Do you know?
3. What research methods used in biology do you know?
We usually say “scientific knowledge”, “scientific fact”, “scientific picture of the world”. What is the difference between scientific knowledge from the unscientific? What fact can be considered scientific?
Science is one of the ways to study and understand the world around us. Biology helps to understand the world of living nature.
We already know that people have been studying living nature since ancient times. First, they studied individual organisms, collected them, and compiled lists of plants and animals inhabiting different places. Usually this period of study of living organisms is called descriptive, and the discipline itself is called natural history. Natural history is the predecessor of biology.
Each science has its own research methods.
However, no matter what methods are used, the most important principle for every scientist should remain “Take nothing for granted.” This is the principle of refusing blind trust in authority.
The scientific method is a set of techniques and operations used in constructing a system of scientific knowledge.
Biology uses various methods, the most important of which are observation, experiment and comparison.
The primary source of all scientific data is accurate, careful, unbiased observation and experiment.
The results obtained from observations and experiments must be checked and rechecked by new observations and experiments. Only then can they be considered scientific facts.
For example, the media have repeatedly reported on the so-called “Bigfoot”, providing eyewitness accounts of encounters with him, sketches and photos supposedly his traces and even the “Bigfoot” himself. Several expeditions were organized to search for Bigfoot. But so far no one has been able to provide either a living “Bigfoot”, or his remains, or any other irrefutable evidence of his existence. Therefore, despite numerous eyewitness accounts, the existence of Bigfoot cannot be recognized as a scientific fact.
Typically, scientific research begins with observation of an object or phenomenon. After summarizing the resulting data, hypotheses (assumptions) are put forward that can explain the observations.
At the next stage of the research, experiments are designed and conducted to test the hypotheses. A scientific experiment must necessarily be accompanied by a control experiment, the conditions of which are different. from the experimental conditions by one (and only one) factor. Analysis of the experimental results will allow you to decide which hypothesis is correct.
A hypothesis that has been tested and found to be consistent with the facts and capable of serving as the basis for correct predictions may be called a theory or law. By calling a provision a law, scientists seem to emphasize its universality, indisputability, and greater reliability. However, the terms “law” and “theory” are often used interchangeably.
Let us consider the stages of scientific research using the example of studying the conditions necessary for seed germination.
Observations of seeds have shown that they do not always germinate. Obviously, certain conditions are necessary for their germination.
So, we can formulate the research problem: What conditions are necessary for seed germination?
The next stage is generating hypotheses. We can assume that for seeds to germinate, they need light, darkness, water, a certain temperature, air, and soil.
Now, in order to check what conditions are really necessary for seed germination, we will develop and conduct an experiment.
Let's take six samples of 100 seeds of one species, for example corn, and place them in conditions that differ in only one characteristic.
Place the vessel with the first sample in a bright, warm place. Pour water into the vessel so that it covers the seeds halfway. In this case, air will freely penetrate to the seeds.
We will place the second sample of seeds in the same conditions as the first, but fill the vessel to the top with boiled water, thus depriving the seeds of air.
We will place the vessel with the third sample in the same conditions as the first, but in a warm place.
In the fourth vessel we will leave seeds dry.
We will keep the fifth sample at a temperature of +1 °C.
Fill the sixth vessel with moist soil and place it in a warm place.
After analyzing the results of the experiment, we come to the conclusion that light and soil are not necessary conditions for seed germination. Corn seeds germinate in the presence of water, air and a certain temperature. However, if we carefully examine our samples, we will see that even under favorable conditions the first seeds sprouted. Having studied these seeds, we find out that their embryo is dead. Consequently, only seeds with a living embryo can germinate.
If you compare the conditions necessary for the germination of seeds of plants of different species, you will be convinced that they differ greatly. For example, to germinate corn grains, water will require half their own weight, and to germinate clover, water should be one and a half times the weight of the seeds. At the same time, clover seeds germinate at a temperature of +1 °C, corn - at temperatures above +8 °C, and for melon seeds the germination temperature will be +15 °C. You will also find that most seeds germinate as if in the light , and in the dark, but there are plants (for example, tobacco, string), for the germination of seeds, light is necessary. On the contrary, small-fruited camelina seeds germinate only in the dark.
So, even the simplest scientific research requires a clearly thought out and carefully conducted experiment, on the basis of which scientifically reliable conclusions can be drawn. When conducting observations and experiments, the most modern devices, equipment, instruments are used - electron microscopes, radars, chromatographs, etc.
Life is amazingly diverse.
To understand this diversity, it is necessary to identify and organize the codes and differences in living organisms. To solve these problems, the comparative method is used. It allows you to compare the results of observations to identify general patterns.
Biologists also use other research methods. For example, the descriptive method was widely used by ancient scientists, but has not lost its importance today.
The historical method helps to comprehend the obtained facts by comparing them with previously known results.
In science, any new discoveries help eliminate previous misconceptions and point out relationships between phenomena. In biology, new discoveries create the basis for many practical advances in medicine, agriculture, industry and other areas of human activity.
Many people believe that one should engage only in biological research that will help solve specific practical problems of today. Of course, the development of applied sciences is very important, but we must not forget about the importance of research in “pure” science. The knowledge gained in fundamental research may seem useless for everyday human life, but it helps to understand the laws by which the world around us develops, and will almost certainly sooner or later find practical application.
Research. Scientific fact. Observation. Hypothesis. Experiment. Law. Theory.
1. What is the main goal of science?
2. What is the scientific method? What is its main principle?
3. What is a scientific experiment?
4. What fact can be considered scientific?
5. How does a hypothesis differ from a law or theory?
6. What is the role of applied and basic research in science?
Kamensky A. A., Kriksunov E. V., Pasechnik V. V. Biology 9th grade
Submitted by readers from the website
Program: ,
Lesson #2
Topic: “Research methods in biology.”
Tasks:
Educational: Introduce students to research methods in biology, consider the sequence of an experiment, and identify the difference between a hypothesis and a law or theory.
Developmental: Promote the development of intellectual skills and memory; continue the ability to compare and analyze, highlight the main points and give examples. Form a holistic picture of the world.
Educational: Contribute to the formation of a scientific worldview, implement environmental and aesthetic education, sex and labor education.
Equipment: Tables depicting the sequence of the experiment. Presentation.
Work progress:
I. Organizational moment
II. Updating knowledge (10 minutes).
Work with cards (3 options): write a definition.
Option 1:
3. Write a definition:
Option 2:
1. What kingdoms are distinguished in living nature?
2. Why is modern biology considered a complex science?
3. Write a definition:
Botany, geobotany, ornithology, physiology, histology, ecology, biochemistry.
Option 3:
1. What kingdoms are distinguished in living nature?
2. Why is modern biology considered a complex science?
3. Write a definition:
Zoology, bryology, paleobotany, ethology, anatomy, genetics, biotechnology.
III. Learning new material (20 minutes).
In the last lesson, we looked at the concept of biology as a science in general. Today we will look at what methods are used in biology.
The topic of our lesson today: “Research methods in biology” ( slide 1 ). – notebook entry.
What research methods does this science of biology use?
Question: Before we start looking, let's define what science is?
Science is one of the ways to study and understand the world around us ( slide 2 ). Writing in a notebook.
Biology helps us understand the living world. We already know that people have been studying living nature since ancient times. First, they studied individual organisms, collected them, and compiled lists of plants and animals inhabiting different places. Usually this period of study of living organisms is called descriptive, and the discipline itself is called natural history. Natural history is the predecessor of biology.
What is the scientific method? The scientific method is a set of techniques and operations used in constructing a system of scientific knowledge. – notebook entry.
Biology is multifaceted and therefore requires systematic and versatile methods of study. The following research methods are distinguished: (slide 3 ).
For example, many biological studies take place directly in nature - observation, description, comparison. At the same time, a significant part of the research requires a laboratory. In laboratory conditions, biologists conduct experiments and carry out modeling. Historical methods of research are not alien to biology, because biology studies living organisms in development, and this development can last millions of years.
Let's look at each one separately: (write in notebook)
Observation (slide 4)
Deliberate, purposeful perception of objects and processes in order to understand its essential properties. Observation is the starting point of any natural science research. In biology, this is especially noticeable, since the object of its study is man and the living nature that surrounds him. Observation as a method of collecting information is chronologically the very first research technique that appeared in the arsenal of biology; this method has not lost its significance to this day. Observations can be direct or indirect, they can be carried out with or without technical devices. So, an ornithologist sees a bird through binoculars and can hear it, or can record sounds with the device outside the range of the human ear.
Descriptive (slide 5)
To find out the essence of a phenomenon, a person must first collect factual information, and then describe it and present it for use by other generations. The essence of this method is to collect information, describe the characteristics and behavioral signs of the process or living organism being studied, and conduct research at the same time.
In the early period of the development of biology, it was the collection and description of facts that were the main methods of study. These same methods are still relevant today. Description is the result of interpretation of observations. For example, when writing a description of a found skeleton, a paleontologist will call certain bones vertebrae insofar as he uses the method of establishing an analogy with the skeletons of already known animals. Description is the main method of classical biology, based on observation. Later, the descriptive method formed the basis of the comparative and historical methods of biology. Correctly composed descriptions produced in different places at different times can be compared. This allows us to study the similarities and differences of organisms and their parts through comparison.
Comparative method (slide 6)
In the 18th century The comparative method became popular. It is based on the comparison and study of similar and different features of living organisms and their structure. This method is the basis of taxonomy. Thanks to him, a major generalization was discovered and the cell theory was created. This method is still popular today. Comparison is a comparison of organisms and their parts, finding similarities and differences (for example, you observe insects and notice that many of them have black and yellow stripes. Many people believe that these are all bees and wasps, so handle them carefully.
Historical (slide 7)
The historical method is used to study the patterns of appearance and development of organisms, the formation of their structure and functions.
Experiment (slide 8)
The purposeful study of phenomena under precisely established conditions, allowing them to be reproduced and observed. The full cycle of experimental research consists of several stages. Like observation, experimentation requires a clearly stated purpose for the study. Therefore, when starting an experiment, you need to determine its goals and objectives and think about the possible results. A scientific experiment must be well prepared and carefully conducted.
(Slide 9) So, as a result of observation and experiment, the researcher gains some knowledge about the external signs, properties of the object or phenomenon being studied, that is, new facts. The results obtained from observations and experiments must be verified by new observations and experiments. Only then can they be considered scientific facts. – recording the diagram in a notebook.
Let's write down the definitions of these methods: notebook entry (slide 10)
Observation - deliberate, purposeful perception of objects and processes in order to understand its essential properties;
Descriptive method - consists in describing objects and phenomena;
Comparison - comparison of organisms and their parts, finding similarities and differences;
Historical method – comparison of observation results with previously obtained results;
Experiment - purposeful study of phenomena under precisely established conditions, allowing to reproduce and observe these phenomena.
How does scientific research actually happen? (slide 11) - recording the diagram in a notebook.
Now let's look at the procedure for conducting a biological experiment: (slide 12) - writing in a notebook.
IV. Fixing the material (10 minutes). (slide 13).
Describe a scientific study step by step, using the example of studying the conditions necessary for seed germination (pp. 7-8).
V. Homework (slide 14).
§ 2. Describe the step-by-step implementation of a biological experiment on the topic:
Option I: “The influence of water pollution on the number of animals and plants”;
Option II: “The influence of different types and doses of fertilizers on certain varieties of cultivated plants.”
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Slide captions:
RESEARCH METHODS IN BIOLOGY Biology teacher GBOU gymnasium No. 293, St. Petersburg Popova Maria Sergeevna
SCIENCE IS ONE OF THE WAYS TO STUDY AND KNOW THE AROUND WORLD. The scientific method is a set of techniques and operations used in constructing a system of scientific knowledge.
METHODS OF BIOLOGY: Observation Description Comparison Historical method Experiment
OBSERVATION
DESCRIPTIVE METHOD
COMPARATIVE METHOD
HISTORICAL METHOD
EXPERIMENT
Observation Experiment Verified Results Scientific Fact
Observation is a deliberate, purposeful perception of objects and processes in order to understand its essential properties; Descriptive method - consists of describing objects and phenomena; Comparison - comparison of organisms and their parts, finding similarities and differences; Historical method - comparison of observation results with previously obtained results; An experiment is a purposeful study of phenomena under precisely established conditions, allowing one to reproduce and observe these phenomena.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH An observation of an object or phenomenon is carried out. Based on the data obtained, a hypothesis (assumption) is put forward. A scientific experiment is carried out (with a control experiment). The hypothesis tested during the experiment can be called a theory or law.
ORDER OF CONDUCTING BIOLOGICAL EXPERIMENT: Stage of work Implementation 1. Statement of the problem Development of a clear statement of the problem 2. Proposed solution, formulation of a hypothesis Formulation of the expected results and their scientific significance, based on already known data 3. Planning Mental development of the order of the experiment (sequence of implementation of individual stages research) 4. Conducting the experiment Selection of the necessary biological objects, instruments, reagents. Conducting the experiment. Collection and recording of observations, measurable quantities and results 5. Discussion Comparison of the results obtained with the hypothesis, scientific explanation of the results
The research design is the main idea that ties together all the structural elements of the methodology, determines the order of the research, its main stages.
In the research design, the following necessary elements are arranged in a logical order:
– purpose, objectives, research hypothesis;
– criteria, indicators of the development of a specific phenomenon, correlated with specific research methods;
– the sequence of application of these methods, the procedure for controlling the progress of the research (experiment);
– the procedure for registering, accumulating and summarizing research material;
– the procedure and forms for presenting research results.
The design of the study also determines its stages. Typically, the study consists of three working stages.
The first stage includes:
– selection of a scientific problem and topic;
– determination of the object and subject of research, goals and main objectives;
– development of a research hypothesis.
The second stage of work contains:
– selection of methods and development of research methodology;
– directly special processes of scientific research itself;
– formulation of preliminary conclusions, their testing and clarification;
– justification of final conclusions and practical recommendations.
The third stage is the final one
It is based on the implementation of the obtained research results into practice. The work is presented in a literary form.
The logic of each study is specific. Any researcher proceeds from the nature of the scientific problem, the goals and objectives of the work, the specific information material that he has, the level of resource equipment for the research and his capabilities. Each working stage of the study has its own characteristic features.
The first stage consists of choosing an area of research, and this very important choice is determined by both objective factors (relevance, novelty, prospects, value, etc.) and subjective ones (the experience of the researcher, his scientific and professional interest, abilities, inclinations, mentality, etc.).
The problem of scientific research is accepted as a category meaning something unknown in science that remains to be discovered and proven.
Subject. It reflects the scientific problem in its characteristic features. A successful, semantically accurate formulation of the topic clarifies the problem, outlines the scope of the study, and specifies the main idea, thereby creating the prerequisites for the success of the work as a whole.
Object of study. This is the set of connections, relationships and properties that exists objectively in theory and practice, requires some specific clarifications and serves as a source of information necessary for researchers.
Subject of research. This element is more specific and includes only those connections and relationships that are subject to direct study in this research work, establishing the boundaries of scientific research in each object.
In a scientific work, several research subjects can be distinguished, but there should not be many of them.
The purpose and objectives of the study follow from the subject of the research.
The goal is formulated briefly and extremely precisely, semantically expressing the main thing that the researcher intends to do. It is specified in detail and developed in the research objectives.
For example, research objectives in a scientific paper can be ranked as follows:
The first task, as a rule, is associated with identifying, clarifying, deepening, and methodological substantiation of the essence, nature, and structure of the object being studied.
The second is related to the analysis of the real state of the subject of research, dynamics, internal contradictions of development in time and space.
The third concerns the basic capabilities and abilities of transforming the subject of research, modeling, and experimental testing.
The fourth is associated with identifying directions, ways and means of increasing the efficiency of improving the phenomenon or process under study, i.e. with the practical aspects of scientific work, with the problem of managing the object under study.
There should not be many tasks in research work.
Hypothesis formulation.
Clarification of specific tasks is carried out in a creative search for particular problems and research questions, without solving which it is impossible to implement the methodological plan and solve the main problem.
For these purposes, special literature is studied, existing points of view and scientific positions are analyzed; those questions that can be solved with the help of existing scientific data are highlighted, and those whose solution represents a breakthrough into the unknown, a new step in the development of science and, therefore, requires fundamentally new approaches and knowledge that anticipate the main results of the study.
There are hypotheses:
a) descriptive (the existence of a phenomenon is assumed);
b) explanatory (revealing the reasons for it);
c) descriptive-explanatory.
The following specific requirements are imposed on a scientific hypothesis:
– it should not include too many provisions. As a rule, one basic thing, rarely more for special special needs;
– it cannot include concepts and categories that are not unambiguous and not understood by the researcher himself;
– when formulating a hypothesis, value judgments should be avoided; the hypothesis must correspond to the facts, be testable and applicable to a wide range of phenomena;
– impeccable stylistic design, logical simplicity, and respect for continuity are required.
Scientific hypotheses with varying levels of generality, in turn, can obviously be classified as instructive or deductive.
A deductive hypothesis, as a rule, is derived from already known relationships, provisions or theories from which the researcher starts.
In cases where the degree of reliability of the hypothesis can be determined by statistical analysis of the quantitative results of the experiment, it is recommended to formulate a null or negative hypothesis. With it, the researcher assumes that there is no relationship between the factors under study (it is equal to zero).
For example, when studying the structure of a specialist’s activity in any field, we are interested in the dependence of this structure on the level of education, work experience, age, and level of professional qualifications.
The null hypothesis consists of the assumption that no such relationship exists.
In this case, is it possible to obtain results in a scientific study that contradict the null hypothesis? If we obtain such facts, can they be considered random?
It is assumed that with such a formulation of questions, it is easier for the researcher to protect himself from a false interpretation of the final results of the experiment.
When formulating a hypothesis, it is important to be aware of whether we are doing it correctly, based on the formal characteristics of a good hypothesis:
a) the adequacy of the answer to the question or the correlation of conclusions with premises (sometimes researchers formulate a problem in a certain, one way, but the hypothesis does not correlate with it and leads the researcher away from the problem);
b) plausibility, i.e. correspondence to existing knowledge on a given problem (if there is no such correspondence, the new research turns out to be isolated from the general scientific theory);
c) verifiability.
The second stage of the study is of a clearly individualized nature and does not tolerate strictly regulated rules and regulations. Still, there are a number of fundamental issues that need to be taken into account.
In particular, the question of research methodology, since with its help the technical implementation of various methods is possible. It is not enough to list methods in a study; it is necessary to design and organize them into a system. There are no research methods in general, but there are specific methods for studying various objects, phenomena, and processes.
A methodology is a set of techniques, research methods, the order of their application and interpretation of the results obtained with its help. It depends on the nature of the object of study; methodology; objectives of the study; developed methods; general level of qualification of the researcher.
It is impossible to immediately draw up a research program and methodology:
Firstly, without understanding in what external phenomena the phenomenon being studied is manifested, what are the indicators, criteria for its development;
secondly, without correlating research methods with different manifestations of the phenomenon under study.
Only if these conditions are met can one hope for reliable scientific results and conclusions.
During the study, a program is drawn up that should reflect:
– what phenomenon is being studied;
– by what indicators;
– what research criteria are applied;
– what research methods are used;
– the procedure and regulation of the researcher’s use of certain methods.
Thus, the methodology is a kind of research model, and unfolded over time. A certain set of methods is thought out by the researcher for each stage of the study. When choosing a methodology, many factors are taken into account and, above all, the subject, purpose, and objectives of the study.
The research methodology, despite its individuality, when solving a specific problem has a certain structure of specific components.
Main components of the research methodology:
– the theoretical and methodological part, the concept on the basis of which the entire methodology is built;
– studied phenomena, processes, signs, parameters, factors;
– subordination and coordination connections and dependencies between them;
– a set of methods used, their subordination and coordination;
– procedure and regulation of the application of methods and methodological techniques;
– sequence and technique for summarizing research results;
– composition, role and place of researchers in the process of implementing the research plan.
Skillful determination of the content of each structural element of the methodology, their relationship, mutual connection is the art of research.
A well-thought-out methodology organizes the research, ensures the receipt of the necessary factual material, based on the analysis of which scientific conclusions are drawn.
The implementation of the research methodology allows us to obtain preliminary theoretical and practical conclusions containing answers to the problems solved in the study.
These conclusions must meet the following methodological requirements:
– be comprehensively reasoned, summarizing the main results of the study;
– flow from the accumulated material, being a logical consequence of its analysis and generalization.
When formulating conclusions, it is very important for the researcher to avoid two common mistakes:
1) a kind of marking time, when very superficial, limited conclusions of a partial order are drawn from a large and capacious empirical material;
2) an unreasonably broad generalization of the results obtained, when unduly broad conclusions are drawn from insignificant factual material.
Academician I. P. Pavlov considered the following to be the leading personality traits of a research scientist:
– scientific consistency;
– the strength of knowledge of the basics of science and the desire from them to the heights of human knowledge;
– restraint, patience;
– willingness and ability to do rough work;
– ability to patiently accumulate facts;
– scientific modesty;
– willingness to devote his whole life to science.
Academician K.I. Scriabin noted in scientific creativity the special significance and importance of love for work, for science, for the chosen specialty.
The third stage is the implementation of the results obtained in practice with literary presentation of the work.
Literary design of research materials is an integral part of scientific research and seems to be a labor-intensive and very responsible task.
To isolate from the collected materials and formulate the main ideas, provisions, conclusions and recommendations in an accessible, sufficiently complete and accurate manner - this is the main thing that a researcher should strive for in the process of literary presentation of results and scientific materials.
Of course, not everyone succeeds right away, since the design of the work is always closely related to the refinement of certain provisions, clarification of logic, argumentation and elimination of gaps in the substantiation of the conclusions made, etc.
Much here depends not only on the degree of professional training, but also on the level of general development and personality of the researcher, his literary and analytical abilities, as well as the ability to formulate his thoughts.
When preparing scientific materials, the researcher should adhere to the following general rules:
– the title and content of chapters, as well as sections, must correspond to the topic of research and not go beyond its scope, the content of chapters must exhaust the topic, and the content of sections must exhaust the chapter as a whole;
– initially, having studied the material for writing the next section (chapter), it is necessary to think through its plan, leading ideas, argumentation system and record all this in writing, without losing sight of the logic of the entire work, then clarify, “polish” individual semantic parts and sentences, make the necessary additions, rearrangements, remove unnecessary things, carry out editorial and stylistic corrections;
– immediately clarify, check the format of references, compile a reference apparatus and a list of references (bibliographical references);
- do not rush into final editing, look at the material after some time, let it “sit down”, while some reasoning and conclusions, as practice shows, will seem poorly designed, unproven and insignificant, so you need to improve them or omit them, leave them only really necessary;
– avoid scientificity, playing at erudition, since the inclusion of a large number of references and the abuse of special terminology make it difficult for others to understand the researcher’s thoughts and make the presentation complex, therefore the presentation style should combine scientific rigor and efficiency, accessibility and expressiveness;
– depending on the content, the literary presentation of the material can be calm (without emotions), reasoned or polemical, critical, brief or detailed, detailed;
– before preparing the final version of materials for publication, test the work: review, examination, discussion at seminars, conferences, symposia with colleagues, etc., and then eliminate the shortcomings identified during testing.
Research- the process of studying and understanding reality, connections between individual environmental phenomena and their patterns. Cognition is a complex process. It, in essence, represents a movement towards more accurate and complete knowledge. This path can be followed with the help of scientific research.
In the field of applied sciences or technology there are stages of scientific research, which must be sequentially passed in the course of studying certain problems.
Most often, seven successive steps are distinguished, each of which characterizes the stages of scientific research. In short version structure and stages of scientific research look like this.
- First of all, it is necessary decide on the problem. This stage is not just about finding a problem, but about a clear and precise formulation of the research objectives, since the progress and effectiveness of the entire study largely depends on this.
At this stage, it is necessary to collect and process initial information, think over methods and means of solving problems.
- At the second stage it is necessary put forward and then justify an initial hypothesis. Typically, the development of a hypothesis is carried out on the basis of formulated tasks and analysis of the collected initial information. A hypothesis may have more than one option, and then you need to choose the most appropriate one. To clarify the working order hypothesis, experiments are carried out to more fully study the object.
- Third stage - theoretical research. It consists in the synthesis of patterns that are given in relation to the object under study. At this stage, further extraction of additional, new, not yet known patterns occurs with the help of the apparatus of various sciences.
At the level of theory is a generalization of phenomena, their connections,
obtaining more information to substantiate the working hypothesis.
- Experimental studies continue the theoretical as a scientific experiment, which is the most complex and time-consuming part of the study. Its goals may be different, since they depend on the nature of the entire study, as well as the sequence of its conduct.
In the case of a standard course and procedure for conducting research, the experimental part (experiment) is carried out after the stage of theoretical study of the problem. In this case, the experiment, as a rule, confirms the results of theoretical hypotheses. Sometimes after conducting an experiment, hypotheses are refuted.
In some cases, the order of the study changes. It happens that the third and fourth stages change places. Then the experiment can precede the theoretical part. This sequence is typical for exploratory research, when the theoretical basis is insufficient to put forward hypotheses. In this case, the theory is intended to generalize the results of experimental studies.
- Analysis of results and their comparison. This stage implies the need to compare the theoretical and experimental stages of scientific research to finally confirm the hypothesis and further formulate conclusions and consequences arising from it. Sometimes the result is negative, then the hypothesis has to be rejected.
- Final conclusions. The results are summed up, conclusions are formulated and their correspondence to the initially set task.
- Mastering the results. This stage is typical for technical work. It is a preparation for the industrial implementation of the research results.
These seven steps summarize the main stages of scientific research that must be completed from a working hypothesis to the implementation of research results in practice.
