F. Taylor School of Scientific Management
The formation of genuine interest in the management process as a specific type of professional activity is associated with the beginning of the twentieth century. This was largely determined by the objective socio-economic processes that took place in developed countries in the previous period. The initial prerequisite that stimulated interest in management was the English Industrial Revolution, but the understanding that management itself can have a significant impact on the development and success of an organization began to take shape in America. This was largely determined by the fact that it was overseas that business conditions developed that greatly contributed to the manifestation of personal competence, when a person could overcome the difficulties associated with his origin and nationality. The presence of the largest labor market, including a huge number of emigrants from Europe, ensured the management of a constant influx of personnel ready to receive the necessary education and constantly improve their skills.
The emergence of huge transcontinental companies, the management of which required completely new approaches, also contributed to the emergence of management science. The scale and complexity of these forms of doing business required formalized methods of management, so the creation of a special field of scientific research related to management became a natural response to the demands of the time and the needs of an expanding business interested in finding the most effective methods of doing work.
As is often the case, management was born as an interdisciplinary science, formed at the intersection of such disciplines as mathematics, psychology, sociology, etc. As these areas developed, knowledge, theorists and practitioners of management could obtain more and more information about the factors influencing the success of the organization. New knowledge opened up the opportunity to find the most effective approaches to solving various management problems.
The emergence of management as an independent science is associated with the formation and development of the school of scientific management, the origins of which were the American engineer Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). It was his views that became the basis for modern management concepts.
The starting point of Taylor's approach was the belief that management should be exactly the same object of scientific study as everything that has already come to the attention of science. The introduction of scientific principles into the process of labor organization should significantly change its course. Science, with its desire to quantify everything it studies, must also quantify all production processes.The development of scientific management methodology began with an analysis of the content of the work and the establishment of its main components. The result was the conclusion about the need to separate management functions from all other types of work, because Management activities are very specific and the organization will benefit if each group (management and workers) focuses on what it does best.
The theorists of the scientific school substantiated the need for selection and specialized training of people on the basis of physical and intellectual suitability for certain types of work.
Taylor paid great attention to dividing work into its component elements with the subsequent identification of a scientifically based method of performing it, which should have a strict scientific justification based on relevant research. In his famous work “The Principles of Scientific Management,” published in 1911, Taylor, using numerous examples, demonstrated how various types of work should be studied in order to identify the optimal methodology for their implementation.
One of the merits of this school was the systematic use of various incentive methods designed to interest employees in increasing productivity and improving the quality of the goods produced. The central element was that workers who produced more than others should receive higher remuneration.
Taylor assigned an important place to the so-called “philosophy of cooperation” in capitalist enterprises. Contrary to the well-known Marxist doctrine of the obligatory antagonism of the interests of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, the founder of modern management insisted that the development of industry leads to an increase in the welfare of workers and, as a consequence, to a convergence of the goals of workers and employers. He was convinced that if the principles of scientific management were fully accepted, this would resolve all disputes and disagreements between the parties.
Another representative of this school was Garrington Emerson (1853-1931), who was educated at the Munich Polytechnic (Germany). 
The publication of his work “The Twelve Principles of Productivity” in 1912 did not go unnoticed, causing quite a wide discussion among specialists and businessmen both in America and abroad.
| G. Emerson |
G. Emerson insisted on using an integrated, systematic approach to solving complex practical problems of organizing production management and all activities in general. An ineptly constructed management pyramid operates on the basis of false principles. In the right organization, according to Emerson, competent leaders first formulate key principles and goals, then teach subordinates how to effectively achieve them, and then monitor progress and monitor violations. In the wrong organization, the boss assigns completely arbitrary tasks to his subordinates and then demands that they cope with them themselves to the best of their ability.
A proper organization, from Emerson's point of view, implements the following fundamental principles: clearly defined goals; common sense, admitting mistakes; competent consultation of professionals; discipline, clear regulation of activities; fair treatment of staff; fast, accurate and complete accounting; mandatory dispatching; norms and schedules that facilitate the search for reserves; normalization of working conditions; standardization of methods of performing operations; availability of standard written instructions; reward for performance.
In unison with the approaches of Taylor and Emerson, the thoughts of Henry Ford (1863-1947), who complemented the main provisions of the school of scientific management, sound. The founding father of the American automobile industry, an engineer-inventor who created the first industrial conveyor, Ford went down in the history of management thought as 
a person who has applied his own principles of production organization in practice and achieved brilliant production results. His book “My Life, My Achievements” is the best illustration of how effective the rules that Ford followed throughout his career were. The American industrialist associated the basis for successful production with the use of the following tools for increasing labor productivity: maximum division of labor, specialization, widespread use
| G.Ford |
The first school of scientific management developed in the USA at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Its founder was F. Taylor (1856-1915), whose book “Principles of Scientific Management” (1911) is considered the beginning of the recognition of management as a science and an independent field of study. Taylor considered management to be a true science, resting on the foundation of precise laws, rules, principles of separating planning from the actual implementation of the work itself - Burganova L.A. Control theory: Textbook. - M.:INFRA-M, 2005..
“Taylor was born into a famous and wealthy Philadelphia family in Germantown, Pennsylvania (USA). He received his secondary education in Europe. The busy business life in Philadelphia, the numerous acquaintances of the Taylor family - businessmen, industrialists, politicians, the cream of the intelligentsia, undoubtedly influenced the formation of the personality of the one who in the future would so glorify America. UGH. Taylor graduated from Stevens Institute in 1878 with a degree in mechanical engineering. And in the same year, he entered the mechanical shop of the Midwell Steel Company plant (one of the largest metallurgical plants in Bethlehem), where he passed all the levels in the administrative apparatus - from foreman to chief engineer.” - Control Theory: Textbook / Ed. Yu.V. Vasilyeva, V.N. Parakhina, L.I. Uvshinsky. - 2nd ed., add. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 2005.
While still working at the plant, F.U. Taylor began to conduct the first experiments in the field of high-speed metalworking methods. At the same time, he and Barth designed a special ruler with which it was possible to operate with fourteen independent variables. “Having been appointed to the position of chief engineer, F.U. Taylor began to introduce high-speed methods into production and here he encountered the problem of opposition from workers. In an effort to break this resistance, F.U. Taylor used traditional methods of coercion for that time, including dismissal or lowering wages, hiring new workers to replace those fired, etc. Some workers, fearing punishment, increased the intensity of their work, which displeased others. The workers were under such pressure. That they were forced to either reduce their production standards or leave the plant. They also threatened F.U. Taylor" Semenov I.I. History of management: Textbook. - M.: UNII-DANA, 1999..
UGH. Taylor represented a new type of manager: an entrepreneur who knows how to value and keep his word and respects his interlocutor, a high-class engineer who knows in detail all the intricacies of production and economics. “He constantly wanted to fight something - the resistance of trade unions, the group egoism of workers, the envy of colleagues and the bones of industrialists” Kravchenko A.I. History of management: Textbook. - M.: Academic project, 2000..
In his book “The Scientific Organization of Labor” Management is a science and an art: A. Fayol, G. Emerson, F. Taylor, G. Ford. - M.: Respublika, 1992. Respublika, 1992. Respublika, 1992. F.U. Taylor identified the prerequisites for scientific management, identified three reasons for low labor productivity, and described the main features, basic methods and general elements of the mechanism of scientific management. Also F.U. Taylor developed the following management principles:
- 1. Division of labor. Taylor consistently followed this principle in his work, believing that labor is divided into executive labor and managerial labor.
- 2. Correspondence between types of workers and types of work.
- 3. Labor measurement. Setting the main goal of management to increase labor productivity, F. Taylor became convinced of the possibility of dividing each operation into elementary components. The application of this principle in practice will be described in the third chapter of my work.
- 4. “Tasks-instructions. Accurate recording of working time required the standardization of tools, work operations and movements, the introduction of instruction cards and work progress tracking systems. This allowed the introduction of planning and costing. The work of each worker is completely planned and scheduled for the day in advance. Workers receive written instructions - cards, the details of the lesson are described in detail, after which they are supposed to monitor and record successes and losses." Ignatov V.G., Albasova L.N. Management Theory: Course of lectures - M.: ICC “MarT”; Rostov n/d: Publishing center “MarT”, 2006 - 464 pp. Tasks-prescriptions as a principle will also be described in the third part of my work.
- 5. Incentive programs. Taylor wrote that “you can never look a single worker in the face without seeing hatred in him, and then you feel that every one of them is actually your enemy.” The Principles of Scientific Management by Frederick Winslow Taylor ISBN: 1- 4209-3119-9 16212 Riggs Rd Stilwell, KS, 66085. - 2008.. He developed a system of bonus payment for piece work on an appropriate bonus scale. He believed that the highest wages should be paid for the hardest work and the lowest for the easiest work. Moreover, whoever does not comply with the norm must be subject to sanctions.
- 6. “Labor as an individual activity. By this, he emphasized the role of individual abilities, mainly physical ones, and minimized the influence of the group. He was looking for ways to individually develop the employee. And he taught that it is necessary to know the way of thinking of the workers. At the same time, the worker must be very disciplined, otherwise he faces dismissal. He simply bullied the weak workers who did not fulfill the quota” Ignatov V.G., Albasova L.N. Management Theory: Course of lectures - M.: ICC “MarT”; Rostov n/d: Publishing center "MarT", 2006 - 464 pp.
- 7. Economic incentives. Self-interest is the driving force. Taylor insisted that it was key to increasing worker productivity. He tried to introduce standards of time, movements and, in connection with this, revised the salary.
- 8. The exclusive role of managers. UGH. Taylor believed that increased productivity would bring abundance to both employers and workers. According to Taylor, scientific management is an intellectual revolution that is designed to put an end to conflicts over the division of surplus value between workers and management, since due to the increase in the value of the surplus product, there will ultimately be no need for these disputes. Managers must collect bit by bit all achievements in their work, enclose them in instructions, rules, and methods.
- 9. The role of trade unions should be kept to a minimum. UGH. Taylor viewed scientific management as an effective “tool for bringing together” the interests of all workers and managers by increasing the well-being of workers and establishing closer cooperation with employers and management. Management is a science and an art: A. Fayol, G. Emerson, F. Taylor, G. Ford. - M.: Respublika, 1992. Respublika, 1992. Respublika, 1992. In this he saw the role of trade unions, and so that they do not interfere with the work of managers.
Compliance with these principles ensures, according to Taylor, the scientific organization of labor (SLO), whereas before F.U. Taylor's concept of management was very general. “He first defined it as “rational organization in general” or “organization of production” in relation to an industrial enterprise. The theory arose under conditions of monopoly capitalism. The growth in scale and concentration of production required standardization and unification of the entire production process. Further growth in production efficiency has become unthinkable without a comprehensive rationalization of the economy, time and resources."Management: Textbook. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional/E.E. Vershigora - M.: INFRA-M, 2006..
R.M. Falmer in the book “Encyclopedia of Modern Management” Encyclopedia of Modern Management in 5 volumes. T.2. Organization as a management function / R. Falmer. - M.: VIPKenergo, 1992. provides examples illustrating the application of Taylor's scientific management philosophy. I will cite them in order to compare them later, like the management principles outlined by F.U. Taylor, operated in the 19th-20th centuries. and how they work today.
One of the most famous examples of the “school of scientific management” is F.W. Taylor was loading pig iron into the Bethlehem Steel Company. In the late 1890s, the Spanish-American War broke out, the sudden need for pig iron caused its price to rise, and all the pig iron that was in stock was sold. It was necessary to load 80 thousand tons of cast iron into wagons in the shortest possible time.
UGH. Taylor approached this issue from a scientific point of view. To begin with, he selected a small group of workers, then from this group one - a Dane from Pennsylvania named Schmidt. The criterion used by F.U. Taylor in the selection of workers is very well illustrated by his statement: “Now one of the main requirements for a man who is suitable for loading pig iron as a permanent occupation is that he will be so stupid and so phlegmatic that in his mental make-up he will be more like on a bull than on anyone else"translation from English The Principles of Scientific Management by Frederick Winslow Taylor ISBN: 1-4209-3119-9 16212 Riggs Rd Stilwell, KS, 66085. - 2008..
Having analyzed the work of one worker and achieved the results presented in Table 1.1 (see Appendix No. 1), F.U. Taylor extended his experience to the rest of the workers, thereby increasing productivity and reducing loading times overall.
Another striking example of the manifestation of the “school of scientific management” are the experiments of F.U. Taylor on improving the shape of a worker's shovel. In addition to loading pig iron, Taylor worked with Bethlehem Steel to increase the productivity of the workers who dug various grades of coal each day. In analyzing the methods used by workers at the time, Taylor saw that depending on the material being carried, the shovel load could vary from 4 to 30 pounds.
Through experimentation, Taylor was able to determine that the best shovel load was 21 pounds. At his suggestion, the management of the Bethlehem Steel Company ordered for the company shovels of various types, corresponding to the grade of material that each worker was expected to load. As a result, through the use of different shovels, the number of loaders in the yard was eventually reduced from about 500 to 150, resulting in annual savings of $75,000 to $80,000. In addition, the average number of tons handled per worker per day increased from 16 to 59; average earnings per worker increased from $1.15 to $1.88 per day.
Developments by F.U. Taylor made it possible to increase labor productivity and at the same time reduce costs. Principles of F.U. Taylor worked well in enterprises of the last century. How they work in our time - we will find out in the following chapters of my work. There I will give an analysis of the work of modern adherents of the “school of scientific management” and give examples of the use of the above-mentioned principles in a specific organization.
UGH. Taylor was the center of the scientific management movement, but the people who surrounded and knew him also contributed to the emergence and spread of scientific management.
Methods for rationalizing the work of individual workers led to the restructuring of the entire production and management process. These methods gradually began to spread in industrial enterprises in the United States and in other countries. At F.W. Taylor, followers and adherents of his school appeared, which will be discussed further.
SCHOOL OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT F.Taylor
The emergence of modern management science dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. and is associated with the names of F.U. Taylor, Frank and Lilia Gilbreath and Henry Gantt. An important merit of this school was the position that management can be “scientific”, relying on economic, technical and social experiment, as well as on scientific analysis of the phenomena and facts of the management process and their generalization. This research method was first applied to a single enterprise by the American engineer F.W. Taylor, who should be considered the founder of scientific production management. The term “scientific management” was first proposed in 1910 by L. Brides. After Taylor's death, the name gained general acceptance for his concept.
F. Taylor's ideas were developed by his followers, among whom, first of all, Henry Gantt, his closest student, should be named. Gantt made significant contributions to the development of leadership theory.
Frank Gilbreath and his wife Lillian Gilbreath were engaged in the rationalization of workers' labor and exploring the possibilities of increasing production output by increasing labor productivity.
G. Emerson made a significant contribution to the development of the Taylor system. Emerson explored the principles of labor activity in relation to any production, regardless of its type of activity.
Henry Ford continued Taylor's ideas in the field of production organization. In Taylor's system, manual labor occupied a central place.
Ford replaced manual labor with machines, i.e. took a further step in the development of the Taylor system.
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR
Frederick Taylor, the creator of scientific management, was a man completely obsessed with the idea of control, obsessed with the constant need to manage every aspect of his life. Both his work and household chores and leisure were regulated by detailed programs and schedules, which he strictly followed.
Taylor showed these character traits from an early age. Raised in a well-to-do family that lived by strict Puritan rules (hard work, discipline and the ability to manage one's emotions), Frederick quickly learned to strictly regulate his life and himself. Childhood friends described the meticulous (“scientific”) approach he brought to their games. Even as a child, Taylor insisted that everything follow clear rules. Before a baseball game began, he often insisted on the need for exact dimensions of the field, even if most of the sunny morning was spent making sure that every inch of the dimensions were correct. The game of croquet was also the subject of careful analysis: Taylor analyzed the angles of shots, calculated the force of the shot, the advantages and disadvantages of weak and strong shots.
It was common for him to observe his actions, measure the time spent on various movements, and count his steps. During his country walks, young Fred constantly experimented to determine how to cover the maximum distance with the minimum loss of energy, or what the easiest way to jump over a fence, or what the ideal length of a walking stick should be. As a young man, before going to a dance, he made lists of attractive and unattractive girls so that he could devote equal time to each.
Perseverance, perseverance and a rational approach have borne fruit not only in management science. Taylor also achieved great success in sports: he was the US tennis champion in doubles.
Taylor graduated from the institute (Stevens Institute of Technology), received fundamental training in engineering and mathematical sciences, at the same time intensively studied theoretical sciences and experiments, made many inventions in the field of production organization, some of them at the world level. Despite the brilliant prospects that opened before him, thanks to the origin and social status of the family, Taylor began his life as a simple worker, became a foreman, then in 8 years rose to the position of chief engineer of a steel company in Bethlehem, where he spent 1898-1901 gg. the first series of his experiments.
It is difficult to overestimate Taylor's contribution to management science. Peter Drucker said that all modern management stands, as if on a rock, on the ideas that were laid down by Taylor.
The inscription on Taylor's grave is simple and concise: "Father of Scientific Management."
Taylor is considered the founder of modern management, the "Father of Scientific Management".
Before Taylor, the engine for increasing productivity was the carrot principle. So, Taylor came up with the idea of organizing labor, which involves the development of numerous rules, laws and formulas that replace the personal judgment of the individual worker and which can be usefully applied only after statistical accounting, measurement, and so on, of their actions has been made. Thus, at the beginning of the century, the role of the manager in deciding what the performer should do, how to do it, and to what extent, grew immeasurably and the regulation of the performer’s work took extreme measures.
“Good organization with poor equipment will produce better results than excellent equipment with poor organization” (F.W. Taylor).
F. Taylor divided the entire work of the performer into its component parts. In his classic work, first published in 1911, he systematized all the achievements that were available at that time in the field of organizing the production process. Individual achievements were timed, and the working day was scheduled in seconds.
Thus, F.U. Taylor, in practice, in a number of cases, found the amount of work that, when properly performed, the worker could most rationally give his labor power for a long time. He proposed a scientific system of knowledge about the laws of rational organization of labor, the constituent elements of which are a mathematical method for calculating costs, a differential system of remuneration, a method for studying time and motion, a method for rationalizing labor techniques, instruction cards, etc., which later became part of the so-called mechanism of scientific management . Unlike many specialists who create management theories, Taylor was not a scientist - a researcher or a business school professor, but a practitioner.
Taylor first became interested not in human efficiency, but in organizational efficiency, which marked the beginning of the development of the school of scientific management. Thanks to the development of this concept, management is recognized as an independent field of scientific research. In his works “Factory Management” (1903) and “Principles of Scientific Management” (1911), F. Taylor developed methods of scientific organization of labor. He arrived at these methods after conducting a series of experiments.
The essence of these experiments was to study, using a stopwatch, the process of trimming cast iron pigs, which was carried out by the most dexterous workers. By dividing operations into individual elements, Taylor determined the duration of each of them and ultimately derived average standards, which were subsequently extended to all workers. As a result, labor productivity increased by 3.5-4 times, and wages by 60%. Moreover, this was achieved not through the intensification of labor, as is now often believed, but, above all, through its rationalization.
F. Taylor attached great importance to the standardization of tools, taking into account the characteristics of various specific types of work. Thus, a study of coal loading showed that the average weight of coal picked up by a shovel ranged from 16 to 38 pounds. By experiments he found that a good worker could load more in a day if he used a shovel that could hold from 21 to 22 pounds. It further turned out that when loading various types of materials with shovels, it is advisable to use about 15 types of shovels. All this led to the fact that, after 3.5 years, 140 people completed work that previously required from 400 to 600 people.
Taylor's book The Scientific Organization of Labor (1924) compares the old and new "scientific" labor systems. He compares the work of the load on the cast iron carts, which goes into further processing.
Table
Taylor emphasized the responsibility of management to create appropriate conditions: the worker “should enjoy every encouragement in designing improvements, both in methods of work and in tools. Whenever a worker proposes any new improvement, the correct policy of management dictates that it must carefully analyze the new method and, if necessary, make a series of experiments to accurately establish the comparative merits of the new project and the old standard" (Taylor F.W. Scientific Organization of Labor. )
Taylor became widely known in 1912 after his speech at the hearings of a special committee of the House of Representatives of the American Congress to study shop management systems. Taylor's system acquired a clearer outline in his work “Cycle Management” and was further developed in the book “Principles of Scientific Management”. Subsequently, Taylor himself widely used this concept that: “management is a genuine science, based on precisely defined laws, rules and principles.”
Taylorism is based on 4 scientific principles.
1. The detailed scientific study of individual actions and the carrying out of experiments with a view to establishing laws and formulas for the most efficient work “with strict rules for every movement” of each person and the improvement and standardization of all tools and working conditions.
2. Careful selection of workers “on the basis of established characteristics,” training them “to become first-class workers,” and “eliminating all persons who refuse or are unable to learn scientific methods.”
3. The administration’s cooperation with the workers, “bringing workers and science closer together... on the basis of constant and vigilant assistance, management and payment of daily increases for prompt work and accurate completion of tasks.” Taylor spoke about the need for this, for example, in the field of standardization and the use of new tools.
4. “Almost equal distribution of labor and responsibility between workers and management.” According to Taylor, the administration takes on those functions “for which it is better suited than the workers.” Special agents of the administration work with workers throughout the working day, help them, eliminate interference in work, and encourage workers.
Taylor came to the important conclusion that the main reason for low productivity lies in the imperfect system of incentives for workers. He developed a system of material incentives. He presented the reward not only as a monetary reward, but also advised entrepreneurs to make concessions and encouragement.
“Encouragement is something that is given in excess: a promotion, a bonus, improved working conditions, personal respect... The administration must regularly inform the worker about his successes... The worker for the improvement he has discovered should continue to be given full confidence and a monetary bonus should be paid as a reward for his ingenuity" (Taylor F.W. Scientific organization of labor.)
Taylor developed scientific management in three main directions.
1. This is labor rationing.
2. Systematic selection and training of personnel.
3. Monetary incentives as a reward for the final result.
All of them were aimed at reducing the number of errors during standard operations and mobilizing the employee’s potential to perform the tasks facing him.
It should be noted that before Taylor, workers were entirely responsible for the results of production. His proposal to entrust managers with the responsibility to study the labor process and develop scientific recommendations for its improvement, teach workers, and improve their skills, essentially meant an intellectual revolution.
“The biggest problem in the transition to a new system [of management] is the need for a complete revolution in the moral structure” (Taylor F.W. Scientific organization of labor).
Taylor considered workers lazy, unable to independently understand the complex organization of production, rationally organize their work (this function was assigned to the administrative elite), did not consider them as individuals, but saw them as irrational beings, capable of purposefully acting only on the basis of elementary incentives, first of all money.
At the same time, he considered concessions to workers on the part of managers and maintaining friendly relations with them to be a reward, and therefore recommended opening canteens, kindergartens, and various evening courses at enterprises as a means “to create more skilled and intelligent workers.”
Taylor wrote: “Scientific management cannot exist unless there is a complete revolution in the psychology of the workers, in their awareness of duty towards both themselves and their employers, and the same revolution, in turn, in the psychology of the employers according to attitude, both to themselves and to their workers" (Taylor on Taylorism. - L.-M.: Management Technology. - 1931).
In accordance with his advice, one of the factories, where mostly women worked, got a purebred cat, with which the workers had the opportunity to play during breaks, which improved their emotions, lifted their spirits and ultimately contributed to increased productivity. Such actions were supposed to arouse “good feelings towards the owners” among the workers.
School of Human Relations. E. Mayo
The school of human relations is based on the achievements of psychology and sociology. In management science, there has been a shift in effort: from performing technical tasks to relationships between people, i.e. within the framework of this teaching, it was proposed to focus attention not on the task as such, but on the worker (“the person is the main object of attention”).
Scientists studying human behavior in the labor process were no less interested in increasing labor productivity than any of the “classical” managers. By focusing on the worker, they believed that they could better stimulate his work. It was believed that people are living machines and management should be based on concern for the individual worker. In this regard, a true reformer was R. Owen, who believed that the company spends a lot of time on caring for machines and machines (lubrication, repairs, etc.) and cares little about people. According to R. Owen, it is quite reasonable to spend the same time on “care” for workers (a living machine) and then “repairing” people will not be required.
The emergence of the school of human relations is directly related to the name of the German psychologist G. Münsterberg (1863 - 1916), who created the world's first school of industrial psychologists. In his book “Psychology and Industrial Efficiency,” he formulated the basic principles according to which people should be selected for leadership positions. He created a great many tests, with the help of which he studied the abilities and aptitudes of subjects for various professions, positions, the compatibility of workers with each other, problems of fatigue, etc.
A great contribution to the development of the theory and practice of human relations was made by E. Mayo (1880 - 1949), who argued that a group of workers is a social system that has its own control relations. By influencing such a system in a certain way, it is possible to improve, as E. Mayo believed, the results of labor. Studying the influence of various factors (working conditions and organization, wages, interpersonal relationships and leadership style) on labor productivity, E. Mayo concluded about the special role of the human factor. He managed to create a social philosophy of management (a system of human relations). The human relations movement became a counterweight to scientific management, since the emphasis in the human relations movement was on people, and in the scientific management movement it was on concern for production. The idea is that simply paying attention to people has a huge impact on productivity. It is about improving the effectiveness of an organization by improving the efficiency of its human resources. The “Hothorne effect” discovered by E. Mayo indicates that labor productivity and product quality depend not so much on working conditions as on social and psychological factors.
Among other scientists in this area, one can highlight M. Follett, who analyzed different management styles and developed the theory of leadership. M. Follett put forward the idea of harmony between labor and capital, which can be achieved with the right motivation and taking into account the interests of all stakeholders. The merit of M. Follet is also the fact that she tried to combine three schools of management into a single whole: scientific management, administrative and the school of human relations. It was Follett who defined management as “the accomplishment of the goals of an enterprise by influencing others.”
A great contribution to the development of the school of human relations was made in the 40s - 60s of the 20th century, when behavioral scientists developed several theories of motivation. One of them is A. Maslow’s hierarchical theory of needs. He proposed the following classification of personal needs: physiological; security of existence; social (belonging to a team, communication, attention to oneself, caring for others, etc.); prestigious (authority, official status, self-esteem, self-respect); self-expression, full use of one's potential, achieving goals and personal growth.
The teachings of D. McGregor (1960) are no less popular. His theory (X-c and Y-c) is based on the following characteristics of workers:
Theory X - the average individual is dull, tends to evade work, so he must be constantly forced, prodded, controlled and directed. A person of this category prefers to be led, strives to avoid responsibility, and worries only about his own safety;
Theory Y-in - people are not passive by nature. They became this way as a result of working in the organization. For this category of workers, the expenditure of physical and mental labor is as natural and necessary as playing on vacation. Such a person not only accepts responsibility, but also strives for it. He does not need outside control, since he is able to control himself.
A modified version of D. McGregor's teachings is presented by R. Blake in the form of a GRID management grid.
Thus, the school of human relations (behavioral sciences) tried to comprehensively analyze the problem of human relations in the labor process and eliminate the conflict between wage labor and capital, creating the prerequisites for cooperation and cooperation between them.
Theory of administration by Andry Fayol.
The emergence of the administrative school is associated mainly with the name of Henri Fayol (1825-1925). According to American management historians, Fayol is the most significant figure in management science in the first half of the 20th century.
Henri Fayol (1841-1925) was a mining engineer by training. Being a Frenchman by birth, he worked all his life in the French mining and metallurgical syndicate, first as an engineer, and then (from the age of thirty) in the main department. From 1886 to 1918 he was managing director of the syndicate.
Summarizing his many years of observations, Fayol created a “theory of administration.” Fayol achieved fame thanks to his ideas. His first article on this theory was published in 1900, and the book “The Main Features of Industrial Administration - Foresight, Organization, Management, Coordination, Control” was published in 1916. This work is Fayol’s main contribution to the science of management.
The goal of the administrative school was to create universal management principles, following which, according to the beliefs of the school’s founders, the organization would undoubtedly achieve success.
Management principles are the basic rules that determine the construction and functioning of the management system; the most important requirements, compliance with which ensures effective management. According to Fayol, principles are a beacon that helps to navigate.
Considering the organization as a specific type of activity and as an equally unique administrative system and coordinating his ideas with Taylor’s principles regarding the stimulation of each employee, Fayol formulated the following 14 principles of management in relation to the activities of senior management:
1. Division of labor, i.e. specialization necessary for the effective use of labor, in relation to all types of work, both managerial and executive.
2. Power and responsibility. According to Fayol, power and responsibility are interconnected, with the latter being a consequence of the former. He believes that power combines official (based on the position held) personal (comprising an alloy of mental development, experience, moral level, skills based on the type of previous service, etc.) factors.
3. Discipline. Understanding discipline as respect for agreements designed to ensure obedience, diligence, energy and outward displays of respect, Fayol emphasizes the need for good leaders at all levels to maintain discipline.
Of all the means of influencing subordinates in order to strengthen discipline, Fayol considered the personal example of the boss to be one of the most effective. In his opinion, if the boss sets an example of accuracy, no one dares to show up late. If he is active, courageous, devoted, they imitate him, and if he knows how to run a business, he will be able to make his employees love their work.
But a bad example is also contagious and, coming from the top, it sometimes gives the most disastrous consequences for everyone.
4. Unity of command. Unity of command, according to Fayol, has the advantage over collegiality that it ensures unity of point of view, unity of action and unity of management. Therefore it tends to predominate.
5. Unity of leadership. Activities pursuing the same goal should have the same leader and be guided by a single plan. Dual leadership can arise, according to Fayol, only as a result of unjustified confusion of functions and imperfect delimitation between departments, which is not only unnecessary, but also extremely harmful. In none of the cases, in his opinion, is there an adaptation of the social organism to the dualism of management;
6. Subordination of private interests to general ones. The interests of an employee or group of employees should not be placed above the interests of the enterprise; the interests of the state must be higher than the interests of a citizen or a group of citizens... It would seem that such a rule does not need reminders. But ignorance, ambition, selfishness, laziness and all sorts of human weaknesses and passions push people to neglect common interests in favor of
private
7. Reward. Work incentive methods must be fair and provide the greatest possible satisfaction to employees and employers.
8. Centralization. Without resorting to the term “centralization of power,” Fayol talks about the degree of concentration or dispersion of power. Specific circumstances will determine which option "will produce the best overall result."
9. A scalar chain, i.e., according to Fayol’s definition, a “chain of superiors” from the highest to the lowest rank, which should not be abandoned, but which should be shortened!, if following it too carefully can cause harm.
10. Order, i.e. “Everything (everyone) has its place, and the weight (everyone) is in its (his or her) place.”
11. Justice. Loyalty and dedication of staff must be ensured by respectful and fair treatment of subordinates by the administration.
12. Stability of the workplace for staff. Fayol believed that excessive staff turnover was both a cause and a consequence of poor management, and pointed out the dangers and costs associated with it.
13. Initiative, i.e., according to Fayol’s definition, thinking and executing a plan. Because this “gives great satisfaction to every thinking person,” Fayol encourages administrators to “sacrifice personal vanity” so that subordinates are given the opportunity to exercise personal initiative.
14. Corporate spirit, i.e. the principle “in unity there is strength.”" Giving a list of these principles, Fayol indicated that he did not strive to give an exhaustive presentation of them, but tried to describe only those of them that he had to apply most often, since even a slight codification of the principles is necessary in any matter ..)
Considering the principles he proposed to be universal, Fayol nevertheless pointed out that their application should be flexible and take into account the situation in which management is carried out. Ohm noted that a system of principles can never be completed; on the contrary, it always remains open to additions, changes, transformations based on new experience, its analysis, comprehension, and generalization. Therefore, the number of management principles is unlimited.
Note that some of the above principles address the human factor. Fayol showed that management, intended mainly to intensify production processes, is based on knowledge of psychology and that taking into account the human factor in management is extremely important.
Many management principles still have practical value. For example, a Japanese company. Mitsushitaelectric is guided by the following seven management principles:
objectivity, justice, cohesion, improvement, modesty, harmony, evaluation - which echo the principles developed by Fayol.
Subsequently, many researchers were engaged in a studied and theoretical description of the principles of management activity, but all of them were only followers of Fayol, developing, supplementing and concretizing his teaching.
Business activity groups.
Fayol believes that: "Any activity that leads industrial entrepreneurs to success can be divided into the following groups:
- Technical activities (production, processing, application).
- Commercial activities (purchase, sale, exchange).
- Financial activities (search and optimal use of capital).
- Ensuring security (protection of property and people).
- Reporting activities (inventory, balance sheet, expenses, statistics).
- Management activities (planning, organizing, directing,
coordination, control).
In business, whether simple or complex, large or small, these six groups of activities or their essential functions are always present." These six groups of activities will be present in all areas of business, but to varying degrees. At the same time, management will occupy a significant place in the activities of the highest management personnel and significantly less (or even absent) in the activities of personnel directly involved in production or junior management personnel. It is specially emphasized that management activities are universal for any organization.
What is management?
However, a trivial question is posed: what is management (governance)? Is management something that could be separated out and exist
on its own, or is it just a word, a label that has no substance? Fayol's answer was unique for the time. The core of his contribution to management theory was his definition of management, which includes five elements:
- Foresight and planning: “studying the future and sketching a plan of action.”
- Organization: “building the structure of entrepreneurship, both material and people.”
- Direction: “maintaining activity among staff.”
- Coordination: "work together, closely related, joining forces and
acting harmoniously."
- Control: "seeing that everything happens in accordance with
rules established and orders made."
According to Fayol, management means looking ahead, which makes the process of foresight and planning central to business activity. A manager must “assess the future and anticipate it.” To function effectively, an organization needs a plan that has the characteristics of “unity, continuity, flexibility and precision.”
To organize means “to build the structure of entrepreneurship, both material and in terms of people.” The task of management is to create a structure that will enable the organization to carry out its activities as efficiently as possible. The structure must ensure timely development and implementation of plans, unity of orders and instructions, clear definition of responsibilities, accurate decisions, supported by an effective system for selecting and training managers.
The third element of Fayol's system logically follows the first two. An organization must begin with a plan, defining its goals. An organizational structure appropriate to achieving these goals must then be built. Through regulations that keep staff active, the organization must be involved in the movement. By being able to give orders, a manager gets the best possible performance from his subordinates. Directives refer to the relationship between a manager and subordinates in the performance of an immediate task. However, organizations have a diverse range of tasks to perform, so coordination of efforts becomes necessary. It is very important here that the efforts of one unit are interconnected with the efforts of other units, and the tendency to further advance towards the implementation of the organization's goals is maintained. This can only be achieved through constant circulation of information. And finally, control is the logical final element, which checks how well the other four elements are being carried out: “to see that everything happens in accordance with established rules and given orders.” A system of adequate actions should also be provided in case of deviation of activities from the required standards. The best way to ensure such control is to separate all inspection functions from those of production and other departments whose work needs to be inspected.
Empirical school of management.
In the process of further development of management thought, there was a turn to management practice. A new direction of management has emerged - the empirical school, which was a reflection of the struggle of previous trends. According to adherents of this school, the main task of management theorists is to obtain, process and analyze practical data and issue recommendations to managers on this basis. This approach has found many adherents among prominent managers, company owners, scientists and people directly involved in management practice.Two main directions of the empirical school can be distinguished: research
etc.............
Counts Frederick Taylor. Initially, Taylor himself called his system “management by tasks.” The concept of “scientific management” was first used in 1910 by Louis Brandweiss.
Frederick Taylor believed that management as a special function consists of a number of principles that can be applied to all types of social activities.
Frederick Taylor's Basic Principles.
- Scientific study of each individual type of work activity.
- Selection, training and education of workers and managers based on scientific criteria.
- Cooperation between management and workers.
- Equal and fair distribution of responsibilities.
Taylor claims that in management responsibilities involves selecting people who can meet job requirements and then preparing and training these people for a particular job. Preparation is key to improving your work efficiency.
Taylor believes that job specialization is equally important at both the managerial and executive levels. He believes that planning should be carried out in the planning department by officials who are comprehensively trained and can perform all planning functions.
Frederick Taylor created differential payment system, according to which workers received wages in accordance with their output, i.e., he attached primary importance to the system of piecework wage rates. This means that workers who produce more than the daily standard should receive a higher piece rate than those who do not produce the standard. The main motivating factor for working people is the opportunity to earn money by increasing labor productivity.
The role of differential payment.
- The system of differentiated piece rates should stimulate greater productivity of workers, since this increases the piece rate of wages.
- The use of Taylor's ideas provides a significant increase in labor productivity.
Taylor and his followers analyzed the relationship between the physical essence of work and the psychological essence of workers to establish work definitions. And, therefore, it could not solve the problem of dividing the organization into departments, spans of control and assignments of authority.
Taylor's main idea was that management should become a system based on certain scientific principles; must be carried out using specially developed methods and measures. It is necessary to normalize and standardize not only production techniques, but also labor, its organization and management. In his concept, Taylor pays significant attention to the “human factor”.
Scientific management, according to Taylor, focused on the work performed at the lowest level of the organization.
Taylorism interprets man as a factor of production and represents the worker as a mechanical executor of “scientifically based instructions” prescribed to him to achieve the goals of the organization.
Coursework
subject: Control Theory
on the topic: F. Taylor Scientific School of Management
Management as a historical process developed from the moment when the need arose to regulate the joint activities of groups of people. History knows many examples of rational management not only of individual groups, but also of entire states and empires. At the same time, the level of management and its quality were the determining beginning in the successful development of entire nations, but we have not received any reliable data on the development of management theory, and the boom of theoretical thought began in the beginning. XX century. It is connected with the fact that in 1911 the engineer Taylor published his research in the book “Principles of Scientific Management”. This year is traditionally considered the beginning of the recognition of science management and an independent field of study. There are basically 5 directions: a school of scientific management, a school of administrative management, a school from the perspective of human relations and human psychology, a school from the perspective of human behavior in production, and a quantitative approach. True, in some sources of literature the relationship between schools is very smooth, the classical school is called administrative, and the administrative school is called scientific.
The purpose of this work is to consider the scientific school of management of F. Taylor, as the founder of the scientific management system. I think for this it is necessary to disclose the biography of the scientist. 20.3.1856, Germantown, Pennsylvania - 21.3.1915, Philadelphia - American engineer, inventor, founder of the scientific organization of labor. Born into a lawyer's family with deep cultural traditions; traveling around Europe, he was educated in France and Germany, then at the F. Exter Academy, New Hampshire, in 1874 he graduated from Harvard Law College, but due to deteriorating eyesight he was unable to continue his education and got a job as a press worker in industrial workshops hydraulic plant in Philadelphia, in 1878, thanks to his perseverance (at that time there was the peak of the economic depression), he received a job as a laborer at the Midval steel mill, and was a patternmaker and mechanic. And from 1882 to 1883 - head of mechanical workshops. At the same time, studying in the evenings, he received a technical education (degree of mechanical engineer, Stevens Institute of Technology, 1883). In 1884 Taylor became chief engineer, in which year he pioneered the use of differential pay for productivity. He filed patents for about 100 of his inventions and innovations. From 1890 to 1893, Taylor, general manager of the Manufacturing Investment Company, Philadelphia, owner of paper presses in Maine and Wisconsin, organized his own management consulting business, the first in management history. From 1898 to 1901 he was a consultant to the Bethlehem Steel Company, pc. Pennsylvania. In 1906, Taylor became president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and in 1911 he founded the Society for the Advancement of Scientific Management (later called the Taylor Society).
Research. Since 1895, Taylor began his world-famous research on labor organization. His first experiments, carried out on the famous worker Schmidt, were aimed at solving the question of how much iron ore or coal a person could lift with shovels of various sizes, so as not to lose working capacity for a long time (as a result of scrupulous measurements, the optimal weight was determined = 21 pounds), at the same time he came to a very important conclusion that it is necessary to establish not only the time for performing work, but also the time for rest. His system of scientific organization of labor included a number of basic provisions: scientific foundations of production, scientific selection of personnel, education and training, organization of interaction between managers and workers. He introduced specific requirements for the scientific study of the elements of the production process: dividing the entire process into minimal parts, observing and recording all these elements and the conditions under which they occur, accurately measuring these elements in time and in terms of effort. For this purpose, he was one of the first to use timing of executive work actions. His idea of dividing work into the simplest operations led to the creation of the assembly line, which played such a significant role in the growth of US economic power in the first half of the twentieth century.
1.1 Prerequisites for the emergence of scientific management
Management, managerial work, its transformation into a special type of activity, different from direct production, is associated with the cooperation of labor. Labor cooperation in a primitive form already existed in the primitive communal system: as a simple combination of the efforts of numerous workers. But researchers of the history of management emphasize that certain signs of management appear already in the most ancient societies - Sumer, Egypt, Akkad - the transformation of the highest caste of priests into religious functionaries, and essentially speaking, managers, takes place. This was facilitated by a change in religious principles - instead of human sacrifices, symbolic sacrifices began to be presented in the form of donations of money, livestock, oil, and handicrafts. As a result, a new type of business people appeared among the priests, who, in addition to observing ritual honors, were in charge of collecting taxes, managed the state treasury, and were in charge of property affairs. They kept business documentation, accounting calculations, carried out supply, control, planning and other functions that today determine the content of the management process. By-products of such management activities were the emergence of writing, since it was impossible to remember the entire volume of business information, and the need for calculations. Thus, at the very beginning, management was formed as an instrument of commercial and religious activity, turning over time into a social institution and professional occupation.
The next leap in the development of management is associated with the name of the Babylonian ruler Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). To effectively manage his vast possessions, he was the first to develop the so-called code of Hammurabi, which contained 285 laws of government, regulated the diversity of social relations and served as a guide for administrators throughout the empire. Another innovation was that Hammurabi developed an original leadership style, constantly maintaining the image of himself as a guardian and protector of people. So, for the first time during the reign of Hammurabi, a purely secular style of management appeared, a formal system of organizing and regulating people’s relations emerged, and, finally, the first sprouts of a leadership style emerged.
Much later, King Nebuchadnezzar 11 (605-562 BC), the author of the projects of the Tower of Babel and the Hanging Gardens, introduced a system of production control in textile factories and granaries, using, in particular, colored labels to determine the timing of receipt and storage of yarn.
A significant number of management innovations took place in Ancient Rome. The most famous among them are the system of territorial government of Diocletian (243-316 BC) and the administrative organization of the Roman Catholic Church, which has remained unchanged to this day.
The Great Industrial Revolution of the 17th century had a much more significant impact on the theory and practice of management than all previous revolutions. As industry outgrew the boundaries of manufacture and the modern system of joint stock capital matured, the owners of capital increasingly removed themselves from the pursuit of business. The owner-manager was replaced by hundreds and thousands of shareholders. A new, diversified (dispersed) form of ownership has emerged. Instead of a single owner, there were many shareholders, i.e. joint (and equity) owners of one capital. Instead of a single owner-manager, several hired managers appeared, recruited from all, not just privileged classes. At the same time, administration was understood as the formulation of the general goals and policies of the company, and management in the original and narrow technical sense was understood as control over their implementation.
The growth of production volume, acceleration of capital turnover, expansion of banking operations, and the influence of modern scientific and technological revolution make management extremely difficult. It could no longer be the sphere of application of common sense alone, but required special knowledge, skills and abilities of experts. The language of guesswork and intuition acquires a clear calculation basis - everything is translated into formulas and money.
Each production process is separated into an independent function and sphere of management activity. The number of functions is increasing, and the problem of their coordination and connection on a new basis is becoming more acute. To unite them, a staff of specialists (department, division) is assigned to each function, and general coordination functions are assigned to management.
It is important to note the following pattern here. Initially, the owner and manager are represented by one person. Management is then separated from capital and production. Instead of one capitalist manager, two communities arise: shareholders and hired managers. The next stage of development: there are many managers and each one monitors a specific function. After this, the single specialist manager is fragmented again, and a community of specialists appears in his place. Now the manager coordinates the work of specialists, using special coordination tools for this, in particular, the decision-making system, company policy goals, etc.
Management originated in the private sector as business management, but rose to its feet as a scientific and social force not in medium and small firms, although free enterprise is very developed there, but in large corporations. The annual revenues of some corporations often exceed the budgets of many states. The well-being of both the state and the private sector increasingly depended on the quality of management. Management attracts the best forces of the nation. Even people of average ability, having gone through the difficult path of management, become outstanding individuals. If in the middle of the 19th century the main battles were between labor and capital, then in the 20th century the confrontation became managerial. It is not the capitalist who now confronts the worker, but the leader who opposes the subordinate. If in the pre-capitalist period of development of society the management function was not yet isolated from direct productive activity and was reduced mainly to the function of supervision and coercion of labor, now the development of capitalism leads to an increase in the role of production management functions, which is becoming more and more complex, differentiated, becoming independent, specific area of activity. A large staff of specialists is emerging who have undergone special training in business schools and vocational training systems. An institute of professional managers appears, who become the main figure in private and public enterprises.
