is excreted by the kidneys in the form of inactive penicillic acid. Clavulanic acid in the human body undergoes intensive metabolism with the formation of 2,5-dihydro-4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-5-oxo-1H-pyrrole-3-carboxylic acid and 1-amino-4-hydroxy-butan-2-one and is excreted by the kidneys, through the gastrointestinal tract, and also with exhaled air in the form of carbon dioxide.
Removal
Amoxicillin is eliminated primarily by the kidneys, while clavulanic acid is eliminated through both renal and extrarenal mechanisms. After a single oral dose of one tablet of 250 mg/125 mg or 500 mg/125 mg, approximately 60-70% of amoxicillin and 40-65% of clavulanic acid are excreted unchanged by the kidneys during the first 6 hours.
The average half-life (T1/2) of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid is approximately one hour, and the average total clearance is approximately 25 L/h in healthy patients.
The largest amount of clavulanic acid is excreted during the first 2 hours after administration.
Patients with impaired renal function
The total clearance of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid decreases in proportion to the decrease in renal function. The decrease in clearance is more pronounced for amoxicillin than for clavulanic acid, because Most amoxicillin is excreted by the kidneys. Doses of the drug for renal failure should be selected taking into account the undesirability of amoxicillin accumulation while maintaining normal levels of clavulanic acid.
Patients with liver dysfunction
In patients with impaired liver function, the drug is used with caution; continuous monitoring of liver function is necessary.
Both components are removed by hemodialysis and minor amounts by peritoneal dialysis.
infections of the upper respiratory tract and ENT organs (including acute and chronic sinusitis, acute and chronic otitis media, retropharyngeal abscess, tonsillitis, pharyngitis);
lower respiratory tract infections (including acute bronchitis with bacterial superinfection, chronic bronchitis, pneumonia);
urinary tract infections;
infections in gynecology;
skin and soft tissue infections, as well as wounds from human and animal bites;
infections of bone and connective tissue;
biliary tract infections (cholecystitis, cholangitis);
odontogenic infections.
history of hypersensitivity to penicillins, cephalosporins and other beta-lactam antibiotics;
cholestatic jaundice and/or other liver dysfunction caused by a history of taking amoxicillin/clavulanic acid;
infectious mononucleosis and lymphocytic leukemia;
children under 12 years of age or with a body weight of less than 40 kg.Use during pregnancy and breastfeeding
One study in women with premature rupture of membranes found that prophylactic use of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid may be associated with an increased risk of neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis.
During pregnancy and lactation, the drug is used only if the expected benefit to the mother outweighs the potential risk to the fetus and child.
Amoxicillin and clavulanic acid pass into breast milk in small quantities.
Breastfed infants may develop sensitization, diarrhea, and candidiasis of the oral mucosa. When taking the drug Amoxiclav®, it is necessary to decide whether to stop breastfeeding.
The dosage regimen is set individually depending on the age, body weight, kidney function of the patient, as well as the severity of the infection.
Amoxiclav® is recommended to be taken at the beginning of a meal for optimal absorption and to reduce possible side effects from the digestive system.
Course of treatment is 5-14 days. The duration of treatment is determined by the attending physician. Treatment should not continue for more than 14 days without repeated medical examination.
Adults and children 12 years and older or weighing 40 kg or more:
For the treatment of mild to moderate infections - 1 tablet 250 mg + 125 mg every 8 hours (3 times a day).
For the treatment of severe infections and respiratory infections - 1 tablet 500 mg + 125 mg every 8 hours (3 times a day) or 1 tablet 875 mg + 125 mg every 12 hours (2 times a day).
Since amoxicillin and clavulanic acid combination tablets of 250 mg + 125 mg and 500 mg + 125 mg contain the same amount of clavulanic acid - 125 mg, then 2 tablets of 250 mg + 125 mg are not equivalent to 1 tablet of 500 mg + 125 mg.
Patients with impaired renal function
Dose adjustments are based on the maximum recommended dose of amoxicillin and are based on creatinine clearance (CC) values.QC
Amoxiclav® dosage regimen
>30 ml/min
No dosage adjustment required
10-30 ml/min
1 tablet 500 mg + 125 mg 2 times a day or 1 tablet 250 mg + 125 mg 2 times a day (depending on the severity of the disease).
30 ml/min.
Patients with liver dysfunction
Amoxiclav® should be taken with caution. It is necessary to regularly monitor liver function.
Does not require adjustment of the dosage regimen for elderly patients. In elderly patients with impaired renal function, the dose should be adjusted as for adult patients with impaired renal function. Side effect
Drug: AMOXICLAV®
Active substance of the drug: amoxicillin, clavulanic acid
ATX coding: J01CR02
KFG: Broad-spectrum penicillin antibiotic with beta-lactamase inhibitor
Registration number: P No. 012124/02
Registration date: 09/01/06
Owner reg. cert.: LEK d.d. (Slovenia)Amoxiclav release form, drug packaging and composition.
Powder for the preparation of a solution for intravenous administration is white to yellowish-white in color. Powder for preparing a solution for intravenous administration 1 fl. amoxicillin (sodium salt) 1 g clavulanic acid (potassium salt) 200 mg
Bottles (5) - cardboard packs.Pharmacological action Amoxiclav
Clavulanic acid, similar in structure to β-lactam antibiotics, has weak intrinsic antibacterial activity.
Thus, Amoxiclav has a bactericidal effect on a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (including strains that have become resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics due to the production of β-lactamases).
Amoxiclav is active against aerobic gram-positive bacteria: Streptococcus spp. (including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus viridans, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus bovis), Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus aureus (except methicillin-resistant strains), Staphylococcus epidermidis (except methicillin-resistant strains), Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Listeria spp.; aerobic gram-negative bacteria: Bordetella pertussis, Brucella spp., Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, Gardnerella vaginalis, Haemophilus ducreyi, Haemophilus influenzae, Helicobacter pylori, Klebsiella spp., Moraxella catarrhalis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis, Pasteurella multocida, Proteus spp. , Providencia spp., Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Vibrio cholerae, Yersinia enterocolitica, Eikenella corrodens; anaerobic gram-positive bacteria: Peptococcus spp., Actinomyces israelii, Prevotella spp., Clostridium spp., Peptostreptococcus spp., Fusobacterium spp.; anaerobic gram-negative bacteria: Bacteroides spp.Pharmacokinetics of the drug.
Distribution
Cmax after a bolus injection of Amoxiclav 1.2 g is 105.4 mg/l for amoxicillin and 28.5 mg/l for clavulanic acid. Both components are characterized by a good volume of distribution in body fluids and tissues (lungs, middle ear, pleural and peritoneal fluids, uterus, ovaries). Amoxicillin also penetrates into the synovial fluid, liver, prostate gland, tonsils, muscle tissue, gall bladder, secretions of the paranasal sinuses, saliva, and bronchial secretions.
Amoxicillin and clavulanic acid do not penetrate the BBB when the meninges are not inflamed.
Cmax in body fluids is observed 1 hour after reaching Cmax in blood plasma.
The active substances penetrate the placental barrier and are excreted in breast milk in trace concentrations. Amoxicillin and clavulanic acid are characterized by low binding to plasma proteins.
Metabolism
Amoxicillin is partially metabolized, clavulanic acid appears to be extensively metabolized.
Removal
Amoxicillin is excreted by the kidneys almost unchanged by tubular secretion and glomerular filtration. Clavulanic acid is excreted by glomerular filtration, partly in the form of metabolites. Small amounts may be excreted through the intestines and lungs. T1/2 of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid is 1-1.5 hours.
Both components are removed by hemodialysis and, in small quantities, by peritoneal dialysis.Pharmacokinetics of the drug.
In severe renal failure, T1/2 increases to 7.5 hours for amoxicillin and to 4.5 hours for clavulanic acid.Indications for use:
- infections of the upper respiratory tract and ENT organs (including acute and chronic sinusitis, acute and chronic otitis media, retropharyngeal abscess, tonsillitis, pharyngitis);
- infections of the lower respiratory tract (including acute bronchitis with bacterial superinfection, chronic bronchitis, pneumonia);
- urinary tract infections;
- gynecological infections;
- skin and soft tissue infections, including human and animal bites;
- infections of bones and joints;
- abdominal infections, incl. biliary tract (cholecystitis, cholangitis);
- odontogenic infections;
- sexually transmitted infections (gonorrhea, chancroid);
- prevention of infections after surgical interventions.
For adults and children over 12 years of age (with body weight >40 kg), the drug is prescribed at a dose of 1.2 g (1000 mg + 200 mg) with an interval of 8 hours, in case of severe infection - with an interval of 6 hours.
For children aged 3 months to 12 years, the drug is prescribed at a dose of 30 mg/kg body weight (calculated for the entire Amoxiclav) with an interval of 8 hours, in case of severe infection - with an interval of 6 hours.
Children under 3 months of age: premature and during the perinatal period - at a dose of 30 mg/kg body weight (in terms of the entire Amoxiclav) every 12 hours; in the postperinatal period - at a dose of 30 mg/kg body weight (in terms of the entire Amoxiclav) every 8 hours.
Every 30 mg of Amoxiclav contains 25 mg of amoxicillin and 5 mg of clavulanic acid.
The prophylactic dose for surgical interventions is 1.2 g during induction anesthesia (for an operation lasting less than 2 hours); for longer operations - 1.2 g up to 4 times a day.
For patients with renal failure, the dose and/or interval between doses of the drug should be adjusted depending on creatinine clearance (see table). Creatinine clearanceDosage and method of administration of the drug.
20 pcs. - dark glass bottles (1) - cardboard packs.
21 pcs. - dark glass bottles (1) - cardboard packs.
5 pcs. - blisters (3) - cardboard packs.
15 pcs. — bottles (1) — cardboard packs.
7 pcs. - blisters (2) - cardboard packs.
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