In 1955-1956, agreements were concluded with the British "Iraq Petroleum Company" and the American "Transara-Bien Pipeline Company" on the transfer to Syria of 50% of the profits received by the companies for transporting oil through oil pipelines passing through the territory of Syria
http://bse.sci-lib.com/article102589.html

Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulfur oil was discovered near Dayr az Zawr in eastern Syria. This discovery relieved Syria of the need to import light oil to mix with domestic heavy crude in refineries.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Syria

http://www.atenergy.com/me/SyriaAP.htm

At the end of 1964, the Syrian government issued a decree according to which all the country's oil and mineral resources were declared the property of the state. The transfer of concessions for their development to foreign companies was prohibited.
Since 1974, Syria has attracted foreign companies to participate in oil production. To this end, a number of areas of the country were declared open for exploration, drilling and oil production.
By the end of the 80s, over 50 oil fields were discovered in Syria.
By the mid-80s, the bulk of the promising oil-bearing areas of Syria were at the disposal of the American companies Pekten and Marathon.
http://www.bestreferat.ru/referat-10876.html

Syrian Petroleum Company
In the period of 1923 – 1950: Iraq petroleum company and then Syria oil company have been acquired a Concession for oil exploration, where /11/ wells were drilled with out petroleum discoveries.

In the period of 1951 – 1956: /6/ wells were drilled and petroleum was discovered in Karachouk field for the first time.
In 1956 Concordia Company had signed an exploration contract and drilled /12/ wells where oil accumulations were discovered in Souedieh field.

In 1957 the Syrian Government had concluded a technical and economic cooperation contract with the soviet union
In 1958 General Corporate For Oil Affairs was established and entrusted to supervise the oil industry in Cooperation with the Soviet side, where during this period a geological map for Syria was made.
The SPC was established in 1974 and was entrusted to execute oil and gas exploration and production operations in all parts of Syria.

In the period of 1961 – 1975: the SPC had executed drilling of / 485 / wild cat and exploratory wells and put a number of structures into Production.
A contract had signed with Rom petroleum company to explore oil. This company had withdrawn after drilling 7 wells.

In the period of 1975 – 1985: a group of Contracting companies for oil exploration were entered and executed geological and geophysical works over almost the whole acreage of Syria. During this period 270 exploration wells were drilled.
The SPC had recorded several discoveries, while the contracting companies didn’t achieve any discoveries.

In the period of 1986 – 1995: this period had been characterized by increasing the exploratory activity whether by the SPC or by the contracting companies where exploration contracts had signed with /12/ foreign companies (shell, Elf – Total, Marathon and Tulo Companies) were achieved significant discoveries of oil and gas in different parts of Syria. The SPChad discovered /15/ oil and gas fields

In the period of 1995 – 2006: A new group of Contracting companies for oil exploration had entered and signed 13 contracts with the Syrian Petroleum Company which they are 11 companies.
http://www.spc-sy.com/en/main/index.php

Syria (1980-2009)
(peak production year 1996)

http://www.crudeoilpeak.com/?page_id=1571

The main minerals are oil, produced mainly in Kara Shuk (Karashuk) in the far northeast of the country; natural gas mainly from the Al Jazeera area; phosphates, limestone and salt. Oil pipelines from Iraq and Jordan pass through Syria; there is a pipeline stretching from Kara Shuk to the Mediterranean coast.

Since 1974, oil has remained Syria's dominant source of income, accounting for approximately 65% ​​of its total exports at the end of the 20th century. Oil production in 2001 was 522,700 barrels per day, with proven oil reserves of 2.4 billion barrels as of January 2002 and proven natural gas reserves of 240.7 billion cubic meters.
http://www.rusarabbc.org/rusarab/detail.php?ID=1350

In the mid-1990s, the country produced approx. 66.5–80 thousand tons of liquid fuel. In 1997, oil production amounted to 30 million tons. The largest fields are located in the extreme northeast (in Karachuk, Suwaidiya, Rumailan and the vicinity of Deir ez-Zor). In the northeast and east in the Euphrates Valley, the exploitation of deposits began in the late 1960s, and in the Deir ez-Zor region, where particularly high-quality light oil is produced, in the 1980s–1990s. Natural gas is also being extracted, including that associated with oil fields (5 billion cubic meters were produced in 1997). The largest oil refining complexes were built in Baniyas and Homs.
http://www.easttime.ru/countries/topics/2/7/49.html

4/5/2010
Syria's Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources today invited international oil companies to bid for exploration and production rights to eight blocks.
The Ministry said that it is offering production sharing contracts for Blocks III, IV, V, VII, XII, XIV, XVI, and XVIII, in the eastern and northern parts of the country. It said that qualifying documents should be submitted by 1 June and bids no later than 15 September.

In addition to the eight blocks on offer, the Ministry has extended its earlier deadline for bids to develop seven separate oil areas believed to be heavy oil fields to June 20. These are also to be under production sharing agreements and are divided into two groups, both in Raqqa Province: Group 1 includes West Tureb, Halima, and Dohal, while Group 2 consists of Jaadeen, Tal Asfar, Zenati, and al-Haloul.
Syria is in an all-out effort to drive up its oil production, which has decreased from 590,000 b/d four years ago to about 380,000 b/d today. Its natural gas production is approximately 882.9 million cf/d.
http://www.oilandgasinternational.com/departments/licensing_concessions/apr10_syria.aspx

Oil and capital, 2007, No. 4
Syria's oil reserves, according to various estimates, range from 315 million to 342 million tons. At the same time, according to experts, major discoveries have already been made in the country. In the east and northeast there are heavy (24°API) oil fields explored in the 60-70s of the 20th century (the largest of them are Karachuk and Suwaydiyah), on which the state-owned Syrian Petroleum Company (SPC) operates after nationalization in 1968. In addition, SPC is developing a number of fields it has already discovered here. Raw materials from the northeast are supplied via an oil pipeline with a capacity of about 15 million tvg to the refinery in the city of Homs and the Tartus export terminal.

The second center of Syrian oil production is located in the province of Deir ez-Zour (central and southeastern part of the country). Here, in the 80s of the last century, a consortium of foreign companies, led by Shell’s subsidiary Pecten, discovered the al-Thayyem field containing light (36°API) oil. To jointly manage the al-Thayyem concession, SPC and consortium members created the al-Furat Petroleum Company (AFPC) JV in 1985. Today, after repeated changes in the composition of shareholders, AFPC participants are SPC (50%), Shell (31.25%) and a consortium of Chinese CNPC and Indian ONGC (18.75%). In addition to al-Thayyem, AFPC is developing 36 more fields in this province. All AFPC fields are combined into three projects - Appendix IV, Al Sham, Deir ez-Zour: for each, SPC signed a production sharing contract with foreign partners. Shell is the leader in each project, with a share of more than 60%.

AFPC's fields are connected to the Kirkuk-Baniyas transit oil pipeline from Iraq, through which oil is supplied to the ports of Tartus and Latakia and to the Baniyas refinery.

According to Syrian Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Sufian Allaw, the country produced about 20 million tons of oil in 2006: 3 million tons less than a year earlier (see chart). Moreover, according to various (often conflicting) sources, AFPC accounts for from 1/2 to 2/3 of total production. Over the past 10 years, the level of oil production in Syria has decreased by a third from its peak of 30 million tge in 1996. The reason for this was the depletion of the vast majority of fields, the reduction in production at which began back in the 90s.

At this stage, Syria is a net exporter of oil, but at the same time the country imports oil. Mostly light oil is imported into Syria; it is mixed with local heavy grades, and only this mixture is processed at refineries that were initially focused on Iraqi raw materials. Currently, the Kirkuk-Baniyas oil pipeline does not operate as a transit pipeline: the Americans blocked it in 2003.

According to IMF forecasts, if the decline in oil production in Syria is not stopped, and the volume of consumption of petroleum products continues to grow, then by 2010 the country will become a net importer of “black gold” from a net exporter. In order to avoid this, the country's leadership, on the one hand, is intensifying efforts to attract investors to explore new reserves, and on the other hand, it has begun to pay more attention to intensifying production and expanding the use of natural gas. Let us note that the influx of investment into the country is limited by US sanctions, which believe that Syria supports international terrorism. This, in particular, explains the absence of major American companies in the country, which at the dawn of the development of Syrian oil production showed significant interest in it.

In 2001, a series of rounds of international tender for the right to carry out exploration work for oil and gas under the terms of a PSA opened in Syria. Over the past time, at least 5 (according to other sources - 6) rounds have taken place in the country, during which more than 20 licensed areas have found owners.

In mid-March, Syria put up new areas for the next round, which, if all of them are distributed, will most likely be the last of the “land” ones. Damascus offers 7 lots, and all of them are located in border areas: 3 with Jordan, 2 with Iraq, and 2 with Turkey. Also this year it is planned to offer investors offshore blocks of the Syrian shelf of the Mediterranean Sea.

During previous rounds, companies from all over the world received licenses in Syria: currently, according to Sufian Allawa, 13 foreign entities are conducting oil exploration and production here. Two Russian companies - Tatneft and SoyuzNefteGaz - also received the opportunity to develop production projects in Syria: each of them won one license.
Russian companies signed a PSA for the licenses they won in 2005, just after Syrian President Bashar al-Assad visited Moscow and Russia agreed to write off a significant part of the Syrian debt.

Tatneft “took” its block (No. 27) in the 2003 round. Its area is 1900 km2, it is divided into two sections, which are directly adjacent to the border with Iraq. The Kirkuk-Baniyas oil pipeline runs along the edge of the southern section of the block. According to the terms of the contract, Tatneft will allocate more than $26 million for geological exploration over 7 years. The main exploration period for the block is 3 years; at Tatneft’s request, it can be extended twice by two years. The minimum exploration program involves conducting 2D and 3D seismic surveys and drilling three exploration wells, and in case of contract extension, three more. The period of field development and oil production under the contract is 25 years. During this period, Tatneft will also spend $1 million to finance social and educational programs.

At the moment, there is no data on possible reserves of the block. According to experts, despite the complex geological structure, the block is promising, given that oil production is actively underway in neighboring areas. According to information from Tatneft, by the end of 2006 the company had completed work on interpreting seismic data from previous years, and in early March it began seismic exploration work, including 3D, over an area of ​​130 km2 and geochemical surveying over an area of ​​170 km2.

SoyuzNefteGaz won in 2004: the company won licenses for two blocks - No. 12 and No. 14, but subsequently abandoned the second. SoyuzNefteGaz will operate in the block bordering Iraq, which is adjacent to the holdings of Tatneft. According to the company, the block most likely contains gas resources rather than oil, which at this stage are estimated at 70-80 billion m3. As reported to NIK, over 8 years, according to the terms of the contract, SoyuzNefteGaz must invest at least $50 million in geological exploration. It will have to conduct 2D seismic over an area of ​​1000 linear meters. km and 3D - for 500 km2, and also to drill 10 exploration wells.

Let us note that both Tatneft and SoyuzNefteGaz have interests in Iraq. In particular, the largest project of SoyuzNefteGaz is the development of the Al-Rafidayan field, located in the south of the country. According to information from both companies, they consider Syrian assets as a springboard for strengthening their positions in Iraq. But if Tatneft does not intend to expand the geography of its activities in Syria, then SoyuzNefteGaz is considering the possibility of participating in the upcoming “land” round, which will include areas on the border with Iraq. By the way, Yuri Shafranik’s company has previously made attempts to enter into existing projects for the development of border blocks (see “Block No. 26”).

In 2005, the Russian Stroytransgaz began implementing two large-scale projects in Syria. Firstly, the company, having won the tender and signed a contract for $210 million with the Syrian Gas Company (SGC), began developing three fields in the new Palmyra gas production area. As part of it, Stroytransgaz is building a gas processing plant with a capacity of 2.2 billion m3/year of purified gas, 23 thousand tg of propane-butane and 180 thousand tg of condensate, as well as gas pipelines and related infrastructure. Construction is scheduled to be completed in February 2008. At the same time, the company is negotiating the construction of a second gas processing plant in Palmyra with a capacity of 1.1 billion m3.

Secondly, Stroytransgaz began construction of a section of the Arab gas pipeline, through which Egyptian gas should be supplied to Turkey, and then, after joining the Nabucco project, to Europe. The implementation of the project is divided into two stages: the first involves the construction of a 96 km section from the border with Jordan to the Deir Ali thermal power plant and a branch (5 km) to the Tishrin thermal power plant, the second involves the construction of the Deir Ali - Homs section and a gas collection point in Homs, as well as a connection GPP in Palmyra with Homs. The construction of a branch to the Tishrine thermal power plant is the result of an expansion of the contract in 2005, the cost of which, according to the company, increased to $160 million. At this stage, more than 150 km of gas pipeline have already been laid in the ground; Construction is scheduled to be completed in December of this year.

In addition to the ongoing construction projects, Stroytransgaz’s “waiting list” includes projects whose implementation is related to Iraq, and which have been postponed until the situation in this country stabilizes. Thus, in 2001, Stroytransgaz reached agreements with the Syrian government on the construction, together with the French Total, of a new transit branch of the Kirkuk-Homs-Baniyas-Beirut oil pipeline with a throughput capacity of 70 million tvg. In 2002, the company handed over a feasibility study for the oil pipeline to the Syrian side. As Stroytransgaz told NIK, Syria has not yet made a decision to revive the oil pipeline, but the company believes that this is only a matter of time. Once this pipe is in demand again, Stroytransgaz will become the number one contender for its construction.

In addition, the Western Gas project, within the framework of which a gas pipeline with a length of 300 km and a cost of €180 million was to be built to Syria from Iraq, was frozen. At the initiative of the Iraqi side, Stroytransgaz prepared a corresponding proposal in 2002; Before the outbreak of hostilities, the parties managed to agree on the technical and commercial aspects of the project, but negotiations were suspended at this point. At the end of 2005, Iraq and Syria signed an agreement to revive the project.

Today, there are two fuel oil refineries operating in Syria - in Homs and Baniyas, built in 1959 and 1979, respectively. The total capacity of the plants is about 11.5 million tvg. They do not have catalytic cracking units, and the reforming unit at the Baniyas refinery has a capacity (about 1.5 million tow) that is insufficient to meet the country’s needs for motor fuel. Syria annually exports straight-run gasoline and is forced to import kerosene and diesel fuel.

At the same time, domestic consumption of petroleum products in the country is growing steadily and currently amounts to about 13 million tge. According to Syrian experts, this trend will continue, so the local downstream needs to be expanded and modernized. At this stage, the country’s oil refining capacity is planned to be increased to 25 million tg through the construction of two new refineries. In the future, Syria intends to completely abandon the export of crude oil and maintain only the export of petroleum products.

Today, it can be stated that most major projects in the field of infrastructure development of the Syrian oil industry are either already being implemented or promised to Russian companies. Given that two years ago they only had plans in Syria, this result can be called a breakthrough.

It is clear, of course, that this breakthrough was a consequence of the political support provided to the Syrian leader in Russia, as well as debt write-off.

Now Russian companies are striving to conclude agreements with the Syrian side on a non-competitive basis, which, according to representatives of the Russian-Syrian Business Council, is the shortest way to start implementing specific projects. According to the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade, the Syrian leadership is meeting Russia halfway on this issue.

Syria in maps October 2nd, 2015

A small guide to the physical, economic, social geography of the Syrian Arab Republic. Especially for armchair analysts.

Territory: 185.18 thousand sq. km. Most of the country lies on an arid plateau dotted with mountain ranges. The average height of the plateau above sea level ranges from 200 to 700 meters. To the north of the mountains is the Hamad Desert, to the south is Homs.

Coastline length: about 175 km.

Subtropical Mediterranean climate on the coast and dry continental in the interior.

The average January temperature ranges from +4 °C in the eastern regions to +12 °C on the coast. The average temperature in July ranges from +33 °C to +26 °C, respectively.

Population: 22 million (2011 estimate). To date, between 3 and 4 million people have fled the country.

GDP: 107.4 billion dollars (as of 2011).

Physical card.

Another physical map.

Population density.

Transport infrastructure. Link .

Oil and gas. Deposits, infrastructure, pipelines.

The largest deposits are located in the extreme northeast of the country. The largest oil refining complexes were built in Baniyas and Homs.

In addition to oil, the country has large reserves of phosphorites. Their deposit is being developed in the Khneifis area.

Other mineral resources include deposits of chromium, uranium, iron ore, manganese, lead, sulfur, asbestos, copper, and dolomite. But they are relatively small.

Oil production and consumption in dynamics.

Economic zones of the Eastern Mediterranean countries.

Only a third of the country's territory is suitable for agriculture. Most of the fertile land is located in the coastal strip, another part stretches in a strip from the Golan Heights and Damascus to the border with Turkey. The third fertile zone is the Euphrates River valley.

Dynamics of public debt since 2010.

The Mediterranean coast is the most populated and developed part of the country, with a large area of ​​arable land occupied by plantations of various agricultural crops. The climate on the coast is subtropical Mediterranean, with mild, humid winters and dry, moderately hot summers. Evergreen subtropical tree and shrub vegetation dominates here. Luxurious pebble and sandy beaches stretch along the entire coast.

The historical, cultural, and economic center of the country is the capital of the country, Damascus (1.7 million people) - one of the oldest cities in the world. In the old part of the city, surrounded by an ancient fortress wall, there are many beautiful ancient buildings and historical monuments: the famous Umayyad Mosque, Al-Azema Palace, etc. Massive old buildings with large portals coexist with buildings from the times of French classicism and modern architecture.

Nature

On the territory of Syria, which extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the east through the northern part of the Syrian Desert, five natural regions are distinguished: the Maritime Lowland, the Western Mountain Range, the Rift Zone, the Eastern Mountain Range, and the Eastern Syrian Plateau. The country is crossed by two large rivers - El Asi (Orontes) and Euphrates. Cultivated lands are confined mainly to the western regions - the coastal lowland, the Ansaria Mountains and the valley of the El-Asi River, as well as to the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributaries.

The coastal lowland stretches in a narrow strip along the coast. In places it is interrupted by rocky capes approaching the seashore, which are spurs of the Ansaria Mountains. At its widest point, in the vicinity of Latakia, its length from east to west is 15–30 km.

Between the coastal lowland and the valley of the El-Asi River, confined to the rift zone, is the Ansaria (En-Nusairiya) mountain range composed of limestones, running parallel to the sea coast from the border with Turkey in the north and almost to the border with Lebanon in the south. This ridge is approx. wide. 65 km has an average altitude of 1200 m. Its highest point is Mount Nebi Younes (1561 m). On the western, highly dissected slopes of the mountains, exposed to moist air currents from the Mediterranean Sea, a lot of precipitation falls. Small rivers that flow into the Mediterranean Sea originate in these mountains. The rivers have carved out deep valleys with steep sides. Many rivers dry up in summer. In the east, the Ansaria Mountains drop off abruptly, forming a ledge approx. 900 m. The eastern slope faces hot, dry air masses and receives significantly less precipitation.

At the southern end of the Ansaria ridge there is the Tripoli-Khom intermountain passage. A road runs along it connecting the Lebanese port of Tripoli with the city of Homs; the El-Kebir river flows in a western direction, which over many years has deposited a fertile layer of alluvium on the bottom of its valley.

To the east of the Ansaria Ridge and north of the Tripoli-Khomsky Passage stretches the Rift Zone, 64 km long and 14.5 km wide, which is a continuation of the East African Rift System. The valley of the middle reaches of the El-Asi River is confined to this zone. The flat bottom of this graben, called El Ghab, used to be swampy in places, but has now been drained. Due to the high soil fertility, irrigated agriculture is developed here.

Directly adjacent to Al-Gab from the east are the Ez-Zawiya mountains, which are a hilly surface with average heights of 460–600 m, maximum elevations reaching 900 m.

To the south of the Ansaria ridge extend the Anti-Lebanon and El-Sheikh (Hermon) ridges, along which the border between Syria and Lebanon runs. These mountains are composed of porous limestones, which absorb the small amount of atmospheric moisture that the area receives. However, at the foot of the mountain there are many springs that are used to irrigate the lands in the vicinity of the capital. Within the El-Sheikh ridge, on the border with Lebanon, there is the highest mountain of the same name in Syria (2814 m). The Anti-Lebanon and Al-Sheikh mountains are separated by the Barada River, which is used to supply water to the Damascus oasis.

The large eastern part of the country is occupied by the vast Eastern Plateau. Its southern part is raised 300 m higher than the northern one. The surface of the plateau gradually decreases to the east from about 750 m east of the Anti-Lebanon ridge to less than 300 m in the Euphrates floodplain. The southern part of the plateau is composed of ancient lava fields. The most impressive landforms are the dome-shaped Ed-Druz mountains, rising to 1800 m. Most of the surrounding plateau is covered with lava coarse material formed from erupted rocks, which complicates the economic use of this territory. Only in the Hauran region (southwest of Damascus), where the lava deposits are heavily weathered, did thick, fertile soils form. To the east of the Zawiya Mountains, the terrain becomes undulating. Its surface gradually decreases from approximately 460 m in the west to 300 m near the border with Iraq. In the northeast of the country, there are medium-high (more than 500 m above sea level) Abd el-Azis mountains (maximum height 920 m), which have a latitudinal strike. The entire territory of the plateau from northwest to northeast is crossed by the Euphrates River, cutting to a depth of 30–60 m. To the northeast of the Syrian capital, a chain of rather low ridges stretches across the entire area, almost reaching the Euphrates near the city of Deir-ez -Zor. Their height decreases eastward from 2000 m (Maaloula range north of Damascus) to 800 m (Bishri Mountains, northwest of Deir ez-Zor). All these mountains are characterized by a lack of precipitation and sparse vegetation, which allows them to be used only as winter pastures.

The eastern part of Syria in a south-eastern direction is crossed by the deep transit river Euphrates with large left tributaries Belikh and Khabur. All these rivers originate in the mountains of Turkey. The length of the middle reaches of the Euphrates in Syria is 675 km. Its flow is regulated by a dam. As a result of the construction of the dam, the large El Assad reservoir was formed with a volume of approx. 12 billion cubic meters m. The largest river in the west of the country is El Asi (Orontes), which originates in the mountains of Lebanon, flows through the depression of the Syrian graben and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Its length within Syria is 325 km. In addition, there are many small rivers of the Mediterranean basin, which are fullest during the winter rainy season and become shallow in the summer. In the extreme northeast along the border with Iraq for approx. The Tigris River flows 50 km. In addition, there are large lakes in the west of the country.

In areas with insufficient moisture, wells, springs, groundwater accumulations and rivers are used for irrigated agriculture, through which a significant share of the country's electricity is generated. Approximately 12% of cultivated land is irrigated, and approx. 20% of them are thanks to wells. On the remaining irrigated lands, irrigation depends on the water regime of the Euphrates and its tributaries – Belikh and Khabur. But the water resources of the Euphrates are also widely used in the energy and agriculture sectors of Turkey and Iraq, which lay claim to the waters of this river. This circumstance, along with the technical and financial problems of Syria itself and droughts, did not allow the area of ​​irrigated land and electricity production to be brought to the level envisaged by the construction of the Euphrates Dam, completed in 1978. Large irrigation systems are also located on the El Asi and Yarmouk rivers (the waters of the latter shared with Jordan).

The natural vegetation of Syria has undergone significant changes under strong anthropogenic influence. In the distant past, the Ansaria range in the west and the mountains in the north of the country were covered with forests. Later they were replaced by secondary forests of low-growing coniferous and deciduous species in better-watered, sparsely populated areas and Mediterranean-type shrubs in those coastal areas where agriculture was not developed. In Western Syria, the least disturbed habitats on mountain slopes are dominated by evergreen oaks, laurel, myrtle, oleander, magnolia, and ficus. There are groves of cypress, Aleppo pine, Lebanese cedar, and juniper.

Along the Mediterranean coast there are plantations of tobacco, cotton, and sugar cane. Figs, mulberries, and citrus fruits are grown in the river valleys, and olives and grapes are grown on the gentle slopes. Corn, barley, and wheat are sown in the fields. Potatoes and vegetables are also grown. In the north, and partly on the eastern slopes of the ridge. Ansaria and others, and in the lowlands of the interior parts of the country, typical legume-cereal steppes are common, which serve as a fodder base for grazing livestock (mainly sheep). Wheat and barley, cotton are grown in the fields, and rice is grown under artificial irrigation conditions.

In deserts, the landscape comes to life only after rain, when young shoots of grasses and low-growing shrubs and shrubs appear, which are represented mainly by saxaul, biyurgun, boyalych, and wormwood. Nevertheless, even such poor vegetation cover is enough to feed the camels that are bred by nomads.

The fauna of Syria is not very diverse. Among the predators one can sometimes find a wild cat, lynx, jackal, fox, striped hyena, caracal, in the steppes and semi-deserts there are many ferrets, and among the ungulates there are antelope, gazelle, and wild ass onager. Rodents such as jerboas are numerous. Sometimes there are porcupines, hedgehogs, squirrels, and hares are also found. Reptiles are typical: snakes, lizards, chameleons. The bird fauna is diverse, especially in the Euphrates Valley and near water bodies (flamingos, storks, gulls, herons, geese, pelicans). Throughout the country there are larks, hazel grouses, bustards, in cities and villages - sparrows and pigeons, in groves - cuckoos. Among the predators there are eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls.

Most of the country is occupied by gray soils; chestnut soils are common in the north and west; in the mountains in the west there are also areas of brown, the most fertile soils. They are confined to the coastal lowlands and the lower slopes of the Ansaria ridge. Many soils are saline and gypsum-ridden.

Climate

The climate of Syria is subtropical Mediterranean, in the interior regions it is continental and arid. There is little precipitation, and it occurs mainly in the winter season. Characterized by intense evaporation. High air humidity and significant amounts of precipitation are characteristic only of the coastal lowlands and the western slopes of the Ansaria ridge.

Western Syria. The climate of the coastal strip and the windward slopes of the Ansaria ridge is humid Mediterranean. The average annual precipitation is 750 mm, in the mountains it increases to 1000–1300 mm. The rainy season begins in October and continues until March - early April, with maximum intensity in January. From May to September there is almost no precipitation. At low altitudes during this season the weather is uncomfortable for humans: during the day the air warms up to 30–35° C with high humidity. Higher in the mountains in summer, daytime temperatures are approximately 5° C lower than on the coast, and at night - even 11° C lower.

Average winter temperatures are 13–15° C, falling below 0° C only at some distance from the coastal lowlands. Sometimes solid precipitation also falls, but snowfalls are common only in the upper mountain belt of the Ansaria Range, where snow cover can last for two to three months. Although winter is considered the rainy season, there are few rainy days, so even during this period the weather is clear, and the daytime temperature rises to 18–21 ° C.

Already on the eastern slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Al-Sheikh ranges, the average precipitation decreases to 500 mm. In such conditions, steppes and semi-deserts dominate. Almost all precipitation occurs in winter, so winter crops can be grown without irrigation. The Syrian Desert, which extends to the east and south of the steppe zone, receives less than 200 mm of precipitation per year.

The temperature range within the steppes and deserts is greater than on the Mediterranean coast. The average July temperature in Damascus, at the western end of the steppe zone, is 28°C, as is the case in Aleppo further east, while in Deir ez-Zor, located in the desert region, the average July temperature is 33°C. Daytime temperatures in July-August often exceed 38° C. After sunset, the temperature drops sharply and air humidity decreases. Thus, despite the heat of the day, thanks to the cool, dry nights in the interior of the country in the summer, the climate is more comfortable than on the coast. In winter, steppe and desert areas are approximately 5.5° C cooler than the coastal zone. Average winter temperatures in Damascus and Deir ez-Zor are 7° C, and Aleb - 6° C. In the north of the steppe zone there are often frosts and snowfall, but in its southern regions, as well as in deserts, these climatic phenomena are observed less frequently. Night temperatures in winter drop well below 0°C.

Attractions

Despite the fact that Syria is a relatively small country, its territory contains a great many unique monuments of different cultures and eras, allowing tourists to take a unique journey through time.

The capital of Syria, Damascus, is one of the most ancient cities in the world, and its historical part is a unique urban monument with many important cultural and historical sites. The main one is the Basilica of St. Zechariah, which houses the shrine of John the Baptist.

The ancient city of Bosra has preserved city streets and the largest theater in the Middle East. The city of Apamea boasts one of the longest main streets with a colonnade, and the city of Kanawat boasts the ruins of the Temple of Helios. In general, in Syria there is a huge number of monuments of ancient history and ancient times: the ruins of the Aramaic city of Ain Dara, the ruins of the Phoenician city of Amrit, the ruins of the ancient city of Dura Europos, the ruins of ancient Philipopolis, as well as the city of Mari (the capital of the ancient Mesopotamian state) and the city of Ebla ( capital of the contemporary state of Akkad and Sumer). In addition, many historical monuments have been preserved in the ancient cities of Halabiya, Hama, Aleppo, Ugarit and Harbak. And the city of Palmyra was at one time the main rival of Rome in the East. Now it is famous throughout the world for such buildings as the complex of the Temple of Bel, the Temple of Baalshamin, the Great Colonnade, the Valley of the Tombs, etc. The dead Byzantine cities that abound in Syria are of no less interest.

There are also a large number of monuments to the history of Christianity in the country. In Damascus, the main ones are Straight Street, Bab Kisan Tower, the underground church of St. Ananias and the Basilica of St. Zechariah. In addition, many of the first Christian monasteries are scattered throughout the country: St. Takla, St. Sergius, St. Simeon, etc. Among other Christian attractions, it is worth noting the Cathedral of St. Sergius, the Basilica of Kalb Loze, the Church of Kanisa Umm Zunnar and the “Cave of the First Blood” » Makam Arbain.

Well, among the monuments of the Islamic period, the most famous are the Umayyad Mosque and the Qasr al-Azem Palace in Damascus, the Aleppo citadel, the Tekkiya Sulaymaniyah dervish monastery complex, the Qasr al-Kheir al-Sharqi palace and the Salah ad-Din fortress.

Kitchen

The cuisine of Syria is based on Arab, Aramaic and Caucasian traditions and is replete with many original dishes that will please even the most discerning gourmets. A characteristic feature of the local cuisine is the widespread use of spices, olive oil, grains, dairy products and fresh vegetables. Traditional dishes that are found everywhere here include unleavened flatbreads “khobz”, stuffed eggplants “makdus”, boiled wheat porridge “burgul”, fermented milk products “lyabne”, all kinds of pureed snacks, green salad “tabbouleh” and others.

Meat treats are dominated by hearty dishes, for example, baked lamb with nuts and rice “mensaf” or pilaf with spices and raisins “kabsa”. No less interesting and nutritious are such dishes as chicken with nut-rice filling “jaj mahshi”, lamb chop “kastaleta”, sheep legs “makkadem”, lamb cutlets “kafta”, lamb on a spit “meshvi”, the famous “dolma” , as well as “kebabs”, all kinds of kebabs, puff pastries and a variety of seafood.

The most popular dessert, which is usually used to complete any meal here, is baklava. Also worth trying are kunafa (a dish made from dough, cheese and nuts), mhalabie semolina pudding and baked chestnuts. All these delights are washed down with very strong and sweet coffee or tea. Various juices, fermented milk drink “ayran” and raisin compote “jelab” are also widespread. The most common alcoholic drink is arak aniseed vodka.

Accommodation

In large cities of Syria, most hotels have a category of 3* or more, and their living conditions fully correspond to the stated ones. In most cases, hotels should be booked in advance.

The most luxurious hotel complexes are mainly located on the coast, and their territory necessarily includes swimming pools, fitness centers, tennis courts and massage areas. Hotels in the mid-price category can be found in any city; they are quite comfortable, but in such establishments the full range of services that is usual for European hotels is not always available. Inexpensive hotels and guest houses are scattered throughout the country, however, the level of service in them is minimal, and the rooms are cramped and not very clean.

It should be noted that the cost of living in Syrian hotels is low and, as a rule, reflects the level of comfort and service. Very often breakfast is included in the price. The most expensive hotels in the country are hotels of large hotel operators (Holiday Inn, InterContinental and Rotana).

Entertainment and relaxation

The coastline of Syria is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to which there are many beaches surrounded by picturesque plains that gradually turn into hills and mountains. Moreover, the swimming season here is very long - from May to November. The most popular beaches in Syria are located near the city of Latakia. First of all, this is Al Samra Beach, the territory of which is divided between Syria and Turkey. No less popular are beaches such as Badrouseigh and Ras al-Bassit, as well as Wadi al-Qandil beach with black volcanic sand. The most popular active recreation option on the coast is diving. Moreover, entire diving tours are organized here for him.

Rock climbing is also popular among extreme sports enthusiasts. The mountains here are so rich in mineral springs that in the summer tourists come here for medical procedures and mud therapy. For this purpose, it is worth going to cities such as Salma, Kasab and Draykish. Moreover, the country's mountainous terrain is popular not only in summer, but also in winter. For example, the town of Slenfe is a health resort in summer, and in winter it turns into a ski resort.

Vacationers with the whole family are recommended to visit the water parks in Damascus and Latakia, which offer a lot of water attractions. In addition, all major cities of the country have amusement parks, sports grounds, restaurants, bars and cultural institutions.

If we talk about holidays, both Muslim and Christian religious dates, as well as state dates, are celebrated here. The country also hosts many colorful festivals: Flower Festival, International Flower Show, Syrian Theater Festival, Cotton Festival, Grapevine Festival, Silk Road Festival, Palmyra Festival, etc.

Shopping

Syria can rightfully be called a real paradise for shopping lovers. The fact is that this country is literally famous throughout the world for its oriental bazaars, where, if desired, you can find anything you want: from spices to furniture. Moreover, prices in the markets are much lower than in other trading establishments. Of course, you should bargain in such places. The country's best markets are in Aleppo and Damascus.

Among the range of goods offered here, the most popular are handmade carpets, national costumes, silk scarves, silver and gold jewelry, sheep skins, as well as products made of leather, mother-of-pearl and wood. In addition, you should pay attention to gastronomic souvenirs, for example, coffee with cardamom, oriental sweets, spices and olive oil.

In addition to markets, in large cities in Syria there are a great many shopping centers, stores with branded clothing, supermarkets and small private shops.

It should be borne in mind that in no store here is it possible to pay in foreign currency: only the Syrian pound or non-cash payments are in circulation.

Most shops are open from Saturday to Thursday from 9:30 to 21:00, and private shops often have individual opening hours.

Transport

The most convenient way to get to Syria is by plane, since the country has two international airports (near Damascus and Aleppo). In addition, Syria is connected with neighboring countries by railways, roads, and seaports.

Within the country you can travel by plane, train, bus, minibus and minibus. Public urban transport in Syria is represented by buses and taxis. Bus tickets are sold from the conductor or driver and are quite cheap. The cost of a taxi ride should be discussed with the driver before boarding the car.

Renting a car in Syria is quite expensive: prices here are twice as high as in Europe. Gasoline is also quite expensive, and most of the road signs are in Arabic, making travel difficult.

Connection

Syria's telephone system is quite well developed and is currently undergoing modernization. Pay phones are installed in all public places, so there will be no problems with communication here. Moreover, they work both with small coins and with cards that are sold everywhere. In addition, you can call abroad from a specialized call center or from a hotel (25% more expensive).

Mobile communications operate in the GSM-900/1800 standard and have fairly dense coverage. Roaming is available to all subscribers of major Russian operators. Phone rental is available at the offices of local cellular companies (Mobile Syria and Spacetel Syria).

The Internet in Syria is developing very quickly, however, the connection speed here is often not very high. Internet cafes operate in all major cities of the country.

Safety

If you follow a few simple rules, Syria will turn out to be a completely safe and hospitable country. Thus, when entering houses and mosques, you must take off your shoes, and it is forbidden to walk around those praying in front. Women should not wear short skirts or bare-shoulder clothing. Photographing transport and military facilities, government institutions, as well as local women is prohibited. Filming in mosques is also strictly prohibited.

Documents or their photocopies should always be carried with you. It is worth noting that alcoholic drinks are sold everywhere here, but you should not drink them in front of everyone. In addition, in Syria it is strongly recommended not to enter into any political discussions, including those related to Israel.

To enter the country you will need medical insurance. Prevention of polio, tetanus, hepatitis, typhus and malaria is also recommended. Local tap water is relatively safe, but it is still better to buy bottled water.

Business

The Syrian economy is based on oil exports, agriculture, chemical, food and textile industries. Moreover, the state fully controls the energy sector, finance, aviation and rail transport. However, now, as part of the course for gradual modernization and liberalization of the economy proclaimed by law, public sector enterprises have been given the right to enter foreign markets and attract foreign investment.

The private sector is currently developing quite actively in the country. In total, registering a private company here takes less than a month. To do this, the entrepreneur must submit a formal application to reserve the name of his company, as well as to register it with the Department of Internal Trade.

Real estate

Syria is one of the last countries in the Middle East to open the housing market to non-residents. Today, foreign citizens have the opportunity to purchase real estate, subject to a number of restrictions in the law. First of all, the area of ​​the acquired property must be at least 140 m2. Foreign buyers are also required to obtain prior approval from the country's Ministry of Interior. In addition, legal nuances that concern foreigners include a ban on the subsequent sale of the acquired property within the next two years after purchase.

The average cost of apartments in Syria ranges from $280,000 to $350,000, and the cost of villas starts at $400,000.

In addition, you need to know that since 2009, a smoking ban began to apply in Syria. Therefore, smokers caught with a cigarette in any public place will have to pay a fine (about $50). It is worth noting that this ban also applies to hookah smoking. It is noteworthy that alcohol is not prohibited in the country. The exception is Ramadan, during which drinking alcohol in public places is prohibited even for non-Muslims.

Visa information

To travel to Syria, citizens of the Russian Federation and CIS countries need a tourist or transit visa. Any of them can be issued at the Moscow Consular Section of the Syrian Embassy (Mansurovsky Lane, 4) or immediately upon arrival in the country (at the airport or at the border crossing with any of the countries neighboring Syria, except Israel).

Population

The vast majority of the country's inhabitants are Arabic-speaking Syrian Arabs (approx. 90%). By religion they are predominantly Muslim, but there are also Christians. The largest national minority are the Kurds, who make up approx. 9% of the population. Most Kurds are concentrated in the Taurus foothills, north of Aleppo, and on the Al Jazeera plateau, in the northeast. Kurds also formed communities in the vicinity of Jarabulus and on the outskirts of Damascus. They speak their native Kurdish and Arabic and adhere, like the Syrian Arabs, to the Sunni branch of Islam. The majority of Kurds live in rural areas. Many Kurds lead a semi-nomadic life. In the cities (mainly Damascus and Aleppo), Kurds are primarily engaged in manual labor. Wealthy Kurds derive their income primarily from owning real estate. Some Kurds have reached high official positions, but they are practically not involved in trade. The share of Armenians, the second largest national minority, in the population is 2–3%. Many Armenians are descendants of refugees from Turkey who arrived in the late 19th century, but most emigrated between 1925 and 1945. Armenians profess Christianity and have retained their customs, schools and newspapers. Almost all Armenians live in cities: mainly in Aleppo (75%), where they have a prominent place in economic life, in Damascus (15%) and Hasakah. As a rule, Armenians are traders, small entrepreneurs and artisans, among them there are also many specialists with engineering and technical education and skilled workers, as well as liberal professions. Turkmens and Circassians also live in Syria. Turkmen profess Islam, wear Arabic clothes and speak Arabic. They originally led a nomadic lifestyle, but are now primarily engaged in semi-nomadic pastoralism on the Al-Jazeera plateau and in the Euphrates valley, near the Iraqi border, or farming in the Aleppo region. Circassians are descendants of Muslim nomads who moved to Syria from the Caucasus after its conquest by the Russians in the late 19th century; they have retained most of their customs and native language, although they also speak Arabic. Approximately half of the Circassians lived in the Quneitra governorate, but after the destruction of the administrative center of the same name by the Israelis in October 1973, many moved to Damascus. The smallest among national minorities are nomadic gypsies, Turks, Iranians, Assyrians, Jews (the latter are concentrated mainly in Damascus and Aleppo).

Story

Historically, Syria included Jordan, Israel, Lebanon and what is now Syria. The country occupied a favorable strategic position and its coastal cities were important Phoenician trading points. Syria was later part of the Roman, Persian, Egyptian and Babylonian empires. As a result, Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire and, along with Lebanon, was transferred to France after the defeat of Turkey in the First World War. The Syrians were never particularly tolerant of being invaded (they were even independent in 1918-20), and in 1925-26 they staged a rebellion that led to France bombing Damascus.

In 1932, parliamentary elections were held in Syria, and although most of the candidates were pro-French, Syria refused to recognize the French version of the constitution. In 1939, France granted Turkey the Syrian province of Alexandretta, which caused dissatisfaction with its policies among the local population. France promised to grant Syria independence in 1941, but did not do so until 1946.

Civilized rule did not last long in Syria: in 1954, after several military coups, the Baath Party, created in 1940 by a Christian leader, took control of the country. The main idea of ​​the party was the creation of a single Arab state, where Syria would no longer be an independent country. Everything was moving towards the formation of a New United Arab Republic with Egypt in 1958, but many people did not support this idea, and a wave of armed uprisings took place throughout the country. By 1966, the Baath Party had returned to power, but the celebrations were marred by the outbreak of the Six-Day War with Israel, and in 1970 there was armed conflict with Jordan. As a result of all these armed clashes, a coup took place in the country and Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad seized power.

Since 1971, Assad has maintained his presidency through force and subterfuge; he strengthens Syria's position in the Middle East by concluding peace treaties and establishing trade relations. In 1999, he was elected for the fifth time to a seven-year presidential term with a majority of 99.9% of the vote. In the 1990s. the fall in oil prices forced the countries of the Middle East to unite, and Assad took advantage of the Gulf War in early 1991 to improve the economic situation in the country. During the war, Syria joined the anti-Iraq coalition, which made a favorable impression on the West, although it still remains on Washington's list of countries that support terrorism.

In 1997, Syria left the list of countries through which drug trafficking passes, and Assad strengthened ties with the EU, Turkey and America. Attempts to diversify the oil-based economy by investing in the agricultural complex were not entirely successful. In early 2000, U.S. State Department officials discussed whether to remove Syria from the list of countries that sponsor terrorism, on the basis that there has been no evidence of Syrian involvement in terrorist acts since 1986. The chaotic retreat of Israeli units from eastern Lebanon in 2000 under fire from the Syrian-backed Herzbollah faction delayed further discussion of Syrian loyalty. The death of President Assad has called into question the peaceful resolution of various conflicts in the Middle East. After Assad, his son Bashar became president in June 2000.

Culture

You're unlikely to hear traditional Arabic singers on the streets of Damascus, but there is an interesting hybrid of Arabic-style singers and Western musicians. Favorite performers in Syria are Mayada al-Hanawi and Asala Nasri. The Bedouins have their own musical traditions, where several men sing a monotonous recitative that serves as accompaniment for a belly dancer.

Art in the Arab world is primarily architecture, perhaps because Islam prohibits the depiction of living objects. Everywhere in Syria you come across ancient and classical sites and examples of architecture not only from Muslims, but from Romans and Byzantines. There are several churches left behind by the Crusaders. The Qur'an is one of the greatest examples of classical Arabic writing. Al-Muallaqat is an ancient collection of Arabic poetry. For 10 centuries, Syria was the center of poetry in the Arab world, the best poems being written by Al-Mutanabbi (who considered himself a prophet) and Abu Firas al-Hamdani. One of the monuments of Arabic literature is Alf Laila wa Laila (“A Thousand and One Nights”), a collection of stories about different times and peoples. Bedouin art in Syria is represented by silver jewelry, colorful fabrics and bladed weapons.

Hospitality is the main core of Arab life. It is customary for Syrian families, particularly those living in the desert, to invite strangers to visit. The tradition developed due to the difficulties of life in the desert, where a person cannot survive without water, food and friendly support. Wherever you are in Syria, you will hear the word "tafaddal" ("welcome") when people invite you over for a cup of tea.

Islam is the main religion of Syria. It is a monotheistic religion and the Koran is the holy book of Islam. Five times a day, Muslims, heeding the call of the muezzin from the top of the minaret, pray. Islam shares similarities with Christianity and Judaism, and therefore Muslims treat Christians and Jews with respect, and Jesus is revered in Islam as one of the prophets of Allah. Muhammad was the last prophet through whom Allah transmitted the Quran to Muslims. Most Syrian Muslims are Sunni, but there are also Shiites, Druze and Alawites. The Druze mostly live near the Jordanian border and their faith is shrouded in mystery. Alawites live in Lattakia and Hama Homs.

Islam forbids eating pork and drinking alcoholic beverages, and this rule applies to a greater or lesser extent throughout Syria. Islam also tends to separate the sexes, for example there are public places where only men are allowed. Although many places also have a family room where women are allowed. When Syrians eat, they usually order a selection of appetizers - mezze - first, and therefore the main courses that Syrians eat from the same plate. Arabic unleavened bread - khobz - is used with almost all dishes. Other dishes include falafel, fried bean balls, shawarma, a specially prepared chopped lamb, and fuul, a fava bean paste with garlic and lemon. Mensaf is a Bedouin dish - a whole lamb, head on, served with rice and nuts.

Economy

Syria is characterized by a mixed economy with a high share of the public sector (approx. 50% of national income, 75% of the value of industrial products and 70% of fixed assets). Finance, energy, railway and air transport have been entirely under the control of the state for a long time. Private ownership clearly predominates in agriculture, and also includes small and medium-sized trade enterprises, the service sector, motor transport and housing construction. The annual growth of GNP in the mid-1990s was estimated at 3.6%. In 2003, GDP growth was 0.9%, i.e. $58.01 billion, per capita income was $3,300. According to 2003 data, GDP was divided by sector as follows: agriculture - 28.5%, industry – 29.4% and other services – 42.1%.

Syria is a major center of maritime and land trade. In this regard, an industry such as warehousing has developed. Large oil storage facilities were built at oil refineries in Homs and Baniyas, at the oil loading terminal of the port of Baniyas, etc. The storage areas for metals and building materials were significantly increased, and large elevators were built.

Policy

Syria is a presidential republic. It is distinguished by a centralized, strictly hierarchical system, in which all power is concentrated in the hands of the country's president and the top leadership of the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV, or Baath). This system was created after the armed seizure of power by Baath supporters in 1963. From November 1970 to June 2000, the head of state was General Hafez al-Assad, the leader of the military wing of the Baath, who came to leadership as a result of a coup, displacing the civilian leadership of the party. Hafez al-Assad served as President, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, Secretary General of the regional Ba'ath leadership and Chairman of the Progressive National Front, a coalition of parties that has a majority in the People's Council, consisting of 250 deputies and serving as a unicameral parliament, elected by universal suffrage for a four-year term.

The military, loyal to General Assad, who found themselves in power, soon convened a legislative body - the People's Council, which was given the development of a draft permanent constitution as a priority task. It was supposed to replace the provisional constitution of the country introduced by the Baath in 1964, which was extended in 1969. Deputies to the People's Council were nominated by the president and his closest advisers and were supposed to represent the Baath and its main left allies - the Arab Socialist Union, the Syrian Communist Party, the Democratic Socialist Unionist Party and the Arab Socialist Movement. The People's Council also included a small number of independent members and representatives of opposition forces. In March 1973, the People's Council submitted a draft constitution to the president for approval, which was then submitted to a referendum. According to the new constitution, the People's Council is elected by universal direct and secret suffrage. All citizens over 18 years of age have the right to vote.

Elections to the People's Council are held in multi-member electoral districts, and in each of them one part of the seats is allocated to workers and peasants, and the other to representatives of other categories of the population. There is no formal nomination of candidates by political parties. In practice, the ruling Progressive National Front nominates a common unofficial list of candidates; formally, all candidates are nominated and run individually. The voting results are determined by the majority system of relative majority.

The powers of parliament, according to the constitution, include passing laws, discussing government policies, approving the state budget and plans for socio-economic development, ratifying the most important international treaties and agreements, and declaring a general amnesty. Only the People's Council has the authority to make changes to the constitution and regulations of its activities. At the same time, the Syrian Constitution does not consistently delineate the substantive scope of the legislative powers of the parliament, on the one hand, and the head of state, on the other.

The central place in the political system of Syria belongs to the head of state - the president of the republic. A candidate for this post is nominated by the People's Council on the proposal of the leadership of the Baath Party, after which the issue is submitted to a national referendum. To be elected for a 7-year term, it is enough to receive a majority of votes of those who took part in the referendum.

In accordance with the basic law of the country, the President of Syria monitors compliance with the constitution and guarantees the operation of the state mechanism, develops (in consultation with the government) national policy and controls its implementation. He appoints and dismisses civilian and military officials, including vice presidents, ministers, governors and senior diplomats, exercises the right to pardon and rehabilitate convicts, and is the supreme commander in chief. The President has the right to declare war, general mobilization and a state of emergency, can conclude peace agreements (if ratified by parliament), and conclude and terminate international treaties.

The head of state has the right to convene emergency sessions of parliament, prepare bills and submit them for consideration by the People's Council. He can veto a law passed by the legislature, which needs at least a two-thirds vote to override it. In emergency circumstances, the president can himself issue decrees during breaks between parliamentary sessions. The head of state has the right to directly submit bills to a referendum, bypassing parliament. His powers include the dissolution of the People's Council, but for specific reasons such a decision can be made only once. Parliament can hold the president accountable only in cases of high treason.

The supreme executive and administrative body of the republic is the government (Council of Ministers), consisting of the chairman (prime minister), deputy and ministers. The Council of Ministers controls the work of the state executive apparatus and state corporations, supervises the implementation of laws, participates together with the president in developing state policies and implements them, develops draft budgets, development plans and laws, ensures the security of the country, etc. The Prime Minister and ministers are responsible only to the President.

Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical sketch: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great), I. O. Gavritukhin (Historical sketch: Syria from the conquests of Alexander the Great to Arab conquest), M. Yu. Roshchin (Historical sketch: Syria from the Arab conquest to 1970), T. K. Koraev (Historical sketch: Syria in 1970–2014), V. D. Nesterkin (Armed forces), V. S . Nechaev (Health), E. A. Alizade. (Literature), T. Kh. Starodub (Architecture and fine arts), D. A. Guseinova (Theatre), A. S. Shakhov (Cinema)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical sketch: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great); >>

SYRIA, Syrian Arab Republic (Al-Jumhuriya al-Arabiya al-Suriya).

General information

S. is a state in the South-West. Asia. It borders on Turkey in the north, Iraq in the east, Jordan in the south, Israel in the southwest, and Lebanon in the west; in the west it is washed by the Mediterranean Sea. Pl. 185.2 thousand km 2. Us. OK. 22.0 million people (2014, UN assessment). The capital is Damascus. Official language – Arabic. The monetary unit is sire. lb. Adm.-terr. division: 14 governorates (provinces).

Administrative-territorial division (2011)

Governorate (province)	Area, thousand km 2	Population, million people	Administrative center
Damascus (city)	0,1	1,8
Daraa	3,7	1	Daraa
Deir ez-Zor	33,1	1,2	Deir ez-Zor
Idlib	6,1	1,5	Idlib
Latakia	2,3	1	Latakia
Rif Dimashq	18	2,8	Damascus
Tartus	1,9	0,8	Tartus
Aleppo (Aleppo)	18,5	4,9	Aleppo (Aleppo)
Hama	10,2	1,6	Hama
Homs	40,9	1,8	Homs
El Quneitra	1,9	0,1	El Quneitra
Al Hasakah	23,3	1,5	Al Hasakah
Ar-Raqqa	19,6	0,9	Ar-Raqqa
Es-Suwayda	5,6	0,4	Es-Suwayda

S. is a member of the UN (1945), Arab League (1945, membership suspended in 2011), Organization of Islamic Cooperation (1972, expelled in 2012), IMF (1947), IBRD (1947).

State system

S. is a unitary state. The Constitution was adopted by referendum on February 26, 2012. The form of government is a mixed republic.

The head of state is the president, elected by the population for a term of 7 years (with the right to re-election). The president appoints the cabinet of ministers, determines the country's foreign policy and is the supreme commander in chief of the armed forces. forces. According to the Constitution, the President of Syria must be a Muslim.

The highest body of legislators. authorities - unicameral Nar. council (Majlis al-Shaab). Consists of 250 deputies elected by direct vote for 4 years.

The Council of Ministers is appointed by the President.

Leading political parties: Arab Party. socialist Revival (PASV), Progressive National. front, Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes, etc.

Nature

Relief

Shores preim. low, slightly indented by bays. The northern part of the territory is a plateau, descending from northwest to southeast from 1000 to 500–200 m. In the west, two chains of mountains stretch from north to south, separated by tectonics. El-Gab depression with the river valley. El Asi (Orontes). Zap. the chain is made up of the Ansariya ridge (En-Nusairiyah; altitude up to 1562 m), the eastern – mountains El-Akrad and Ez-Zawiya (altitude up to 877 m). Along the border with Lebanon there is the Anti-Lebanon ridge (up to 2629 m high, Mount Tal'at Musa) and its south. continuation - the Esh-Sheikh ridge with the highest point N. Mount Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) alt. up to 2814 m. Anti-Lebanon has many karst landforms formed in limestone. To the east of the city of Homs stretches the Tadmor mountain range, consisting of low (up to 1387 m) mountains (Esh-Shaumaria, Esh-Shaar, etc.). There is a volcanic site in the southwest. Ed-Duruz massif (altitude up to 1803 m). In the southeast there is part of the Syrian Desert; stratified rocky plains and high plateaus predominate. 500–800 m, takyrs are typical. To the east parts along the river valley The Euphrates is an alluvial lowland. To the northeast of it is the high Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau. 200–450 m with separation remnant hills (Abd al-Aziz mountains up to 920 m high, etc.). Along the Mediterranean coast there is a narrow (10–15 km) coastal lowland, divided by mountain spurs into separate sections. plots.

Geological structure and minerals

The territory of S. is located in the north. on the outskirts of the Precambrian Arabian Platform, in the area of ​​distribution of the Phanerozoic platform cover with a thickness of several. km, composed of shallow-marine terrigenous and carbonate deposits (sandstones, clays, limestones, marls, chalk, etc.) with horizons of flints and phosphorites, as well as salt rocks. The coastal lowlands contain Neogene-Quaternary fluvial, coastal-marine, and aeolian deposits (sands, sandstones, silts, clays, gravels, limestones). In the southwest there are covers of Neogene-Quaternary basalts. In the late Cenozoic west. part of the northern territory experienced uplift; A regional seismically active fault arose (the so-called Levantine fault), along which a rift valley formed, filled with Neogene-Quaternary lacustrine and alluvial deposits. There are deposits of cement and construction. limestone, rock salt and gypsum, sand, gravel, etc.

Main the wealth of the subsoil of S. - oil and natural flammable gas, the deposits of which are located in the center, east and northeast, belongs to Persian Gulf oil and gas basin. There are deposits of cement limestone, phosphorites, gypsum, rock salt, and natural builds. materials (dolomite, marble, volcanic tuff, sand, gravel).

Climate

On the territory of the North the climate is subtropical. Mediterranean with winter-spring maximum precipitation and summer drought. On the coast the climate is maritime, cf. January temperatures 12 °C, August 27 °C; precipitation is more than 800 mm per year. In the Ansariya range (Nusairiyah) it is cooler, precipitation is up to 1500 mm per year, and snow falls in Anti-Lebanon in winter. In Damascus wed. January temperatures 6 °C, August 26 °C; precipitation approx. 200 mm per year. To the southeast direction, the amount of precipitation is reduced to 100 mm per year, and its instability from year to year increases. East part of the country has a dry continental climate; Wed temperatures in January are 4–7 °C (characterized by almost annual frosts), in August up to 33 °C (max. 49 °C). Winter sowing the Shemal wind and the spring Khamsin wind, blowing from the Arabian Desert, are accompanied by sand and dust storms.

Inland waters

Most of the territory has no external drainage; lowland areas are characterized by dry erosional valleys (wadis). The rivers belong to the basins of the Persian Gulf, Mediterranean and Dead Seas. The largest river is the Euphrates (length in the north is 675 km) with its tributaries Khabur and Belikh. The Euphrates provides up to 80% of the North's surface runoff resources and is navigable; its flow is regulated by dams, the largest is Tabqa [near the town of Madinat et Thaura (Es-Saura)] with a hydroelectric power station and the El-Assad reservoir. Along the north-east borders of the N. flows the river. Tiger. In the north-west there is a significant river. El Asi (Orontes). In the southwest, along the border with Jordan, the river flows. Yarmouk (tributary of the Jordan River), along the border with Lebanon - river. El-Kebir. The river flow is formed entirely within the northern borders. Barada, irrigating the Damascus Ghouta oasis. The maximum river flow occurs in winter; in summer, the rivers experience low water. The largest lake is Homs. Groundwater is widely used through wells and karezes; oases are often associated with their outlets to the surface. Powerful underground aquifers are concentrated in the foothill plains of Anti-Lebanon and in the Damascus region. Annually renewable water resources amount to 16.8 km 3, water availability is low - 882 m 3 / person. per year. Annual water withdrawal 16.7 km 3 , of which 9% is used in housing and communal water supply, 4% - in industry, 87% in villages. x-ve. In North, the issues of sharing the flow of the Euphrates River with Turkey and Iraq have not been resolved.

Soils, flora and fauna

Sandy loamy-loamy deserts with thin gray soils are widespread on the plateau. In the south, rocky-gravelly hamadas predominate, in places with gypsum-bearing and salt-bearing deposits, in the west and in the center. parts are areas of sandy deserts. In the depressions of the relief there are salt marshes. Along the northern Along the northern borders, gray-brown and brown soils are common. The Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau is characterized by light gray soils with a pronounced carbonate horizon. In the coastal lowlands there are brown soils; with height they are replaced by mountain brown and mountain forest soils.

The eastern, arid part of the country is characterized by desert groups with the participation of saxaul, shrubs and subshrubs (saltwort, wormwood), and ephemera. On the Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau, low-grass steppes with bluegrass, sedge and other ephemeroids, including wormwood, are typical. In the Euphrates Valley, areas of riverine forests of Euphrates poplar and tamarix have been preserved. Subtropical forests grow in the mountains and on the coast. pine trees, Cilician fir; small tracts of relict Lebanese cedar have been preserved in the mountains. To the west On the slopes of the Ansariya ridge (En-Nusairiyah), broad-leaved oak forests with the participation of evergreen trees and shrubs are common. The lower parts of the slopes are usually covered by secondary maquis and garigue formations. To the east The slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) ridges are dominated by xeromorphic mountain steppes, turning into pistachio woodlands and shrubs in the mid-mountain zone, and into semi-deserts in the lower mountain zone.

The fauna is diverse. There are 125 species of mammals, including striped hyena, wolf, jackal, caracal, fennec fox; ungulates include antelope, wild donkey onager, and many rodents. In the mountains with forest vegetation, the Syrian bear, wild boar, and wild cat are occasionally found, and in the treeless high mountains - the bezoar goat. The avifauna is rich: 360 species of birds, including migratory ones, there are especially many of them in river valleys and on the shores of lakes (storks, herons, ducks); among the birds of prey there are falcons, eagles, and hawks. There are 127 species of reptiles. 16 species of mammals, 15 species of birds, 8 species of reptiles are endangered.

Condition and protection of the environment

In the north, where the most ancient centers of agriculture are located, nature has changed greatly. Forests occupy only 3% of the territory. Basic eco-friendly problems - overgrazing, deforestation and fragmentation, fires, habitat destruction, especially along river valleys and on the coast. To the east In arid areas, desertification of landscapes, water and wind erosion, and soil degradation occur. The problem of pollution of rivers and reservoirs by municipal and industrial waste is an urgent problem. wastewater, including from oil refineries. The network of protected areas includes 19 objects (according to other data, 23) of uncertain status, occupying 0.6% of the territory; lake Al Jabbul is a wetland of global importance.

Population

The majority of the population of S. (88.2%) are Arabs - Syrians (84.8%), Palestinians, Egyptians, Jordanians, etc. Kurds and Yazidis live in the north (8%), in the northeast (between the Euphrates and Tigris ) - speakers of Neo-Assyrian languages ​​Western. Assyrians (1%) and Turoyos (0.1%), as well as Armenians (0.4%); small communities of speakers of Neo-Assyrian languages ​​also live northeast of Damascus. The country is inhabited by Turks (“Turkmens”; 0.6%), people from the Caucasus (0.5%), Persians (0.3%), gypsies, etc.

The population increased 6.5 times between 1950 and 2014 (3.4 million people in 1950; 12.3 million people in 1990; 21.9 million people in 2012; military actions, according to UN estimates , by the beginning of 2015 led to the flight of over 4 million people from the country. Natural growth of us. 2.1% (2013), which means. birth rate (25 per 1000 inhabitants), 6 times higher than mortality (4 per 1000 inhabitants). Fertility rate 3.1 children per woman; infant mortality rate is 17 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, there is a high proportion of people of working age (15–64 years) – 61%; the share of children (under 15 years old) is 35%, people over 65 years old – 4%. Wed. life expectancy is 75 years (men – 72, women – 78). The numerical ratio of men and women is approximately equal. Wed. density of us. OK. 97 people/km 2 (2014). Most densely for villages coast, north. part of the country and the Rif Dimashq governorate (average density 100–250 people/km2), as well as areas near large cities (average density near Homs, Hama, etc. over 1000 people/km2); least – center. and east districts (less than 25 people/km 2). Share of mountains us. 54% (2013). Largest cities (thousand people, 2014): Aleppo (1602.3), Damascus (1569.4), Homs (775.4), Hama (460.6), Latakia (340.2). Economically active us. OK. 5 million people (2013). In the employment structure, the service sector accounts for 53%, industry – 32.7%, p. farms – 14.3% (2012). Unemployment rate 34.9% (2012; 14.9% in 2011). OK. 12% of us. lives below the poverty line (2006).

Religion

A country with a complex religion. composition, up to 90% of us. which are Muslims (2014, assessment). The vast majority are Sunnis (Sufi brotherhoods are common); The influential Shiite minority includes the Nusayris (or Alawites, more than 10%) and the Imamis (3%). Ismailis make up 1%. The number of drusen is estimated at 3–5%. OK. 10–11% of residents are Christians, mostly. Orthodox, subordinate to the Patriarchate of Antioch with residence in Damascus. The second largest is the Syrian (Syro-Jacobite) Orthodox Church with its center in Damascus, one of the Ancient Eastern (pre-Chalcedonian) churches. There are followers of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Catholics are divided into Chaldo Catholics, Syrian Catholics, Maronites, Greek Catholics, Armenian Catholics and Roman Catholics. The Nestorians are represented by the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East. The Jebel Sinjar region, near the border with Iraq, is home to a small Yazidi community. Few the Jewish community survived in Damascus. Serious damage to religions. minorities in the country are being attacked by weapons. conflict between governments. forces and opposition.

Historical sketch

Territory of Syria before the Arab conquest

The oldest monuments of human activity in the region (ca. 800–350 thousand years ago) belong to the Acheulian [bas. monuments - between the river El-Asi (Orontes) and r. Euphrates, including Umm et Tlel (in the El Koum oasis north of Palmyra; layers about 20 m, up to the Neolithic), etc.]. This is followed by the Yabrud industry, then Hummal and Laminar (ca. 200–150 thousand years ago; from the Mediterranean to Mesopotamia). The Moustier era is represented by the Levallois industry (including with pointed points such as Umm et Tlel, etc.); early Upper Paleolithic - by Aurignac and the Ahmar culture (ca. 35-17 thousand years ago), middle and late - by the Kebara culture, on the basis of which the Natufian culture .

The territory of S. is included in the oldest zone of the formation of a producing economy - Fertile Crescent. Among the supporting monuments are doceramic. Neolithic - Mureybit, Tell Abr, Tell Aswad, Ras Shamra, El Kdeir, etc. A number of centers for the appearance of ceramic dishes that spread from the middle. 7th millennium BC e. Around the end In the 7th millennium, the Hassun culture was recorded in the region, then the influence of the traditions of Samarra spread and the Halaf culture spread, replaced by the northern culture. Ubeida. From the beginning The 4th millennium marked a new impulse of influences from the South. Mesopotamia, associated with the Sumerian civilization, mountain settlements arise. such as Tell Brak, Tell Hamukar in the northeast of the region, then others, including those associated with the metal trade from Anatolia.

From the beginning 3rd thousand connections with South. Mesopotamia is interrupted, the cultural community “Nineveh 5” is formed with a hierarchy of settlements, proto-cities, temple-administration. centers (see Art. Tell Khazna). Around midday In the 3rd millennium, settlements with a perimeter wall and gate openings (of the “Kranzhügel” type) appeared, correlated with the cities and the beginning of Sir proper. civilization; During the excavations of Tell Beidar (ancient city of Nabad), the oldest cuneiform archive in the region (25th century) was discovered (in the East Semitic language, related to Akkadian). From the beginning 3rd millennium in the mountainous regions framing the Great Mesopotamian Plain, migrants from the Caucasus appear, carriers Kura-Araxes culture. At the same time, the Canaanites settled from the south, another group of Semites moved north, founding the state of Ebla, which competed with the one that arose on Wed. Euphrates Mari. At Sargon the Ancient and his successors, a number of lands were controlled by Akkad.

Around the end In the 3rd millennium, the Amorites settled in the region from the southwest. In con. 19 – beginning 18th centuries in the northeast, the state of Shamshi-Adad I (Subartu) was formed, which soon disintegrated. In the west, the states of Yamhad and Qatna competed with him and with each other. To 2nd half. 1770s – 1760s (under Zimri-Lima) refers to the last flourishing of the state of Mari, crushed by the Babylonian king Hammurabi. From the 17th century The Hurrians played a prominent role in the region along with the Semites. From the 16th century the struggle for dominance over the region begins Ancient Egypt with Mitanni and Hittite kingdom, in which Assyria also participated. The discovery of the world's oldest alphabet (c. 15th century; see also) is associated with one of the Egyptian (later Hittite) dependent cities of Ugarit. Ugaritic letter). According to Hittite-Egypt. to the world (1270) b. parts of the northern territory remained under the control of the Hittites, the south - the Egyptians. However, soon North. Mesopotamia was conquered by the Assyrians. king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–08), and the state of the Hittites, like the Asian. possessions of Egypt, in the end. 13 – beginning 12th centuries fell under the onslaught of the Sea Peoples, who destroyed a number of cities in the sir. Mediterranean coast.

K con. 2nd – beginning 1st thousand these zap. the aliens founded the state of Palestine (the territory of the North), which coexisted with the states where the so-called. Late Hittite dynasties. A number of states also arose, founded by the Arameans (Akhlamei), who penetrated into the region along the Euphrates from the 14th century: Bit Adini (capital in Til Barsib), Bit Bakhiani in the upper reaches of Khabur (capital of Guzan - the site of Tell Halaf), Samal in Cilicia, Bit-Agushi in the region of Aleppo (Aleppo), etc. One of them, with the capital in Aram-Damascus (now Damascus; cultural layer no later than the 4th millennium, first written mention around the middle 3- th thousand), after the campaigns of its kings Reason I and Tabrimmon, it becomes the strongest in the region.

From the end 11th century expansion into the Assyrian region begins. Counteracting this is the so-called. Northern Sir. the alliance was crushed by the Assyrians. king Shalmaneser III at 857–856. T.n. South Syrian The alliance (supported by the rulers of Phenicia, Palestine, Egypt, and North Arabian tribes) led by the king of Damascus Hadadezer (Ben Hadad II) managed to stop the Assyrians at the Battle of Karkar (853). However, in 796 Damascus was captured and paid tribute to Assyria. In the 9th–8th centuries. Kingdom of Damascus once fought with Israel. In 734, the Assyrians conquered Arpad (North S.) and a number of other states in the region; resistance of a number of sir. states led by the king of Damascus Reason II, which also relied on an alliance with the kings of Israel, Gaza, and Edom, ended with the capture and destruction of Damascus in 732 Tig Latpalasar III. Reason II was executed, b. Parts of the Aramaic population were resettled inland. regions of Assyria, the region became Assyrian. province.

After the death of Assyria in 612–609, S. became the arena of struggle between Egypt and Babylonia. In 539 Babylon was captured by the Persians and S. entered Achaemenid state. After the battle of Issus (333) troops Alexander the Great occupied S. During the struggle of the Diadochi, S. fell to Antigonus, and after the Battle of Ipsus (301) it became part of the Seleucid state. After 190, its decline and collapse began, in the lands beyond the Euphrates in 132 BC. e. the state of Osroene was formed with its capital in Edessa (then part of Parthian Kingdom, Armenia, controlled by Rome, in 244 AD. e. destroyed by the Sassanids), part of the southeast. S. controlled lands Nabatean kingdom. In 83–69 BC. e. the region was captured by Armenians. king Tigran II, in 64 - Gnaeus Pompey, after which in most of the territory of modern. Rome was organized in S. and a number of adjacent lands. Prov. Syria.

From the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) prov. S. was under imp. management and was one of the most important, given its strategic. position (4 legions were stationed here) and economic. potential (highly developed agriculture and crafts, including textiles and glass making). Sire. merchants and artisans were famous in many cities of Rome. empires. Some rome. emperors and members of their families were from S. Despite the strong Hellenization and influence of Rome, especially in polyethnics. cities, local culture continued to develop in S. (mainly based on Aramaic).

From the 1st century S. is one of the centers of the spread of Christianity. On I Ecumenical Council in Nicaea (325) S. was represented by more than 20 bishops, in 451 Antiochian Orthodox Church became autocephalous in the status of patriarchy. From the 4th century the region becomes an important center of monasticism, the pillarism originated here (see. Simeon the Stylite). In the course of internal Christian disputes (see Christology), S. became one of the centers of miaphysitism, its supporters after persecution under the emperor. Justin I (518–527) founded the Syriac Orthodox Church (finally formed in 629), which spread throughout the Middle and Middle East. East (see Syrian churches).

In 193/194 prov. S. was divided into Coelesyria and Syrophenicia. During the reforms Diocletian they entered the diocese of the East. By 350, the Euphrates Province was separated from Kelesyria. (capital of Hierapolis), after 415 - provinces S. I (capital in Antioch) and S. II [in Apamea (on the Orontes)], in 528 - a small province. Feodoria. The state, centered in Palmyra, which retained its independence for some time, was annexed to Rome ca. 19; became virtually independent in the 260s. under Odenathus; his widow (from 267) Zenobia in 270 brought under her control the territory from Egypt to Asia Minor, but in 272 she was defeated by Rome. army. Rome. Prov. in Osroene, which was one of the arenas of struggle against the Sassanid state, is known no later than the 4th century.

During the next war between Byzantium and the Sassanids in 609, the region was captured by the troops of Khosrow II, but according to a peace treaty with Heraclius I in 628 it was returned to Byzantium.

Syria from the Arab conquest to the Seljuk conquest

In mid. 630s As a result of protracted wars with the Sassanids, the power of Byzantium in the territory of S. will end. weakened, dissatisfaction of local residents with tax oppression and religions intensified. intolerance. In 634, Caliph Abu Bekr transferred from the south. Iraq to Damascus detachment led by an Arab. commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. After victories at Ajnadayn, Fakhla and Marj es-Suffar, his troops entered Bosra (Busra al-Sham). In 635 they captured Damascus, in 637 they occupied Baalbek and Homs. Byzantine. army of approx. 100 thousand people launched a counteroffensive, but in the decisive battle on the river. Yarmouk (636) was put to flight by smaller Muslim forces; the victors recaptured Damascus and Homs. In 638, Jerusalem and Gaza were occupied, then Aleppo (Aleppo), Antioch (Antakya), Hama and Qinnasrin. In the mountainous regions around Latakia, Tripoli and Sidon (now Saida), resistance to the Muslims continued until the middle. 640s Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan moved the capital of the Caliphate and the residence of the Umayyad dynasty from Medina to Damascus, which remained in this status until 750. During this period, S. became political. and the cultural center of a growing state, where part of the military flocked. booty and taxes collected in various areas of the caliphate. Under the Umayyads, there was a process of Arabization of the population, Arab. the nobility turned into large landowners, the majority of the inhabitants of S. converted to Islam, Greek. state the language was replaced by Arabic. language (from the beginning of the 8th century). However, the departments were preserved. Hellenistic elements heritage, because the Arabs gradually adopted culture, social organization and political. system they encountered in sir. cities. Urban planning developed widely, and architecture was influenced by both Byzantine and Sasanian architecture (Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Great Mosque in Aleppo, Mshatta Country Palace, etc.).

In mid. 8th century The Umayyad dynasty fell into decline and was replaced by the Abbasid dynasty, which made Baghdad its capital. The population of S. decreased, and a gradual decline of cities began. In the conditions of political and economical instability, Arabization and Islamization continued. lands. With the beginning of the decline of the Abbasid dynasty, the north. S.'s borders became more vulnerable to attacks by the Byzantines. A number of small Muslim and Christian principalities arose in the region, which turned to the military. with help either to Baghdad or to Constantinople. The collapse of the Abbasid state led to the seizure of Syria by Egypt. by the Tulunid emirs in 878, in 935 by the emirs from the Ikhshidid dynasty. In 969 S. became part of the Ismaili Fatimid Caliphate. In mid. 10th century in North The Hamdanid dynasty, whose court was in Aleppo, came to power in S., which led to a short revival of these lands, especially during the reign of Emir Seif ad-Daula (945–967).

Syria before the Ottoman conquest

Development of S. in the 10th–11th centuries. was suspended by the conquest of its interior. districts in the 1070s. Seljuks who came from Asia Minor and the north. Mesopotamia. The tribes that entered the territory of S. were part of the state Seljukids, but soon created two states independent of it with capitals in Damascus and Aleppo. However, they failed to penetrate into the south. Northern regions that remained under the rule of local rulers (for example, Tanukids) or were in vassal dependence on Egypt. Fatimidov. The collapse of the Seljuk state and the fight against the Fatimids facilitated the capture of the north-west. S. crusaders (see Crusades) and the formation in 1098 of the Principality of Antioch on its territory. East S. broke up into departments. Arab possessions and Seljuk feudal lords, who waged wars both with the crusaders and among themselves. In 1154 Turk. the ruler of Aleppo, Nur ad-Din, managed to unite most of S. under his rule. After his death (1174), Salah ad-Din annexed the main. part sire. lands to their possessions. In 1188, after the victory at Hittin (1187), he ousted the crusaders from the area. parts of the Antioch prince. Salah ad-Din's successors, the Ayyubids, retained control only over the interior. areas of the north, in the north they were forced to resist the Seljuk Konya (Rum) Sultanate, in the west - the state of the crusaders, in the east - various. Turkic state formations.

In the 2nd half. 13th century S. came under Egyptian rule. Mamluks. In 1260, it was attacked by the Mongols under the leadership of Hulagu, repelled by the Mamluk Sultan Kutuz in the battle of Ain Jalut. Gradually the power of the Mamluks increased. The new Sultan Baybars succeeded in the 1260s. occupy strategically important fortified Ismaili points in the northern mountains. In the beginning. 1290s Sultan al-Ashraf Salah ad-Din Khalil captured the last crusader fortresses on Sir. Mediterranean coast. At this time, an effective administration was created on the territory of S. system, trade was restored, the rise of crafts and rural areas began. x-va. Syria reached its greatest prosperity during the reign of Nasir ad-Din Muhammad (1309–40). However, under his immediate successors, as a result of the plague that swept through the North and increased trade competition from the states of Anatolia and the North. Africa began the decline of the Mamluk power, which opened the way for the Mongols under Timur to capture Aleppo and Damascus (1401). Despite the successes of the Mong. troops, to the con. 15th century sir. the lands became the object of claims from the Ottomans, Timurids and Iran. Safavids. Taking advantage of the struggle that the Mamluks were forced to wage against the Portuguese, who were launching raids on the territories adjacent to the Red Sea, the Sultan Ottoman Empire Selim I defeated the Mamluk army at Marj Dabiq in 1516 and conquered Syria.

Syria until the end of the 19th century

As part of the Ottoman Empire, the territory of S. was divided into 4 vilayets with centers in Tripoli, Aleppo, Damascus and Saida (several more provinces were later created, including Akka), which were ruled by pashas who reported directly to the administration of the Sultan. To streamline the collection of taxes and encourage the processing of abandoned lands, special forces were issued. governments. regulations and cadastres, which at first had a beneficial effect on the development c. x-va. However, increasing tax oppression and the growing arbitrariness of local officials gradually led to stagnation in this area. This means in the regional economy. Goal began to play a role. and Brit. maritime trade. By the 18th century Aleppo and Beirut turned into ch. shopping centers in S. Europe. penetration into S. was carried out both through the creation of merchant houses in a number of cities. colonies, which assumed almost complete trade relations with Europe, and through an increased influx of missionaries (mainly Franciscans and Jesuits). Contacts between missionaries and local authorities, as well as the desire of Europeans. powers to establish their spheres of influence in North (the French supported the Maronites, the British - the Druze) led to a gradual stratification of the Sires. society. In this situation, separatist tendencies intensified in the provinces, which sought to become independent from the center. Ottoman government, and internecine wars. As a result of one of these conflicts, the defeated Druze moved to an isolated mountainous area southeast of Damascus, and the area itself was named. Jebel Druz (Ed-Druz, Ed-Duruz). In con. 18th century b. part south S. came under the rule of Akka Pasha Ahmed al-Jazzar. In 1798–99 French. The troops, having failed to capture Egypt, landed on Sir. coast. Al-Jazzar with the help of Britons. The fleet managed to stop the French at Akka and force the imp. Napoleon I Bonaparte to return to France.

During Tur.-Egypt. War of 1831–33 S. was conquered by Egyptian troops. pasha Muhammad Ali. He centralized the administration of the country, favored the development of trade, and the growth of the stock of cultivable lands. However, the introduction of conscription, state. Corvee labor and rising taxes caused repeated uprisings. population (1834, 1837–1838, 1840). The Ottoman Empire and the Europeans that supported it took advantage of the weakening of Egyptian power in the north. powers: in 1840 the power of the Ottoman Sultan was restored in S. At the same time, S. came under the scope of the Anglo-Ottoman trade convention of 1838, which opened the sir. market for european goods, which dealt a serious blow to local production. The emerging trend in this regard towards the transition of agricultural ownership of allotments by townspeople intensified after the law of 1858, which allowed the transfer of communal lands in villages to private ownership, subject to the payment of higher taxes. From ser. 19th century commodity-money relations actively developed in S. There was a specialization of the department. agricultural regions (North S. - cotton, Hauran - grain, Damascus region - fruits), while the decomposition of subsistence farming intensified. In the last quarter 19th century in exchange for the provision of loans to the Ottoman Empire by the French. companies received numerous concessions in Syria. Franz. capital financed the construction of highways and railways (with the exception of Hijaz), modern. port facilities, organization of regular steamship services, laying telegraph lines.

In connection with the increasing intervention of the deputy. powers in economic and political life S. to the end 19th century Anti-Christian and anti-European sentiments intensified. Local Arab. The elites were also dissatisfied with Ottoman rule. Arab ideas were developed in the circles of the Syrian-Lebanese intelligentsia. nationalism. In the 1870s. A society arose led by Ibrahim al-Yazici, whose goal was to fight Ottoman rule. In the 1890s. In Aleppo, Damascus, and Beirut, new organizations appeared that advocated S.'s independence from the Ottoman Empire.

Syria in the 1st quarter of the 20th century

Patriotic sentiments in S. intensified after Young Turk Revolution 1908. Dozens of socio-political organizations were established. newspapers and magazines created legal Arab. patriotic organizations, mass rallies and political disputes. However, it soon became obvious that the changes were limited, and the Young Turks were ready to defend their interests in the main. Turkic-speaking population. Formation of a new political culture was most noticeable among young and European-educated sires. intelligentsia. It was people from Syria (including Abd al-Kerim Qasem al-Khalil, Seif ad-Din al-Khatib, Abd al-Hamid al-Zahrawi) who made up the majority of the activists of the Lit. formed in 1909 in Istanbul. club. Syrians also predominated in such prominent nationalities. political organizations such as Young Arabia (1911) and the Ottoman Party adm. decentralization (1912). In 1913, they, together with the Lebanese Reform League, convened the Arab. congress However, the inability of the Arab. involve nationalists in their politics. The struggle of the broad masses of the population led to the fact that their social base remained rather narrow.

After the entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I, S. was turned into a German tour base. command in the Middle East. The 4th Ottoman army was stationed there, led by A. Cemal Pasha, who headed in November. 1914 military-civilian administration and declared war in S. position. Despite the massive repressions that local Christians and Muslims were subjected to during this period. patriots (hundreds of people were executed, thrown into prison, about 10 thousand people were deported), Arab support. nationalism began to grow as a result of a serious crisis in all sectors of the economy, caused by increased taxes on the military. needs and brit. blockade of Mediterranean ports during the war. As a result of massive requisitions of food and raw materials carried out by the tour. authorities, in 1915 in a number of sires. There were food riots in the cities, and a partisan movement began in the mountainous regions. In May 1915 in Damascus, an Arab. nationalists from a number of organizations (including Young Arabia and Al-Ahd) under the leadership. the son of the sheriff of Mecca Hussein - Faisal (see Faisal I), signed a protocol on the Arab-British. cooperation in the war against the Ottoman Empire and Germany, subject to the creation of a single independent Arab after the war. state On Sept. 1918 An anti-Ottoman uprising began in the Jebel Druz region, coinciding with the advance of the British towards Damascus. and French troops and Arab. army led by Faisal (entered Oct. 1918). B. Ch. S. fell under the authority of the commander of the allied forces, Brit. Field Marshal E. G. Allenby; in the west, in the coastal region. Latakia, there were French. strength. British-appointed military officer. governor in the east part of S. Faisal first tried to confirm the rights of the Hashemite dynasty to govern all the former Arabs. possessions of the Ottomans in accordance with the earlier promises of Great Britain, then insisted on the creation of a Syrian-Transjordanian state headed by himself (previously, in March 1920, according to a resolution adopted at the General Syrian Congress in Damascus, he was proclaimed the constitutional monarch of an independent Syria .). However, in April 1920 by agreement between the French. and Brit. representatives at the San Remo conference mandated the League of Nations to govern S. and Lebanon was transferred to France, and the administration of Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan to Great Britain. In July 1920, the French troops, having overcome the weapons. resistance sir. patriots occupied Damascus and established control over the entire S. Faisal was expelled from the country.

Syria during the French Mandate

During the French period Syria's mandate was divided into five autonomous regions (“states”): Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia (“Alawite state”), Jebel Druz (a Druze region centered in Es-Suwayda) and Alexandretta (now Iskenderun, transferred to Turkey in 1939 ); in the extreme northeast of the country, in the vicinity of Ar-Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor, a department was allocated. a district governed directly from the center; Mount Lebanon was expanded by annexing the populated region. Shiites of the Bekaa Valley and the Sunni cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Saida, etc. The terms of the mandate were opened by Sir. market for a free European trade. Import of cheap foreign goods dealt a huge blow, sire. textile industry (in 1913–26, the number of weavers in Aleppo decreased by half, and the number of operating looms by 2/3). Franz. financial monopolies had a decisive influence on the economy. life of the country, owned by the French. The Bank of Syria and Lebanon had the right to issue capital; transport, power plants and water pipelines belonged to the French.

In mid. 1920s in S. a number of political parties, including Communist. party [founded in 1924 as a single party sire. and Lebanon. communists; actually Sire. communist party (UPC) since 1944], People's Party or Nar. party (1925), Nat. block (1927). Anti-French flared up all over the country. speeches. In 1922–23, the Druze uprising in the region was suppressed. Jebel Druz. In July 1925, a new revolt of the Druze began, liberating the entire region in a week and defeating the 4,000-strong detachment of the generals sent against them. Michaud. In October, the leaders of the national movements organized an uprising in Aleppo and Damascus, which was suppressed after two days of artillery. shelling of Damascus (as a result, about 5 thousand people died). Despite the brutality in the fight against the rebels, the French. the government was forced to change the forms of colonial government in Syria. In 1925, the “state of Aleppo” and the “state of Damascus” were united into the “state of Syria.” In April 1928 elections to the Constituent were held. meeting. In May 1930, S. adopted an Organic Statute (constitution), which proclaimed it a republic (with the preservation of the French mandate). Under French The regions of Jebel Druz and Latakia remained separate from the north. In the parliamentary elections in November. 1936 victory was won by the National. block. On Dec. 1936 The new parliament elected H. Atasi as president of the country. National liberation movement in S. forced the French. authorities to enter into negotiations with the leaders of the National Party. block on the conclusion of an agreement based on the recognition of independence of S. In December. 1936 Franco-Sir was signed. a treaty that declared the sovereignty of France and did not allow French interference in its internal affairs. affairs of the country and ensuring the unity of S. (Jebel Druz and Latakia were reunited with S.). France was guaranteed the right to station and move troops, as well as create military forces. bases on the territory of North Korea. To eliminate the mandate regime and join the League of Nations, a three-year transition period was envisaged. Sire. Parliament ratified the treaty on December 27, 1936. However, the government of E. Daladier, which came to power in France in January. 1939 abandoned the agreement. In response to the protest demonstrations and strikes that began in S., the French. The administration introduced a state of emergency in the country, the High Commissioner suspended the constitution (repealed in July of the same year) and dissolved parliament (to govern the internal affairs). affairs of the country, the so-called Board of Directors).

Since the beginning of the 2nd World War in September. 1939 war was declared in S. situation, large contingents of the French are stationed on its territory. troops. After the surrender of France in June 1940, the country came under the rule of the Vichy administration; from May 1941, the airfields and transport hubs of S. were used by the Germans. troops. Due to the disruption of traditional trade relations with neighboring countries and the beginning of interruptions in the supply of food and raw materials, economic The situation and living conditions of the population deteriorated sharply. In Feb. 1941 National The bloc, headed by Sh. Kuatli, organized a strike in Damascus, which soon spread to Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Deir ez-Zor. The strike, which lasted 2 months, forced the French. High Commissioner to dissolve the “Board of Directors” and form a Committee headed by the moderate nationalist H. al-Azem, which ruled S. until the fall of 1941. On July 8, 1941, the British joined S. troops and units " Free French" Between Couatli, the Free French administration and the British. Representatives reached an agreement, according to which new parliamentary elections were held in the country in July 1943, which brought victory to the National. bloc (transformed into the National Patriotic Union). According to the agreements concluded on Dec. 1943, French the mandate was cancelled, sir. the government from 1/1/1944 transferred the main adm. functions. The government of independent S. took a number of measures to strengthen its foreign policy. sovereignty of the country. In Feb. 1945 S. declared war on Germany and Japan. In March she took part in the creation Arab League. In October it was accepted as a member of the UN. However, the British continued to remain on the territory of S. and French troops. The French government agreed to withdraw troops only if S. provided it with economic power. and strategic privileges. Refusal sir. government to fulfill these demands caused clashes between the French in May 1945. troops and the population of a number of cities (Damascus, Homs, etc. came under artillery fire). In the fall of 1945, the government of S. demanded that Great Britain and France evacuate their military units, and in January. 1946 appealed to the UN Security Council with a request to make a decision on the immediate withdrawal of troops. 17.4.1946 all foreign. armed forces were withdrawn from the country.

On Dec. 1947 S. rejected the UN resolution on the division of Palestine. In May 1948, after the proclamation of the state of Israel, together with other Arabs. countries launched wars against him. actions (see Arab-Israeli wars). In the beginning In 1949, armistice agreements were signed between the opponents, and a demilitarized zone was established between Israel and Israel.

Syria after independence

S.'s achievement of independence contributed to the revival of the national economy. economy, industrial development (mainly textile and food) production, the emergence of banks, although the role of foreign. capital (mainly French) remained significant. The beginning of the creation of state sector in the economy was initiated in 1951–1955 by the nationalization (for ransom) of a number of foreign. companies. In 1955–56, agreements were concluded with the British. by the Iraq Petroleum Company and Amer. "Trans-Arabian Pipeline Company" about the deduction in favor of S. 50% of the profits they receive for transporting oil through oil pipelines passing through the territory of S. In 1946, Sir. Parliament adopted a labor law that transferred labor relations to the legal plane. In 1947, a new electoral law was issued, introducing direct elections and secret voting. The situation of the peasant population during this period remained deplorable; most of them were sharecroppers and tenants. This, in particular, determined internal politics. instability of the state. In the beginning 1947 The peasant movement, led by A. Haurani, initiated a campaign to change the law on parliamentary elections. In response, Sh. Kuatli introduced a state of emergency and limited the activities of a number of politicians. parties, which allowed the National. the party won the parliamentary elections in July 1947, and Kuatli was re-elected president. On Nov. 1948 His government, accused of incompetence and corruption, was forced to resign. By order of the chief, Gen. regiment headquarters H. al-Zaim, a state of emergency was introduced in the country, the constitution of 1930 was abolished, the activities of the political. parties are completely prohibited. In 1949, al-Zaima proclaimed himself president, but in mid-August he was killed by his opponents in arms. forces during the repeated war. coup led by regiment. S. Hinawi. Hinawi's desire to bring S. closer to Iraq did not find support in high-ranking army circles. On Dec. 1949 The regiment seized power. A. Shishekli, who at first tried to follow the democratic. course (the adoption of a new constitution in 1950, which declared a parliamentary form of government, the provision of broad citizens. rights and carrying out socio-economic. reforms), but already from 1951 (from July 1953 - president) established a military regime. dictatorship. Everything is political. parties, societies. organizations and parliament were dissolved, the constitution was abolished. Uprising in military units in the North. S. in February 1954, supported by people. performances in Damascus, led to the overthrow of Shishekli. The transitional government formed in March 1954, headed by H. Atasi, began to restore democracy. institutions. The 1950 constitution was returned, political activities were allowed. parties. However, thanks to the efforts of conservatives, frightened by desire Parties Arab socialist revival carry out large-scale reforms in the industrial and agricultural sectors, win the presidential elections in August. 1955 Cuatli won again.

In the beginning 1950s S. was involved in “ cold war" In mid. 1950s she joined Egypt in the fight against what was created by Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan under the auspices of the USA and Great Britain Baghdad Pact 1955(later Organizations of the Central dialect, SENTO). In 1955–56, S. reached an agreement with Egypt on the unification of the military. command and creation of a common Military. advice. The Suez crisis of 1956 further strengthened the Syrian-Egyptian relationship. communications. In Feb. 1958 S. and Egypt formed a new state - United Arab Russian Republic(OAR). On Sept. 1958 in Sir. In the UAR region, a law on agrarian reform was adopted, which provided for the confiscation from landowners. parts of the lands and their transfer to landless and land-poor peasants. In July 1961 foreign countries were nationalized. and private commercial banks and largest industrial companies. Everything is political. parties were banned. Against the backdrop of a generally unstable economy. The situation in Egypt (crop failure due to drought, supply interruptions, the desire of the Egyptians to unify the economic structure of both countries, etc.) began a gradual increase in population discontent. Decree of Egypt. President G. A. Nasser on the introduction of state control into S. planning and strengthening the state. sector prepared the way for a new state. coup (carried out on September 28, 1961 by S.’s military command) and S.’s withdrawal from the UAR.

The activities of the new government of M. ad-Dawalibi were aimed at gradually curtailing the economic ones proclaimed during the period of unification. and social reforms. This caused a difference. circles sir. public debate about the ways of further development of the country and the possibilities of restoring the UAR. Attempts to expand the private sector of the economy and rely on large land ownership did not receive the support of the population and led to the entry into politics. the proscenium of representatives of the middle strata of the sir. society. Their increased activity was reflected in strengthening the positions of PASV.

As a result of the war. After the coup of March 8, 1963, the PASV came to power, the government was headed by one of the right-wing leaders of S. - ad-Din Bitar (until October 1964). Under pressure from representatives of the left wing of the PASV, banks and insurance companies were nationalized in 1963, and a new law on agrarian reform was adopted, which lowered the maximum land holdings. By the summer, they convinced the government to allow the creation of nationwide trade unions and the adoption of a new labor law, according to which the role of the state in protecting workers' rights increased. In Jan. 1965 adopted the so-called Ramadan Socialist The decree that placed everything under state control means the most. sir. enterprises. Over the next 6 months, a program of further nationalization was implemented. During its implementation, social contradictions and a crisis within the PASV began to grow (moderate and right-wing Baathists, supported by A. Hafez, opposed the left, led by General S. Jadid). On Dec. In 1965, the right wing of the PASV, with the participation of Hafez, managed to eliminate the leftists from all parties. and state posts But already on February 23, 1966, the left wing of the PASV, supported by the army and trade unions, expelled the right-wing Baathists from the party and from the country. The new government put forward a broad socio-economic program. transformations. Nationalization of large industries followed. enterprises, banks, insurance companies. State The economic sector took a leading position in the country's economy (in 1967 the state sector accounted for 80–85% of industrial output).

In 1966 – beginning. 1967 Tensions increased on the Syrian-Israeli border. In June 1967, the military began. actions as a result of which part of the sir. territories, including the Golan Heights and the Quneitra area, were occupied by the Israelis. These events, as well as the inability of the authorities to ensure the restoration of the economy (a significant part of the Syrian enterprises were destroyed or damaged by Israeli air strikes) significantly undermined the government’s reputation and provoked a wave of protests. At the same time, a split was growing within the ruling elite, which created the conditions for a new state. coup in November 1970, as a result of which the military came to power. PASV wing led by H. Assad.

Syria 1970–2011

With the coming to power of H. Assad, a development strategy was chosen (within the framework of a 5-year plan), which provided for the state. financing and control over the activities of capital-intensive enterprises at the same time. supporting trade and investment in the private sector (especially in construction and agriculture). Sire. private companies benefited from the rise in oil prices that brought prosperity to the Arab world. oil-producing monarchies, from expanding ties with banks and light industry of Lebanon, from strengthening diplomatic relations. contacts and generous economics. assistance from Saudi Arabia. Arabia and Kuwait at the end. 1970s The Arab-Israeli War of 1973 showed a noticeable strengthening of Israel's defense capability compared to 1967. However, the use of budget funds by the ruling elite and the rapid enrichment of businessmen associated with top officials provoked accusations of corruption, which, together with the growing competition between the state. and private firms, gave impetus to the activation of various. Islamist movements that began in 1976 against governments. campaign. In 1977–78, it resulted in a series of attacks on government facilities and the murders of prominent functionaries of S. and PASV.

After clashes between the army and rebels in Aleppo, Hama and Homs in the spring of 1980, the authorities made a number of concessions. At the same time, in July, a decision was made to criminalize membership in the organization Muslim Brothers. In response, in the fall, a group of influential religions. figures formed the Islamic Front to coordinate the actions of the radical opposition. The measures taken by the government are increasing wages at enterprises that are dependent on the center. authorities decreased in favor of the local administration, an increase in fiscal pressure on private companies in the manufacturing industry, monopolization in favor of the state. enterprises (including restrictions for private importers) - caused unrest in Hama in February. 1982, organized by the Muslim Brotherhood (suppressed by the army under the command of the president’s brother, R. Assad). Based on calls for the elimination of corruption, free elections to the Constituent. assembly and liberalization of the constitution, as well as criticism of H. Assad for supporting Iran in the war with Iraq (see. Iran-Iraq War), groups of the Islamic Front and other underground organizations united in the National. Union for the Liberation of Syria.

In the beginning 1980s Due to the fall in world oil prices, export earnings decreased significantly, while military prices increased sharply. costs due to Israeli aggression in Lebanon. Under these conditions, in Jan. The 1985 PASV congress criticized the inefficiency and corruption of the state. sector and proposed to reorganize the complex system of exchange rates to reduce illegal currency trafficking and losses from black market transactions. In the spring of the same year, Prime Minister. A. R. al-Qasm began negotiations with the West. states and financial organizations to attract investment in the village. x-in and service sector. In 1986, the EEC promised S. appropriate assistance [this was realized only after Damascus supported the international operation in 1990–91. coalition against Iraq (see Kuwait crisis 1990–91)]. Multi-billion dollar subsidies and loans Arab. The monarchies of the Persian Gulf allowed for the rapid growth of the sir. economy (6% in 1990, 8% in 1991), but sharply increased the country's balance of payments deficit. Since 1987, the government has stepped up support for private enterprise and continued the policy of rapprochement with the West (including the settlement of Syrian-Israeli relations). Relations with Jordan improved, on the border with which a free trade zone opened in 2000.

In Feb. 1999 H. Assad was re-elected president (99.9% of the votes in the referendum). But given his advanced age, The issue became the question of a successor: after the removal of R. Assad from the post of vice president, B. Assad became the probable successor to the head of state. In the July 2000 elections (after the death of the president in June), B. Assad took over his father’s post and received the support of 97.3% of the votes.

The new head of S. declared his intention to reach a settlement with Israel subject to the withdrawal of its weapons. forces to the borders in 1967, and in 2002 announced readiness without preliminary. restrictions to resume peace negotiations from the point at which his predecessor broke them off. While taking steps towards rapprochement with Iraq, Assad at the same time sought to expand his base. influence in Lebanon went strategic. partnership with Shiite radicals from Hezbollah. In 2003, S. sharply condemned Iraq. NATO campaign, for which she was accused of supporting terrorism and harboring accomplices of Saddam Hussein, which was followed by sanctions from the United States. In October of the same year, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), after the Islamic Jihad terrorist attack in Haifa, carried out an airstrike on camps in the vicinity of Damascus (occupied, according to the Israeli version, by Palestinian radicals, and according to the Syrian version, by refugees). The issue of sanctions against S. escalated in February. 2005 after the explosion of a car in Beirut. Lebanon Prime Minister R. al-Hariri: accusations were made against Damascus, which allegedly sought to destabilize the situation before the parliamentary elections in Lebanon, after September. 2004 The UN called for the withdrawal of Sir. armies from the country (in March 2005, the armed forces of S. implemented the corresponding resolution). In the spring of 2007, presidential elections were held, in which the only candidate, B. Assad, won.

Civil war in Syria

In March 2011, unrest began in Daraa (on the border with Jordan) under anti-corruption slogans, which, after their harsh suppression, continued under new slogans (trial of those responsible for the violence, release of political prisoners, resignation of the governor). The unrest that spread throughout Daraa later spread to other areas (Latakia, Baniyas, Homs, Hama, and some suburbs of Damascus). By April, the confrontation in the south of the North had reached its maximum. incandescence The opposition accused the government of suppressing a protest with hundreds of peaceful victims, the government accused the opposition of extremism and massacres of military personnel. security forces and agencies. Against this background, B. Assad announced a political reforms: the abolition of the state of emergency that had been in force since 1963, the creation of a social assistance fund for the poor, the reduction of conscription military service, and an increase in wages. A commission to investigate the events in Daraa was established, the governor was dismissed, and more than 300 political prisoners were released from prison. However, this did not lead to calm; on the contrary, opposition protests increasingly took the form of weapons. confrontation.

In Feb. In 2012, a new draft constitution was submitted to a referendum, according to which PASV was deprived of its leading and directing status and was obliged to participate in elections on an equal basis with other parties. In May, at the first multi-party parliamentary elections, the “National” bloc received a majority. unity”, which included PASV and Progressive National. front. Independent parties also entered the parliament (including the opposition “Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes” and regional associations). Soon, more than 100 civilians were killed in Al-Hul under unclear circumstances. The authorities blamed opposition provocateurs. The next presidential elections in June 2014 were held in factual conditions. citizen war: according to official According to data, 88.7% of voters voted for B. Assad, but the West, in particular the United States, refused to recognize the voting results. Part of the territory of S. came under the control of various. paramilitary organizations (terrorist Islamic State in the east, the Islamic Front and the al-Nusra Front in the west, the Syrian National Coalition and the Free Army of Syria in the south, Kurdish militias in the north).

At the initiative of the United States, at the NATO summit on September 4–5, 2014, an international coalition against terrorism organization "Islamic State". On September 23, 2014, the US Armed Forces began carrying out air strikes on the positions of the “Islamic State” on the territory of the North. Saud joined the US operation. Arabia, UAE, Jordan; Qatar and Bahrain provided military assistance. 15.3.2015 Türkiye gave permission to the United States to use the Incirlik Air Force Base to host Americans. combat unmanned aerial vehicles. From 30.9.2015 according to official B. Assad's request for ground air support. military forces in the fight against the “Islamic State” the military began. Russian operation in St.

Diplomatic Relations between the USSR and S. were established in July 1944. Russian-Sir. Relations are traditionally friendly. Their foundation was laid during the period of close cooperation between the USSR and Slovakia. Relations between Russia and Slovakia are based on the mutual trust of the countries and the general mood of their citizens. In 2005, 2006 and 2008, B. Assad visited Russia. In May 2010, V.V. Putin’s first visit to Damascus in the history of bilateral relations took place. Political Recent interaction has focused on issues of internal Syrian settlement.

Farm

S. is a country of medium economic level. development among the countries of the South-West. Asia. GDP volume is 107.6 billion dollars (2011, at purchasing power parity); based on GDP per capita $5,100. Human development index 0.658 (2013; 119th place among 187 countries).

The basis of the economy - p. farming, fuel industry and trade. In the beginning 21st century government reforms were aimed at creating a socially oriented market economy under the state. regulation of such areas as finance, energy, railways. and aviation transport. Steps were taken to liberalize the economy, intensify the activities of the private sector, and attract foreigners. investments, etc. So. Damage to the economy (especially in cities) was caused by the war that began in 2011. conflict between governments. troops and rebel groups. The state has grown. debt, economic growth rates have decreased. growth, inflation accelerated, etc.; industrial area was significantly destroyed. infrastructure (the oil industry was hit the hardest). By 2015 it will be destroyed. international shares terrorist organizations (“Islamic State” and others) disorganized farms. communications, brought the country's economy to the brink of collapse.

In the structure of GDP, the share of the service sector is 60.2%, industry – 22.2%, agriculture, forestry and fishing – 17.6% (2013, estimate).

Industry

The most developed (before the escalation of the armed conflict in mid-2012) industrial sectors: oil and natural gas production and processing, electric power, chemical, construction materials, food and textile.

Oil production 8.2 million tons (2012, estimate; 19.2 million tons in 2010); basic production areas are located in the northeast (including the Karachuk, Suwaidiya, Rumailan fields; all in the Al-Hasakah governorate) and in the east of the country (including the Omar, Tanak, El-Ward and other fields in the governorate Deir ez-Zor). The largest refineries are in the cities of Baniyas (installed capacity 6.6 million tons of crude oil per year; Tartus governorate) and Homs (5.3 million tons). The leading company is Al Furat Petroleum (jointly owned by the state-owned General Petroleum Corporation and several foreign companies).

Natural gas production 16.6 billion m3 (2012, estimate); basic deposits – Al-Dubayat and Al-Arak (Homs governorate). Gas processing plants - in the city of Deir ez-Zor (installed capacity of about 4.8 million m 3 per year), as well as near the Omar field (2.4 million m 3), the city of Tadmor (2.2 million . m 3, Homs governorate), etc.

Electricity production approx. 44 billion kWh (2010); including at thermal power plants - 94% (the largest is Aleppo, capacity 1065 MW; in Jibrin, Aleppo governorate), at hydroelectric power stations - 6% (the largest is Tabqa on the Euphrates River, capacity 800 MW; near . Ar-Raqqa).

Ferrous metallurgy is represented by steel smelting (10 thousand tons in 2012, estimate; 70 thousand tons in 2011) and production (mainly based on imported raw materials and semi-finished products) of rolled steel and billets (approx. 130 thousand tons in 2012 , estimate; 890 thousand tons in 2011; plants in the cities of Latakia, Aleppo, etc.).

Mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and the electronic industry depend on the supply of components from abroad. Among the enterprises are automobile assembly plants in the cities of Adra (Rif Dimashq governorate) and Hisya (Homs governorate).

Phosphates are mined (1.5 million tons in 2012, estimate; 3.5 million tons in 2011; the main deposits are Alsharqiya and Kneifis, west of Tadmor; most of the products are exported), rock salt, etc. Among the chemical enterprises industry - factories for the production of minerals. fertilizers, sulfur (as a by-product of oil and natural gas refining), sulfuric acid, ammonia, phosphoric acid, plastics, cosmetics, paint and varnish products, detergents, polymer materials, etc. S. is one of the leading Arab. pharmaceutical production countries drugs. In the beginning 2010s St. acted in S. 50 pharmaceutical companies (approx. 17 thousand employees; main centers - Aleppo and Damascus), providing approx. 90% national medication needs.

The construction materials industry is developed. Production (million tons, 2012, estimate): dolomite 21.2, volcanic tuff 0.5, gypsum 0.3, etc. Production: cement 4 million tons; asphalt 13 thousand tons (2012, estimate; 157 thousand tons in 2010; in the cities of Deir ez-Zor, Kafriya, Latakia governorate, etc.).

The textile industry has traditionally been of great importance (among the centers are Aleppo and Damascus). The industry is represented by cotton ginning. factories, silk spinning factories (main center - Latakia), production of wool and cotton yarn, fabrics, ready-made clothing, etc. The leather and footwear industry specializes in the production of shoes, belts, bags, jackets, etc. Food-flavoring industry (including sugar, oil, tobacco, production of canned vegetables and fruits, drinks). Traditions are widespread. handicrafts: carpet weaving, production of various. artist metal products (including Damascus sabers and knives, copper products), silver and gold jewelry, fabrics (Damascus brocade), furniture (including mahogany, inlaid, painted and carved), etc. .

Agriculture

One of the chapters industries national economy. In the structure of agricultural of land out of 13.9 million hectares, pastures account for 8.2 million hectares, arable land - 4.7 million hectares, perennial plantings - 1.0 million hectares (2011). In the beginning 2010s the industry satisfied its own. S.'s food needs and provided the light and food processing industries with raw materials.

Crop farming (about 65% of the value of agricultural products) develops on a narrow coastal strip (fruits, olives, tobacco, and cotton are grown on fertile soils in high moisture conditions), as well as in the valleys of the El Asi and Euphrates rivers; Rain-fed (wheat, barley, etc.) and irrigated (including cotton) agriculture is widespread between Damascus and Aleppo, as well as along the border with Turkey. Grown (harvest, million tons in 2012, estimate): wheat 3.6, olives 1.0, tomatoes 0.8, potatoes 0.7, barley 0.7, oranges 0.5, watermelons 0.4, apples 0 ,3, other vegetables and fruits, almonds, pistachios, spices, figs, etc. Viticulture. Ch. technical crops - cotton (raw cotton harvest 359.0 thousand tons, 2012, estimate; main sample in the north of the country) and sugar beets (1027.9 thousand tons).

Livestock raising (about 35% of the value of agricultural products) is extensive; in semi-desert areas it is nomadic and semi-nomadic. Livestock (million heads, 2013, estimate): poultry 21.7, sheep 14.0, goats 2.0, cattle 0.8. Donkeys, camels, horses and mules are also bred. Production (thousand tons, 2012, estimate): milk 2446.0, meat 382.0, wool 22.0; eggs 2457.8 million pcs. Beekeeping. Sericulture (in the Orontes River valley). Fishing (in coastal waters; catch approx. 12 thousand tons per year).

Service sector

The financial system is regulated by the Central Bank of S. (in Damascus) and is represented by several state. (the largest is the Commercial Bank of S., in Damascus) and small private ones (emerged in the early 2000s as part of reforms aimed at liberalizing the economy) commercial banks. banks, there are also international branches. banks (including the National Bank of Qatar). Stock exchange in Damascus (the only one in the country). Foreign tourism (mainly cultural and educational); in 2011 S. visited approx. 2.3 million people (including from Turkey - over 56%).

Transport

Basic mode of transport – automobile. The densest road network is in the west. parts of the country; the total length of roads is 74.3 thousand km (including 66.1 thousand km with hard surface, 2012). Ch. highways (Daraa/border with Jordan - Damascus - Homs - Aleppo, etc.) connect the main. settlements, and also serve for the transit of goods to Turkey and Europe. countries. The total length of railways is 2.8 thousand km (2012). Basic lines: Damascus – Homs – Hama – Aleppo – Maidan Iqbes/border with Turkey; Aleppo – Latakia – Tarsus – Homs; Homs - Palmyra (transportation of phosphorites from deposits near Tadmor to the port of Tartus); Aleppo - Ar-Raqqa - Qamishli / border with Turkey. Intl. airports - in Damascus (the largest in the country), Aleppo, Latakia. Ch. mor. ports: Latakia (freight turnover of about 3.0 million tons in the early 2010s; export of container cargo, import of food, machinery and equipment, textiles, chemicals, etc.) and Tartus (2.0; export of phosphorites ; import of various metals, building materials, food products). The country has an extensive network of oil pipelines connecting fields with terminals at sea. ports (Baniyas, Latakia, Tartus) and refineries, as well as those serving for transit pumping of oil from Iraq and Saud. Arabia. Oil product pipelines run from Homs and Baniyas to Damascus, Aleppo and Latakia. Gas pipelines from fields in the east and center of the north reach Aleppo (further to Turkey) and Homs (further to Tartus and Baniyas); The section of the Pan-Arab gas pipeline (via Damascus and Homs) transports natural gas from Egypt to the port of Baniyas.

Foreign trade

The volume of foreign trade turnover is 11,592 million dollars (2013, estimate), including exports of 2,675 million dollars, imports of 8,917 million dollars (the ongoing crisis in the country led to a significant reduction in volumes; in 2012, the volume of exports amounted to 3,876 million dollars, imports - 10,780 million dollars). Exports are dominated by oil and petroleum products (over 1/3 cost), agricultural products (cotton, diff. vegetables and fruits, wheat, live cattle, meat, wool), consumer goods. Ch. buyers (% of value, 2012 estimate): Iraq 58.4, Saud. Arabia 9.7, Kuwait 6.4. Imported are machinery and equipment, food, metals and products made from them, miscellaneous. chemicals, etc. Ch. suppliers (% of cost): Saudi. Arabia 22.8, UAE 11.2, Iran 8.3.

Armed forces

Armed forces (AF) number 178 thousand people. (all data for 2014) and consist of the Ground Forces (ground forces), air force and air defense, and navy. Military officer formations – up to 100 thousand people. (of which about 8 thousand are in the gendarmerie). Reserve approx. 300 thousand people, including in the North – 275 thousand people. Military annual budget is 2.2 billion dollars. In connection with the active hostilities taking place on the territory of S. since 2015, the numerical strength of its armed forces is undergoing significant changes. changes.

The Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces is the president of the country, who determines the basic. directions of military-political course S. and exercises leadership of the Armed Forces through the Defense Ministry and the General Staff. Subordinate to him are the Chief of the General Staff (also the commander of the Ground Forces), commanders of the branches of the Armed Forces and some of the center. MO management.

Direct command of the troops is entrusted to the commanders of the armed forces. Most formations and units are below their normal strength.

NE (110 thousand people) – main. type of aircraft. Organizationally, they are consolidated into 3 army corps headquarters, 12 divisions, 13 departments. brigades, 11 departments special regiments appointments. Reserve: tank division headquarters, 4 tank brigades, regiments (31 infantry, 3 artillery, 2 tank). The SV is armed with St. 94 PU operational-tactical. and tactful. missiles, 6 anti-ship missile launchers, 4950 tanks (including 1200 in repair and storage), 590 armored personnel carriers, approx. 2450 infantry fighting vehicles, 1500 armored personnel carriers, St. 3440 field artillery guns (including 2030 towed and 430 self-propelled), approx. 4400 PU ATGM, up to 500 MLRS, St. 410 mortars, 84 air defense systems, more than 4000 MANPADS, 2050 anti-aircraft artillery guns, several. unmanned aircraft, etc.

The Air Force and Air Defense (approx. 56 thousand people) have combat and auxiliary personnel. aviation, as well as air defense forces and means. Basic administrative body and operational control of Air Force units is the headquarters, and in the Air Defense Forces - the department. command; The aviation forces are subordinate to them. squadrons. The Air Force is armed with 20 bombers, 130 fighter-bombers, 310 fighters, 14 reconnaissance, 31 combat training and 25 military transport aircraft, 80 combat and 110 transport helicopters. Airplanes and helicopters mainly obsolete types, ch. arr. MiG-21. The airfield network of the North includes more than 100 airfields, and for the basing of modern. Only 21 airfields are suitable for aircraft. The main ones are: Abu ad-Duhur, Aleppo, Bley, Damascus, Dumayr, En-Nasiriya, Seikal, Tifor. Reinforced concrete has been constructed at all military aviation base airfields. shelters for airplanes. Air defense units are represented by 2 divisions, 25 anti-aircraft missile brigades, radio engineering units. troops. They are armed with approx. 750 PU SAM, approx. 2000 anti-aircraft artillery guns of calibers from 23 to 100 mm.

The Navy (5 thousand people) consists of the fleet, naval aviation, coast guard and defense units, logistics institutions and educational institutions. The ship's composition includes 2 small anti-submarine ships, 16 missile boats, 3 landing ships, 8 minesweepers, 2 hydrographic ships. ships, training ship. Coast Guard and Defense includes infantry. brigade, 12 batteries of anti-ship missile systems P-5 and P-15, 2 art. division (36 130 mm and 12 100 mm guns), coastal observation battalion. The fleet aviation is armed with 13 helicopters. Based in Latakia, Tartus.

Private and non-commissioned officers are trained in schools, officers - in the military. academies and abroad. Regular armed forces are recruited by males aged 19–40 years, service life is 30 months. Mobilization resources 5.1 million people, including those fit for military service. service 3.2 million people. One of the priority areas of the military. construction of military-political S.'s management considers deliveries to all types of modern aircraft. military samples equipment and weapons, ch. arr. from abroad. Great efforts are being made to obtain licenses and organize their production within the country.

Healthcare

In S. per 100 thousand inhabitants. there are 150 doctors, 186 persons cf. honey. staff and midwives (2012); 15 hospital beds per 10 thousand inhabitants. (2010). Total expenditure on health care is 3.4% of GDP (budget financing - 46.1%, private sector - 53.9%) (2012). Legal regulation of the health care system is carried out by the Constitution (1973) and the law on psychiatric care. assistance (2007). State healthcare is free. In war conditions. conflict, it needs to be restored as a structure and medical services. care and health care management systems. The most common infections are tuberculosis and polio (2012). Basic causes of death: injuries and other external factors, malnutrition, tuberculosis (2014).

Sport

National the Olympic Committee was founded in 1947 and recognized by the IOC in 1948. In the same year, S. athletes made their debut at the Olympic Games in London; subsequently participated in 11 Olympic Games (1968, 1972, 1980–2014) dept. team and in Rome (1960) as part of the United Arab team. Republic. The first Olympic award (silver medal) was won by J. Atiya (Los Angeles, 1984) in the freestyle wrestling competition in the weight category up to 100 kg. At the Olympic Games in Atlanta (1996), multiple record holder S. in various. types of athletics and the winner of the World Championship (1995, heptathlon) G. Shuaa won a gold medal in the heptathlon. The bronze Olympic award (Athens, 2004) was awarded to boxer N. al-Shami in the weight category up to 91 kg. Since 1978 sire. athletes participate in the Asian Games (except 1986); 9 gold, 8 silver and 14 bronze medals were won (as of December 1, 2015). Twice Damascus was the capital of the Pan-Arab Games (1976, 1992), sir. the athletes won the team competition. The most popular sports in the country: football, basketball, gymnastics, tennis, weightlifting, wrestling, boxing, swimming, track and field. Since 1972, the men's national team periodically takes part in the World Chess Olympiads.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

Management of education institutions are carried out by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. Muslim educational institutions are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Waqf Affairs. Basic regulatory documents: Decree on the Elimination of Illiteracy (1972), laws - obligatory. education (1981), about the activities of the universities (2006); resolutions of the Ministry of Education - on preschool education (1989, 1991), on prof. education (2000). The education system includes preschool education (paid), compulsory free 6-year primary education, secondary (3-year incomplete and 3-year complete) education, secondary vocational education. education (main education based on incomplete secondary school; course up to 3 years), higher education. There is a Center for Vocational and Technical Sciences. education in Aleppo (created in the 1970s with the help of the USSR). On the basis of complete secondary school and secondary vocational training. educational institutions offer 2-year technical training. in-you, which give prof. advanced education. In 2013, 5.3% of children were enrolled in preschool education, 74.2% in primary education, and 44.1% in secondary education. The literacy rate of the population over the age of 15 is 96.4% (2015, data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). Largest universities, ch. scientific institutions, libraries and museums are located in Damascus, Latakia, Aleppo and Homs.

Media

Daily newspapers are published in Arabic. language (all - Damascus): “Al-Baath” (“Renaissance”, since 1948, organ of PASV; circulation about 65 thousand copies), “Al-Saura” (“Revolution”, since 1963; about 55 thousand copies), “Tishrin” (“October”, since 1975; about 70 thousand copies), “Al-Watan” (“Motherland”, since 2006; about 22 thousand copies), “Nidal al-Shaab" ("Struggle of the People", since 1934; organ of the Central Committee of the Syrian Communist Party). In English language daily gas comes out. “Syria Times” (Damascus; since 1981; about 12 thousand copies). Weeklies are published in Arabic. language (all from Damascus): “Nidal al-Fillahin” (“Struggle of the Peasants”, since 1965, organ of the General Federation of Peasants of Syria; about 25 thousand copies), “Kifah al-Ummal al-Ishtiraki” (“Socialist . workers' struggle", since 1966, organ of the General Federation of Trade Unions of Syria; approx. 30 thousand copies). Radio broadcasting since 1946 (carried out by the government service "Directorate-General of Broadcasting and Television"; Damascus), broadcasting television programs since 1960 (government commercial service "Syrian Television"; Damascus). Govt. Sire. Arab. information agency (“Syrian Arab News Agency”; SANA) has been operating since 1966 (founded in 1965, Damascus).

Literature

Literature sir. people are developing into Arabic. language On the territory of the North in the 1st century. n. e. there was a sire. the language in which the literature was created. works (see Syrian literature) and which in the 14th century. The Arab was completely ousted. tongue. Middle-century liter S. – part Arab-Muslim culture. In the 19th century in North, which then also included the territories of Lebanon and Palestine, the period of enlightenment began; the desire to renew literature is inherent in the work of Adib Ishak (the story “Joys for Lovers and Delights for the Nights,” 1874; collection of essays “Pearls,” 1909; numerous translations of Western literature). The founders, sire. A. Kh. al-Kabbani and I. Farah became the theater's directors (historical dramas "Cleopatra", 1888; "The Greed of Women", 1889). At the origins of the new sire. prose - the work of F. Marrash (books “The Forest of Law”, 1866, “Travel to Paris”, 1867; the story “Pearls from Shells”, 1872; etc.). An important milestone in the development of sir. prose became works created in the traditions of maqama, but dedicated to pressing problems of sir. societies: N. al-Kasatli, Sh. al-Asali, M. al-Saqal, R. Rizka Sallum (“Diseases of the New Century”, 1909). Patriotic The theme distinguishes tradition. poetic in form. creativity of M. al-Bism, H. ad-Din al-Zarqali, H. Mardam-bek. In the 1920s–50s. Romanticism dominated in S.'s literature, most vividly embodied in the poetry of Sh. Jabri, A. al-Nasir, B. al-Jabal, O. Abu Risha, W. al-Kurunfuli, A. al-Attar, as well as prose by S. Abu Ghanim (collection of stories “Songs of the Night”, 1922), S. al-Kayali (collection “Storm and Light”, 1947), N. al-Ikhtiyar (story “The Return of Christ”, 1930). The emergence of the historical novel - the first major prose novel. genre in S. literature, associated with M. al-Arnaut (novels “The Lord of the Quraysh,” 1929; “Virgin Fatima,” 1942; etc.). Novels in modern times The themes “Greed” (1937), “Fate Plays” (1939), “Rainbow” (1946) are created by Sh. al-Jabiri.

Since the 1930s realism began to take hold, vividly represented by the short stories of A. Khulka (collection “Spring and Autumn”, 1931), M. an-Najjar (collection “In the Palaces of Damascus”, 1937), F. al-Shayib, V. Sakkakini, A. al-Salyama al-Ujayli (collection “The Witch’s Daughter”, 1948), etc. The genre of social comedy took shape in dramaturgy (M. al-Sibai), plays appeared in historical. and legendary stories (A. Mardam-bek, A. Suleiman al-Ahmed, Z. Mirza, O. Abu Risha, etc.). Realism remained the leading trend in prose in the 1950s–60s, addressing complex social problems: M. al-Kayali, H. al-Kayali, S. al-Sharif, Sh. Baghdadi, S. Khauraniya, F. as -Sibai, H. Mina, M. Safadi, H. al-Kayali (novel “Love Letters”, 1956), H. Barakat (novel “Green Peaks”, 1956), A. al-Ujayli (novel “Bashima in Tears”, 1959), etc. “Women’s” prose received the form, represented by the names of S. al-Haffar al-Kuzbari (autobiographical novel “The Diaries of Hala,” 1950), K. al-Khuri (novel “Days Spent with Him,” 1959). In psychology prose of Z. Tamer, marked stylistically. grace, the influence of Europe is noticeable. modernist literature. Existential issues dominated the short stories of the 1960s–1970s: collections of stories by J. Salem (“Poor People,” 1964), H. Haidar (“Wild Goats,” 1978), V. Ikhlasi and others.

In the 1960s “new poetry”, marked by metrical-rhythmic, developed. experiments: N. Kabbani, A. al-Nasir, O. al-Muyassar, H. ad-Din al-Asadi; The work of Adonis gained wide popularity. Romanticization of the past, appeal to mythological. the material is characterized by a rich philosophy. reflections on the dramaturgy of H. Hindawi, M. Haj Hussein S. al-Isa, A. Mardam Beg, O. al-Nas, M. al-Safadi; social themes distinguish the plays of M. al-Sibai and H. al-Kayali (“Knocking on the Door,” 1964; “The Carpenter’s Daughter,” 1968). The creators of the “political theater” were S. Wannus and M. al-Hallaj (the play “Dervishes are looking for the truth”, 1970). Events Arab-Israeli wars found a vivid embodiment in the prose of the 1970–90s, in particular in the works of A. Abu Shanab, A. Orsan (story “Golan Heights”, 1982), I. Luka, N. Said, etc.; they were presented in a modernist vein by M. Yusuf (collection of stories “Faces of the Late Night,” 1974). The novel developed predominantly. in realistic. spirit, gravitating towards panoramic, epic. depiction of human destinies and events (H. Mina, F. Zarzur, I. Masalima, K. Kilyani, A. Nahvi, A. al-Salam al-Ujayli, S. Dikhni, Y. Rifaiya, H. al-Zahabi, A . Y. Daud and others). Prose con. 20 – beginning 21st centuries dedicated to the preem. socio-political and patriotic subject; Among its most prominent representatives are H. al-Zahabi, M. al-Khani, Y. Rifaiya, G. al-Samman (novels “Masquerade of the Dead,” 2003; N. Suleiman (novel “Forbidden Souls,” 2012).

Architecture and fine arts

In historical In the past, the territory of S. belonged to different cultural zones and was influenced by many. civilizations: Sumerian-Akkadian and Babylonian-Assyrian, Hittite and Hurrian, ancient Egypt, Aegean and Greco-Roman; south S. was closely connected with the complex of cultures of Arabia. In the 3rd century. BC e. – 3rd century n. e. S. became the area of ​​​​contact between the ancient and Parthian traditions, in the 4th–7th centuries. – Byzantine. and Iranian-Sasanian. This versatility of ancient art. S.'s culture determined its originality, the formation of original schools of architecture, and depicted. and decorative and applied arts.

The most ancient architects. S.'s monuments date back to the 10th–7th millennium BC. e. (Mureibit II, III, c. 9800–8600 BC; Tell Aswad, c. 8700–7000 BC). Among the archaeological finds - “idols” made of limestone, stone and clay figurines of people and animals, clay vessels, baskets, beads made of shells, bones and pebbles. In the settlements of the east. parts of the Northern territory, rectangular 3–4-room houses made of mud brick, with whitewashed walls, sometimes painted with red liquid clay (Bukras, ca. 7400–6200 BC), also stone and terracotta figurines, vessels made of alabaster and marble (Tell Ramad, c. 8200–7800). In the settlements of the 6th millennium BC. e. polished pottery is found, sometimes with incised or stamped ornaments, in the eastern. regions - ceramics from the Samarra culture (Baghuz, Middle Euphrates). In the north-east S. in complexes of the 5th millennium BC. e. terracotta female figurines with a conical “hairstyle” and painted eyes were found (Tell Halaf); in the Palanli cave (north S.) - animal drawings close to the Halaf ceramics style. Eneolithic settlements of the north and north-east parts of the Northern territory had a double line of walls with towers and gates, paved streets, a network of water conduits, gardens, temples, and administration. buildings, multi-room rectangular houses with a center plan. hall and internal courtyard (Habuba-Kabira, c. 3500–3300 BC). Hundreds of “big-eyed idols” (figures made of alabaster with double rings at the top) were inserted into the lime mortar of the mud brick walls of the “Temple of the Eye” (c. 3500–3300 BC) at Tell Brak; the facades were decorated with clay cones and copper plates and gold. From the 2nd half. 4th millennium BC e. artists were created. products made of copper, gold, silver, stone and ceramics. vessels, stone and bone amulets in the form of animals, figurines of people, cylindrical. seals with reliefs (Habuba-Kabira, Jebel Aruda).

) S. The cities had massive walls (in the western regions of stone, in the eastern - of brick), regularly paved streets, houses with courtyards, wells, baths, sewers and a family crypt-treasury. The fortified palaces included complexes of rectangular buildings of various types. appointments grouped around yards of different sizes; Ch. the rooms stood out for their size and richness of decoration (the palace of King Zimri-Lim in Mari, 18th century BC; the royal palace in Ugarit, c. 1400 BC). The walled temples included a courtyard with an altar, an entrance hall and a cella with a dedicatory area. steles and statues of gods. In northern architecture S. in con. 2nd millennium BC e. a type of Syro-Hittite temple and/or bit-hilani palace (Kapara palace-temple in Tell Halaf) developed.

Bronze Age works of art demonstrate a variety of stylistic orientations. Finds in Mari (fragments of paintings, statues, reliefs, etc.) indicate the development of a local version of Mesopotamian depictions. art, departing from the Old Babylonian canon. Works by Ebla illustrate the process of adaptation and processing of the East. and zap. artist traditions. The sculpture is reminiscent of Sumerian in style and iconography, but with more careful attention to detail. The archaic roughness of the enlarged forms of mythological images. creatures akin to the plastic arts of the Hittites; jewelry with elegance and style. The variety is reminiscent of the products of Ugarit, where most of them come from. monuments of art from S. ser. 2nd millennium BC e. Gold dishes and bowls with chased and engraved reliefs, ivory sculpture inlaid with silver, copper, emerald, glassware, weapons, painted ceramics, etc., partly imported or oriented to Mycenaean or Egyptian. samples, mainly demonstrate Ugaritic style with organic. a synthesis of Eastern Mediterranean, Aegean and Syro-Mesopotamian traditions.

The invasions of the Sea Peoples and the expansion of Assyria led to the destruction of many. cities and fundamental changes in art. traditions of S. In the 9th century. BC e. in the north S. Assyrian adm. arise. and artist centers - for example, Til-Barsib (Aramaic Bit-Adini on the Euphrates, now Tell Ahmar) with a palace decorated with monumental stone steles with cult reliefs and wall paintings, anticipating the style of art of Assyria in its heyday; Arslan-Tash - Aramaic and Assyrian. city ​​in the north border of S. (statues, bas-reliefs depicting people and animals, ivory plates with carved Egyptian symbols, scenes and images of the Aegean-Mediterranean circle, 9–8 centuries BC). In the north and northeast of the country at the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. one of the syncretistic variants was formed. Syro-Hittite art, distinguished by the fusion of Hurrian and Hittite features in iconography and the style of archaic, crude images.

Damascus) cities received a regular street layout according to hippodamian system and were fortified with powerful stone walls and a citadel. In the Hellenistic ensemble. cities, along with Greek temples. and local deities, theatres, stadiums, palaestras, meeting houses, agora, etc. occupied an important place. The design and image of the buildings was determined by architectural order. From Rome time, the majestic ruins of Apamea and Palmyra have been preserved (almost destroyed by the so-called Islamic state in 2015). Basic highways (Roman cardo and decumanus), with tetrapylons (Laodicea) at intersections, often equipped with colonnades and porticos, connected ch. mountains gate. In the design of colonnaded streets and societies. buildings, villas, triumphal arches and columns, an important role was given to statues, reliefs, paintings and floor mosaics. Each city had its own characteristics: Philippopolis (now Shahba) in the south. S. is planned according to the Roman type. military camps; Palmyra had a 3-span monumental arch, masking the turn of the processional road to the sanctuary of Bel, etc. The original schools will be depicted. The art of ancient synagogue developed in Philippopolis (floor mosaics), Palmyra (painting and sculpture), and in Dura-Europos (paintings combining features of Parthian-Iranian, Syro-Mesopotamian and Hellenistic art; some frescoes of the synagogue anticipate the style early Byzantine painting).

In the north S., among the ruins of abandoned agricultural farms. centers 4th – 1st third of 7th centuries. (“dead cities”), monuments of late antique and early Byzantine culture have been preserved: Sergilla (4th–5th centuries; remains of city walls, a church, a complex of baths, a dairy, residential buildings, etc.), al-Bara (4–6 centuries; churches, 2 pyramidal tombs with sarcophagi), etc. S. Byzantine architecture. time are distinguished by the severity of forms and restraint of decoration (mon. Kal'at-Sim'an, 5th century). Political and ideological differences prevented the formation of a unified regional architecture. type of temple. In general, the religious architecture of Christian S. evolved from a simple hall church (Kirk-Bizet, 4th century) to large 3-nave church basilicas with a gable roof on wood. rafters or stone vaults (at Kalb Luzech, 4th–5th centuries; church at Brad, 395–402). In the 6th century. domed basilicas, prototypes of cross-domed temples (the church “outside the walls” in Rusafa, 569–582), baptisteries, martyriums, fortified monasteries with bastion towers (on the site of the early Islamic castle Qasr al-Khair East, 728–729) and castles-palaces ( Qasr-ibn-Wardan, 2nd floor 6th century). Marble cladding, mosaic floors, subject paintings, stucco, stone and wood were widely used to decorate the interiors of palaces and temples. carvings, gilding, woven draperies, bronze and silver utensils, furniture. Floor mosaics of Bosra (now Busra al-Sham), Apamea, Hama, rare works of sculpture, the increasing role of ornament mark a turn to the conventional pictorial and decorative form, the language of symbols inherent early Christian art, as well as Hellenized artists. schemes and motives. Works of applied art (silver and gold vessels with chasing and engraving, crosses, figured lamps, patterned silk fabrics, etc.) are distinguished by a combination of early Byzantine and local traditions. After the Muslims. During the conquest of S., the art of Christians existed in monasteries (frescoes of the monastery of Deir Mar Musa, 12th century).

Syro-Byzantine art. the school played a crucial role in the formation of early Islamic culture, especially in the Umayyad era, when the cities of S. generally retained their Roman-Byzantine appearance. During the reconstruction of old buildings, a Muslim center was formed. cities with a cathedral mosque ( Umayyad mosque in Damascus) and the palace adm. complex - Dar al-Imara (Damascus, Hama, Aleppo). In the 1st half. 8th century the construction of remote residences and estates – “desert castles” – began; at the basis of their layout one can guess the Roman scheme. fort and byzantium. fortified monastery. The formation of a new artist. concept - an abstract worldview, which later led to the predominant development of calligraphy and ornament - manifested itself in the design of religious and palace buildings (architectural landscapes of smalt mosaics of the Umayyad mosque in Damascus, c. 715). Surviving examples of monumental painting, sculpture and ornamental decoration demonstrate a complex interweaving of ancient, early Byzantine, Syro-Mesopotamian and Iranian styles. Sasanian traditions (floor frescoes and stuk sculpture from the “desert castle” of Qasr al-Khair Western, 727).

With the Abbasids moving the center of the Caliphate to Iraq, new cities began to be built in the Mesopotamian part of Syria ( Er-Rak ka, founded in 772 on the model of "Madinat al-Salam", see Baghdad). By the 12th–13th centuries. S. cities acquired the Middle Ages. view. Large construction took place in Damascus and Aleppo. Inside the walls with massive entrance gates and watchtowers, the cities were divided into separate ones according to religion. and craft-based residential areas with religious buildings, markets, and societies. bathhouse The city center was grouped around or near the citadel. A feature of S.'s architecture has become cultic and charitable. complexes: rectangular in plan, 2–3-story building with a center. courtyard with ivans on the main axes and a pool in the center, which united a madrasah, maristan (medical hospital) or ribat or taqiya (abode of Sufis) with a prayer house and tomb of the founder (mosque-madrasah-ribat al-Firdaus, 1235, Aleppo). A special place in the Middle Ages. architecture of the north-west S. is occupied by crusader castles, combining the traditions of early Byzantine, late Romanesque, and early Gothic architecture ( Krak des Chevaliers, Margat, both – 12th–13th centuries, Arabic in place. fortresses of the 11th century). During the Mamluk era, northern trade and craft centers (Damascus, Aleppo) expanded greatly.

It will depict blossoming. claim of the Middle Ages. S. coincided with the era of the Ayyubids and Mamluks. Book miniatures in manuscripts collection. fables “Kalila and Dimna” (1220, National Library, Paris; 1354, Bodley Library, Oxford), picaresque short stories “Maqama” by al-Hariri (1222, National Library, Paris), works by al-Hariri Mubashshira about the philosophers of antiquity (early 13th century, Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul) shows several directions: colorful, naively plausible, expressive and humorous scenes. intonation; more refined and complicated compositions; works reminiscent of the Middle Ages. mosaic or Byzantine-influenced. writing manners. The miniature clearly influenced the development of subject and ornamental painting on glass (colored enamels) and glazed ceramics (the main centers are Er-Raqqa, Rusafa), on the decor of bronze products (trays, vessels, incense burners, lamps, etc.), decorated chasing, engraving, carving, silver inlay (Damascus, Aleppo). Middle-century S. craftsmen became famous for making weapons, jewelry, silk patterned fabrics, and wood. carving, painting, inlay. The ubiquitous ornament is geometric. compositions, arabesques (in the form of leafy shoots forming spirals, often with flowers, birds, or a patterned rhombic grid with plant, epigraphic and figurative motifs) - became more and more complex, multi-layered (“pattern within a pattern”) and abstract.

The architecture of S. as part of the Ottoman Empire (1516–1918) acquired the features of a tour. architecture Mosques of this time usually have a small cube. volume with center hemispherical dome and slender needle-shaped minarets. The facades of the buildings are faced with contrasting rows of black and white (or yellowish) stone. The interiors of mosques, madrassas, khans (caravanserais), palaces and rich residential buildings with marble-paved courtyards with fruit trees and bushes, iwans, arcade porticos, flower beds, pools and fountains are becoming more and more elegant (Azema palaces in Damascus and Hama, 18 c.), decorated with ceramic cladding. panel with growing patterns in sonorous colors. A network of covered markets-passages with mosques, baths, and khans was formed. The street facades of 2-3-story buildings now have windows with shutters and balconies covered with wood. carved mashrabiya grilles. Monumental and decorative art and art. crafts have also undergone this means. changes (large ornament with floral motifs; calligraphic inscriptions). Carving and painting on marble and wood, inlay on wood (camel bone, colored wood, mother-of-pearl, silver) achieved high skill.

In con. 19 – 1st half. 20th centuries changes in art S.'s life led to the development of Europe. forms of architecture and depicts. art (the emergence of oil painting). In the 1920s the reconstruction of cities began (with the participation of French architects J. Sauvage, M. Ecochar, R. Danger) with the preservation of architectural monuments and the emergence of European. quarters (Damascus, general plan 1929). Mn. S. artists and architects studied in Europe; Architects X. Farra, S. Mudarris, B. al-Hakim and others were educated at Damascus University. Since the 1970s, along with the construction of the state. buildings (the municipality in Latakia, 1973, architects A. Dib, K. Seibert; the presidential palace in Damascus, 1990, architect Tange Kenzo, etc.), the construction of new residential areas, hospital complexes, parks, stadiums, university campuses began, museum buildings, and resort buildings on the coast.

Depict. claim S. 1st half. 20th century took shape in the process of European exploration. artist culture and search for national style (painter M. Kirsha, sculptors and painters M. Jalal, M. Fathi, M. Hammad). Sir was founded in 1952. Association of Arts, in 1971 - Sir. branch of the Arab Union. artists. Among the masters are the 2nd floor. 20 – beginning 21st centuries - landscape painters N. Shaura, N. Ismail, artist and art historian A. Bahnassi, representative of the Sir. avant-garde art F. al-Mudarris, portrait painter L. Kayali, graphic artists N. Nabaa and N. Ismail, painter-calligrapher M. Ganum. The decorative and applied art of S. preserves tradition. types: embroidery, carpet weaving, weaving, fabric making, chasing and engraving on metal, carving, painting and inlay on wood.

Music

Among the monuments of ancient muses. culture of S. - large floor mosaic of Rome. Villa Maryamin (near Hama, 4th century), depicting rich Roman women playing music; it presents muses. instruments: oud, kamancha, kanun, goblet-shaped drum - darbuka, etc.). Samples of early music sir. no Christians survived; modern sir. “hymns” were influenced by late Greek church music (multiple ratios of rhythmic durations, clock metrics and the presence of a bourdon - “Ison”) and, on the other hand, maqama (hemiolic, ornamental microchromatics). In the divine service, Western Sir. Church (Antiochian rite) uses the everyday song book (hymnary) “Beth Gezo” (“Repository of Treasures”; edited by Nuri Iskander, 1992), containing approx. 700 notated chants (in modern decoding in 5-line notation). Before the start of armament. conflict in Damascus, the Sir Orchestra functioned. radio (1950) and Syrian Conservatory (1961); An opera troupe was formed at the Higher Institute of Drama and Music “Dar al-Assad” in 2004.

Theater

Until sep. 19th century development of prof. theatrical art in S. was hampered by the negative attitude of Islam towards anthropomorphic images. At the same time, the desire for acting acquired its unique features here, finding ways to survive in an unfavorable environment. Being historically the heir of three great cultures - Mesopotamian, Greco-Roman and Arab-Muslim, S., like other Arabs. countries, developed people. forms of performing arts in which almost all theatrical components are present. This is an ancient art of storytellers, a theater of shadows and puppets Karagyoz, folk scenes. comedy fasl mudhik. All performances are based on the trinity of verbal, musical and plastic. lawsuit These became artists. tradition of the people spectacular forms are included in the arsenal of sire. theater and in the 21st century.

Along with Egypt, S. was previously another Arab. countries entered into trade and cultural contacts with the West. In the beginning 18th century missionaries opened schools here where mystery plays and morality plays were performed. Playwright A.H. al-Qabbani adapted world drama to local conditions. Knowing folklore well, he created synthetic performances. genre, organically connecting new forms of theatrical art with the tradition of folk art. spectacles, lit. text with music, singing and dancing. The social urgency of the plays and their wide audience success led to the closure of his theater in 1884 by decree of the tour. Sultan. Al-Kabbani emigrated among other sires. cultural figures whose mass exodus to Egypt in the 1870s and 80s. associated with tur pressure. authorities, the strengthening of the influence of the local clergy and the penetration of large European countries. capital. The “Syrian Arab theater in Egypt” movement arose, the successful representatives of which were playwrights S. al-Naqqash, A. Ishak, Y. al-Hayat and others. Thanks to their efforts, a theater troupe was organized in Alexandria, which staged plays “Harun ar -Rashid" (1850), "The Creation of Good" (1878), "Tyrant" (1879), "Telemaque" (1882), etc. Between the two world wars, people occupied a special place. improvisational forms of performance with pantomime, comic. skits and music. So... contribution to the development of sir. The theater was contributed by the actor and playwright N. al-Reyhani, whose play “Kish-Kish Bey” combined elements of French. vaudeville and national music comedies; Ch. the hero of the play is considered a descendant of the people. character Karagöz. It was based on its popularity in the 1920s. performances “The Barber of Baghdad” and “Jasmina” - fairy tales from “A Thousand and One Nights”. Circle of topics sire. dramas of the 1930s included Arabic stories. and Islamic history, adv. epic and mountains folklore Appeal to the historical events and characters at this stage were associated with the desire to arouse the public's admiration for the past greatness of the Arabs, awakening the national. self-awareness. The winning of independence in 1945 gave new impetus to the professionalization of theater and drama. In 1960, the National Society was created in Damascus. dramatic theater in which young directors A. Fedda, U. Ursan, D. Lachman worked. Social drama conquered the stage; Among the authors – V. Midfai, M. al-Safadi, Y. Maqdisi, M. Udwan, S. Haurania. The dramaturgy of S. Vannus, which explored the relationship between totalitarian power and the silent people, was distinguished by the most acute socially accusatory character. The criticism of the current regime on the stage began with Vannus's play “Party on the Occasion of June 5th” (1968). In his search for rapprochement with the public, his play “The Head of Mamluk Jaber” (1970) directed by Fedda (1973) became a milestone: using the technique of imaginary improvisation, the director introduced into the performance the image of a storyteller who removed the barrier between the stage and the hall, following the tradition of the national. folklore

At the turn of the 20th–21st centuries. one of the most pressing problems of stage production. lawsuits S. - disputes about the place and role of people. theatrical tradition, especially folk. comedy, in modern times life of the country. Leading theater figures (including Professor of Damascus University, author of many books and articles about theater H. Kassab-Hassan) advocate the need to preserve the traditions of oral storytelling, develop the “storyteller without borders” movement both in the field of theater and and in educational programs for children, about the creation of an annual festival of traveling storytellers. There are also theaters in the capital: the Workers' Union, al-Qabbani, al-Hamraa, and others. In 2004, after a 14-year break, the theater festival, founded back in 1969 by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Damascus, resumed in Damascus, attracting the attention of young performers ( The topic of the round tables is “Theater and Youth”). Despite the difficult political situation, the S. theater continues to develop. In 2010, dir. U. Ghanem organized the Damascus “Theater Laboratory”, where, based on the artist. research about modern the theater analyzes issues of modern communication. sir. dramaturgy and acting, theater and social reality. Since 2013, seminars have been held (“Working on a dramatic text from Muller to Sarah Kane”, “Chekhov and modern directing”, etc.).

Movie

From 1908 (when the first film screenings took place in the country) until mid. 1910s were demonstrated in the main chronicle and staged French. films after the outbreak of World War I - German. In 1916, the Canakkale Cinema cinema hall was opened in Damascus. The first sire came out in 1928. gaming f. “The Innocent Defendant” by A. Badri. Among the films of the 1930–60s: “Under the Sky of Damascus” by I. Anzur (1934), “Call of Duty” by Badri (1936), “Light and Darkness” by N. Shahbender (1949, the first national sound film), “ Traveler" by Z. Shaua (1950), "Green Valley" by A. Arfan (1961). In 1963, the General Organization of Sirs was formed under the Ministry of Culture. cinema (including cooperation with the USSR in the training of professional national personnel at VGIK; since the late 1990s, it has financed the production of feature films). The struggle of Syrians for their rights was told in the film “The Bus Driver” (1968, Yugoslav dir. B. Vucinich), about the fate of the Palestinian people - “The Deceived” by T. Salih (1972), about the extermination of civilians of a Palestinian village in 1956 - “Kafir Kasem" by B. Alaviya (1975, Mkf Ave. in Moscow). The theme of the Middle East conflict was also raised in the films “Reverse Direction” by M. Haddad (1975), “Heroes Are Born Twice” by S. Dekhni, “Red, White, Black” by B. Safiya (both 1977). In the 1970s - early. 1980s The director worked fruitfully. N. Malikh, who created films about the opposition of the common man to power (“Leopard”, 1972; “Old Photographs”, 1981) and ironically. key, denouncing the pharisaism of an unprincipled careerist (“Mr. Progressist”, 1975). The film “An Incident at Half a Meter” by S. Zikra (1981) criticized part of the national. youth who have withdrawn from confronting negative socio-political phenomena. Autobiographical f. “Dreams of the City” by M. Malas (1983) reflected the events of 1953–58, strengthening the principles of democracy. Satiric. the comedy “Borders” by D. Laham (1987) combined the techniques of narration. fairy tales and sharp journalism in the interpretation of the problems of confrontation between Arab countries. peace. A picture of provincial life was presented by the films of A. L. Abdul Hamid - “Nights of the Jackal” (1989) and “Oral Messages” (1991). A notable event was the historical painting about Kawakibi “Dust of Foreigners” by Zikra (1998). The film “Black Flour” by G. caused a wide resonance. Shmait (2001) about the life of the national. hinterland in the first years after independence. The independence of a student from Damascus is defended by director. V. Rakhib in f. “Dreams” (2003), which tells about the experiences of a young woman leaving her parents’ home. The moral problems of family and personal relationships between men and women were analyzed by Abdul Hamid in the film “Out of Access” (2007). The film “One More Time” by D. Said (2009) is a confession about the relationship between father and son against the backdrop of drama. events in the country. In 1979–2011, an international was held in Damascus. film festival

Syria is characterized by a mixed economy with a high share of the public sector (approx. 50% of national income, 75% of the value of industrial products and 70% of fixed assets). Finance, energy, railway and air transport have been entirely under the control of the state for a long time. Private ownership clearly predominates in agriculture, and also includes small and medium-sized trade enterprises, the service sector, motor transport and housing construction.

Annual GDP growth in the mid-1990s was estimated at 3.6%. In 2003, GDP growth was 0.9%, i.e. $58.01 billion, per capita income was $3,300. According to 2003 data, GDP was divided by sector as follows: agriculture - 28.5%, industry – 29.4% and other services – 42.1%.

The volume of GDP in 2005, according to the International Monetary Fund, amounted to 59.633 billion US dollars; GDP growth in 2005 was 2.3%. The inflation rate is 2%. Foreign exchange reserves - $4 billion. External debt (excluding military debt) amounted to $6 billion. The per capita income is $2,410 per year. The problem of unemployment remains acute, reaching 20% ​​of the working population in 2005, including about 30% among young people.

As part of the course proclaimed by the Syrian leadership towards gradual liberalization and modernization of the economy, a line has been taken to provide public sector enterprises with greater economic independence, in particular, the right to enter the foreign market and attract foreign investment.

The private sector is actively developing. It produces 25% of the value of industrial products, it occupies a dominant position in agriculture (almost 100%), domestic trade (90%), foreign trade (70%), the service sector, motor transport, and housing construction.

Industry creates the bulk of national income. The most developed industries are oil, oil refining, electric power, gas production, phosphate mining, food, textile, chemical (production of fertilizers, plastics), electrical engineering.

Agriculture (50% of the self-employed population) accounts for about 30% of national income and 17% of export earnings (cotton, livestock products, vegetables and fruits). Only a third of Syria's territory is suitable for agriculture. Currently, agriculture is experiencing some growth associated with government injections into the agricultural industry.

History and current state of the Syrian economy

Syria inherited an extremely backward economy from its colonial past. Foreign capital, mainly French, which controlled the main sectors of the country's economy, hampered the development of productive forces and production relations. Agriculture, the basis of the Syrian economy, was characterized by a low level of productive forces and the dominance of semi-feudal relations. Industrial production in the country was very poorly developed: it was represented mainly by light industry.

After Syria gained political independence in 1946, the country began to take measures aimed at eliminating the severe consequences of colonialism, and the development of the national economy began.

Syria was the first country in the Arab East to take the path of nationalizing enterprises owned by foreign monopoly capital.

Under popular pressure, already in the early 1950s, many railways and foreign electricity production companies were nationalized, and the share of foreign capital in local companies was limited to 50%. As a result, at the end of 1957, almost all sectors of the economy that had previously been dominated by foreign capital (tobacco companies, railways, power plants, bank of issue, etc.) became state property.

In 1963, all foreign and local banks, as well as insurance companies, were completely nationalized. As a result, the public sector has assumed a dominant position in Syria. Currently, it accounts for about 50% of national income, approximately 75% of the value of industrial output and 70% of fixed assets.

At the end of 1964, the Syrian government issued a decree according to which all the country's oil and mineral resources were declared the property of the state. The transfer of concessions for their development to foreign companies is prohibited.

In the 1990s, the Syrian leadership took steps to liberalize the economy and enhance the activities of the private sector, which accounts for 25% of the value of industrial production and occupies a dominant position in agriculture, retail trade, services, motor transport, and housing construction. For the purpose of economic development of the country, foreign capital is attracted, primarily in the form of financial assistance from oil-producing Arab countries and a number of Western states.

However, despite economic growth in recent decades, as of 2011 Syria lagged significantly behind even its neighbors in the Middle East. After more than 30 years of almost complete economic isolation against the backdrop of a rapid increase in population (over 60 years from 4.6 to 21 million people), economic growth turned out to be clearly insufficient. By 2001, Syria's living standards ranked 110th out of 160 in the world classification, and the average income of an ordinary Syrian did not exceed one dollar a day. The unemployment rate reached 20 percent, and among young people aged 15 to 24 years old it was off the charts over 80. Since 1970, more than two million Syrians have been forced to leave the country in search of work. External debt rose to $21 billion in 2001, equivalent to 130 percent of GDP.

Huge military expenditures have not contributed to development either, since the irreconcilable confrontation between Syria and Israel still continues. The war in Iraq also had a hard impact on the Syrian economy. The temporary cessation of supplies of cheap Iraqi oil, coupled with the depletion of Syrian fields, led to a drop in revenues to the country's budget by 30 percent.

A decisive turn from “socialist guidelines” to the construction of a “social market economy” was consolidated at the X Congress of the ruling Baath Party, which was held in June 2005.

The government allowed the activities of private banks, however, only if the state had a controlling stake. Reforms are being carried out to liberalize foreign exchange controls and foreign trade. Today, the public sector accounts for no more than 30 percent of all fixed assets, and the annual increase in gross national product ranges from 5 to 7 percent. Syria's external debt, according to the World Bank, fell to $5.236 billion in 2009, and overall unemployment fell to 8.4 percent and 20 percent among youth.

Syria's GDP, according to World Bank estimates, grew from 28.559 to 52.177 billion dollars from 2001 to 2009. Per capita income is $2,410 per year, having almost doubled in 2009 compared to 2001 from $1,090.

Currently, Syrian businesses, predominantly small, family-owned businesses with up to 10 employees, account for 95 percent of all companies. Large state-owned enterprises show low efficiency due to insufficient qualifications of managers, backward technologies and severely worn out equipment. The consolidated losses of such companies reached a billion dollars in 2005, and their exports are declining by 10 percent annually.

Before the start of the unrest in the spring of 2011, the authorities pinned certain hopes on the capital of Syrian emigrants, most of which is located outside the country. According to some estimates, the amount of foreign assets owned by Syrians exceeds $90 billion. In addition, fearing American sanctions, Syria switched to payments in euros in its foreign trade operations in February 2006.

Syria's trade deficit is approximately two billion dollars a year. The main trading partners are Japan, Iran and EU countries.

The energy sector is Syria's main source of income, with proven oil reserves of 2.4 billion barrels and natural gas of 208 billion cubic meters. Since 1974, oil production has contributed to a quarter of Syria's GDP. In the formation of budget revenues, its share reaches 10 percent, and in revenues from exports - 40 percent, ensuring an influx of foreign currency into the country. However, over the past 10 years, the level of oil production in Syria has decreased by a third from a peak of 594 thousand barrels per day, achieved in 1996, to 400 thousand. The reason for this was the depletion of the vast majority of deposits. According to IMF forecasts, if the decline in oil production in Syria is not stopped, and the volume of consumption of petroleum products continues to grow, then already in 2011 the country will become a net importer of “black gold” from a net exporter.

Economic relations with neighboring countries are developing. Thus, the normalization of relations with Iraq led to an increase in mutual trade turnover, reaching $400 million. Rail traffic and oil pumping through the Kirkuk-Baniyas pipeline have resumed. Relations with its closest neighbor Turkey, interrupted 60 years ago, were established. As a result, Turkish businesses have already invested about $200 million in Syria.

For the period 2010-2015, the government has set a task, through the development of market infrastructure, the gas sector, tourism and other promising industries, to achieve an increase in the share of products of a higher degree of processing in exports.

However, recent events in Syria call into question the implementation of these plans. According to the forecasts of specialists from the Washington International Financial Institute, the fall in GDP in 2011 in Syria will be at least three percent.

Industry of Syria

Over the years of political independence, Syria has achieved well-known success in the development of national industry. The Syrian government traditionally pays very close attention to issues of industrialization of the country. This, first of all, is reflected in the five-year plans for the socio-economic development of the country.

Since the 1970s, a program of structural restructuring of the economy has been carried out in Syria in the interests of increasing the role of the sphere of material production in it through the accelerated development of relevant industries. Particular attention in this process was paid to industrial production as the basis for strengthening the material and technical base of the entire national economy. Among other things, it was planned to place emphasis on the priority development of manufacturing industries based on the use and processing of local raw materials.

In these years, in the development of the public sector of industry, a tendency towards the construction of large economic facilities, which immediately took a leading position in the industry, was very clearly evident. First of all, this applied to oil refining, chemical, cement and some other industries.

Despite noticeable successes in creating a national industry, its formation and development is fraught with great difficulties associated both with a general lack of monetary and financial resources and persistent structural imbalances in the economy, and with the lack of an adequate number of qualified workers, existing shortcomings in planning and scientific research. ensuring production, as well as sales of products.

Since the industrial production process continues to be largely focused on the use of imported components, one of the most pressing problems is the problem of capacity utilization. In this regard, the government has repeatedly made attempts to revive production in the “free zones” in order to, using the preferential customs regime granted to them for the import of raw materials, solve the problem of providing the latter.

The public sector plays the main role in industrial output. In the first half of the 1990s, the share of the public sector in the mining industry was estimated at 70%, and in the manufacturing industry - about 60%. The number of people employed in the mining industry in the early 90s was 6.9 thousand people. Despite the country's limited natural resources, the mining industry has been the most dynamic sector of the Syrian economy in recent years.

The basis of the mining industry is oil production. Its share in the total production volume of the mining industry is estimated at 97%. The overwhelming majority of oil reserves and its production are located in the Rumelan, Jebissi and South Euphrates regions of the east and northeast of the country. By the end of the 1980s, over 50 oil fields had been discovered in Syria, of which approximately 2 dozen are in development and operation.

Since 1974, Syria has attracted foreign companies to participate in oil production. To this end, a number of areas of the country were declared open for exploration, drilling and oil production. The work was carried out under risk service contracts. At the same time, the most promising areas for oil were granted concessions to foreign companies. By the mid-1980s, the bulk of the promising oil-bearing areas of Syria were at the disposal of the American companies Pekten and Marathon.

In recent decades, Syria has intensified its gas production activities. The traditional activity in this area is associated with the use of associated gas, the recoverable reserves of which are estimated at 11 billion cubic meters. m. Its annual production is approximately 500 billion cubic meters. m.

In 1987, a gas purification complex built by the Czechoslovak side was put into operation at the Djebissi field. The Palmyra region is considered the most promising in terms of expanding gas production and its use in industry. Its natural gas is planned to be used, in particular, as fuel for power plants, including the Mharde power station near the city of Hama.

Phosphate mining plays a significant role in the Syrian economy, the explored reserves of which are estimated at 1.5 billion tons. Their main reserves are concentrated in the Khneifns and Sharkiyya fields. Field development is carried out by Romania, Poland, and Bulgaria. Due to the fact that Syrian phosphates have a high chlorine content (0.02 - 0.2%), an acute problem is the creation of special capacities for their washing.

Iron ore reserves in Syria are estimated at 400 - 500 million tons. The main areas of its occurrence are considered to be Zabadani and Bludan (iron content in the ore is 32%), as well as Raju (28%). Among other minerals, rock salt, asphalt, gravel, building stone, gypsum, marble and a number of others are mined in Syria.

Oil refining occupies an important place among the manufacturing industries. The oil refining industry is represented by 2 plants - in Homs and Baniyas. The capacity of the plant in Homs is more than 5 million tons of oil per year. The plant runs on a mixture of Syrian heavy (50%) and light oil. The Baniyas plant with a capacity of 6 million tons per year is also designed to process a mixture of imported light and heavy local oil (20–50%). During the 80s, the oil refinery in Homs was repeatedly reconstructed in order to expand the range of products, in particular by producing 100 thousand tons of lubricating oils per year.

The traditional sector of the Syrian economy is the textile industry, which accounts for just under 20% of gross manufacturing output. This industry employs more than 50% of the workers employed in all major industry in the country. The main emphasis in the development of this industry is on the primary use of local raw materials, which determines the leading position in the cotton production industry.

The overwhelming majority of cotton fabrics are produced at public sector enterprises. They produce mainly sheet linen, flannel, shirting, printed and drapery fabrics, poplin and others. The general management of textile enterprises in the public sector is carried out by the General Organization "Unitekstil". The production of silk fabrics in Syria is based primarily on imported raw materials.

The production of hosiery, cotton knitwear, and underwear has developed quite significantly in Syria. Mostly these products are produced in small enterprises. Cotton yarn and hosiery fabrics produced in the country are consumed domestically and exported in large quantities mainly to neighboring Arab countries. The cotton ginning industry is represented by 58 factories, most of which are equipped with outdated equipment.

About 1.5 dozen state-owned textile companies have at their disposal more than 500 thousand spindles and over 4.5 thousand looms.

The wide scope of capital construction necessitated the need for the state to carry out a number of practical measures aimed at accelerating the development of the cement industry. The total cement production capacity in Syria is about 5 million tons per year, which makes it possible to allocate a sufficient amount for export. The largest factories in this industry are in Tartusi (capacity 6.5 thousand tons of cement per day), Adre (about 4 thousand tons), Aleppo (2 thousand tons), Hama (1 thousand tons).

The production of building materials is established at a ceramics factory in Hama, capable of producing up to 30 million tiles per year, factories producing glass and sanitary products and at some other enterprises.

The chemical and petrochemical industries play an increasingly important role in the economic life of the country. Among the products they produce, phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers, urea and ammonia, detergents, varnishes and paints should be noted.

Homs became a major center for the production of fertilizers in the 1980s. In addition to the plant with a capacity of 140 thousand tons of ammonia and nitric acid per year, in 1982 a new enterprise with a design capacity of 300 thousand tons of ammonia and 315 thousand tons of urea per year was put into operation. In 1983, a plant for processing 800 thousand tons of phosphates per year was put into operation. It also produces calcium nitrate, sulfuric acid, ammonia and a number of other products.

The leading manufacturer of paints and varnishes is the state-owned paints and chemicals company Omayyad. Its annual production is 15 thousand tons of products.

Syria devotes an important place to the development of the food industry. Enterprises in this industry produce products such as pasteurized milk, butter and vegetable oil, flour, pasta, sugar, tobacco products, various drinks and juices. Great prospects in this area are associated with increasing capacity for the production of canned vegetables and fruits, a noticeable impetus to the development of which was given with the commissioning of three canning factories in Hasek, Mayadini, and Idlib.

The sugar industry was established in 1950. Large factories are located in Damascus and Homs. Enterprises mainly refine raw cane sugar imported from Cuba and only partially process their own sugar beets.

The oil industry is represented by more than 400 small enterprises that produce cottonseed, sesame, olive, flaxseed and some other types of vegetable oils.

Relatively new sectors of Syrian industry include: mechanical engineering, electronics, and electrical engineering. Enterprises in these industries produce refrigerators, televisions, washing machines, stoves, electric motors, transformers, batteries, cables, tractors and other products. However, the production of these industries is based largely on the use of imported raw materials, materials, components and components, which, in conditions of tension in the monetary and financial sphere, limits the capabilities of the relevant enterprises.

Agriculture in Syria

Although absolute indicators characterizing the state of agriculture are growing, relative indicators are noticeably decreasing, reflecting the process of economic diversification, indicating the transformation of the country from an agricultural one to an agrarian-industrial one. The share of agriculture in the gross domestic product (GDP) is 17%, its products account for 15% of the country's exports, but it still employs the majority of the population - 53%. Land suitable for agriculture in Syria amounts to 6.1 million hectares. At the same time, irrigated lands reach 1.09 million hectares, rainfed lands - about 3.4 million hectares, 1.5 million hectares are allocated for fallow, and more than 500 thousand hectares are not cultivated. Pastures spread over 8.3 million hectares, forest lands over 523 thousand hectares, rocky soils and sandstones over 3 million hectares, swamps and lakes over 116 thousand hectares.

Conditions for agricultural production are only relatively favorable and stable harvests are obtained only from irrigated areas.

In order to better use the land fund and to determine priority areas in the development of agriculture, Syria was divided into 5 “agricultural stabilization zones” depending on the amount of precipitation and the duration of the rainy season.

The first zone includes territories with precipitation over 350 mm and is divided into 2 areas: with precipitation over 600 mm and with precipitation within 350 - 600 mm, where it is possible to collect 2 harvests of wheat, legumes and other summer crops per season 1 time in 3 year. The second zone covers areas with precipitation of 250 - 350 mm, where conditions are created for collecting 2 harvests of barley in one season, and wheat, legumes and other summer crops are also grown. The third zone extends to areas with precipitation of at least 250 mm for at least six months, which ensures the collection of 1-2 barley harvests at least once every 3 years. The fourth zone includes lands where precipitation does not exceed 200–250 mm for six months and where barley and forage grasses are grown. The fifth zone includes areas where rain-fed agriculture is impossible.

Such a classification of lands was the first step towards identifying the most promising lands, through the intensification of which success in the rise of agriculture can be ensured.

Another direction in increasing the efficiency of agricultural production is strengthening its material and technical base by accumulating funds in capitalist-type farms, cooperative and state ones.

Nowadays, serious changes have been achieved in the agricultural sector in terms of its technical equipment. There are about 50 thousand tractors of various capacities and 3 thousand combines. In addition, 80 thousand pumps, 65 thousand modern plows, more than 6 thousand seeders, 3 thousand stationary threshers, 25 thousand mechanical sprinklers and about 1 thousand sprayers, not counting thousands of manual ones, are used.

An important event was the laws on the organization of agrarian relations and on agrarian reform (1958), which limited the degree of feudal exploitation of peasants, regulated rent, hiring procedures, and stipulated some measures of social protection for ordinary commodity producers.

Syrian agriculture is developing as a non-monocultural orientation - 75 types of crops are harvested annually - and provides a wide range of food and industrial crops. Cultivated lands are distributed under different types of products as follows: up to 50% are cereals; 3% pulses; 5% vegetables and melons; 4% technical; 1% forage and 11% fruit. Almost 1/3 of the cultivated area remains fallow.

In crop production, the most common type of commercial product is cereals, the largest areas under which are occupied by wheat, the main food crop. The historical wheat growing areas are the northeastern regions - Hasakah, Deir ez-Zor and Raqqa, including the plains of Al-Jazeera, Hauran, as well as Homs and Hama. Wheat is sown mainly in dry land, the yields of which are largely dependent on weather conditions and are therefore unstable. However, there is a tendency towards a slow increase in yields due to the adoption of more advanced technologies, improved soil cultivation, the use of varietal seeds, and the introduction of new social forms of production organization.

The next most important crop in the country's grain balance is barley, the main cultivation areas of which are formed around Aleppo, Homs, Hama, Hasak, Deir ez-Zor on land that is somewhat even larger than the area under wheat.

The third place in the production of grains, although in significantly smaller quantities compared to the above-mentioned crops, is occupied by corn, the area under which tends to increase.

Sorghum has long occupied a prominent place in the country's grain balance. For decades, it was one of the most common crops cultivated in the foothills in rain-fed areas. Its popularity was determined by the high degree of cereal utilization and resistance to weather conditions.

However, due to rising living standards and changing nutritional standards, this plant is gradually being forced out of peasant fields.

Since the 1970s, there have been persistent attempts to cultivate rice in Syria. The main experiments with this crop are carried out on abundantly irrigated lands in the Euphrates Valley in specially created farms as part of a pilot project. Predominantly early ripening forms with good taste are being introduced. The inclusion of rice in the local cereal assortment is caused by its high marketability, the need to reduce imports and diversify the diet of the population.

However, so far, despite favorable forecasts, there is no noticeable evidence in Syria of the completion of experiments and the transition to rice production on an expanded basis.

Leguminous crops are cultivated in relatively small quantities, mainly for domestic consumption. The most popular crop is lentils, which are unpretentious to growing conditions; food and feed varieties of which are constantly in high demand on the market. The main area of ​​its production is Aleppo governorate, although focal crops are also found in other areas. A large place in the crops of grain legumes is given to peas, which in some years surpasses lentils in terms of such an indicator as cropland.

Other types of legumes are also cultivated for food purposes, in particular beans, beans, and some local varieties of legumes.

The structure of agricultural production includes the production of grasses, which form a certain share of the feed fund. The main grass crop is vetch, harvested for grain and hay. Its cultivation areas stretch from north to south along the Aleppo-Derya line. In addition to the vetch, Arabian lupine is widespread. On a smaller scale, the production of alfalfa and clover is practiced, the crops of which occupy mainly the inter-row spaces in garden farms. In general, 40–60 thousand hectares are annually planted with forage grasses in Syria.

Syria produces 12 types of industrial crops. Among them, the leading role belongs to cotton. Over the past 10 years, the area under cotton has amounted to 140–180 thousand hectares, although previously it was significantly small. The largest areas of crops are located in the Euphrates Valley; approximately a quarter of the gross cotton harvest falls on the foothills between Aleppo and Homs; a relatively small part of the crop is harvested from plantations in the Latakia governorate. Since the beginning of the 80s, there has been a consistent increase in harvests, which do not fall below 400 thousand tons.

The second largest crop under cultivation is sesame, cultivated mainly in the Euphrates Valley, between Raqqa and Abu Kemal and partly in the governorates of Homs, Hama, and Latakia.

Syria is known as a major producer of world-famous varieties of tobacco, and tobacco growing is an important branch of agriculture. About 14 thousand hectares are occupied by tobacco crops, and its production averages 20 thousand tons and is concentrated mainly in the Latakia governorate. Tobaccos of the “Latakian” group are especially valued in European markets, and a variety of local tobacco, tumbak, is used by nargile smokers in many Eastern countries. Beet growing is also a promising branch of agriculture. The country faces an acute problem of increasing sugar production, and therefore expanding crops and increasing yields is an urgent task. In the mid-70s, the demand prevailed to increase beet plantings by reducing the area under other crops, in particular cotton.

Nowadays, beets are grown in the western part of the country - Homs, El-Gaba, Tell Salhab, as well as in the east, in the Euphrates Valley, on areas of 30 - 33 thousand hectares. Sugar cane is also cultivated on land of comparable size. Other industrial crops are also grown, in particular sunflowers, peanuts, Indian sorghum, used for knitting mats and brooms, caraway seeds, anise, and some others on small areas.

Syria is a large producer of vegetable and melon crops, of which the list of only the main ones includes up to 25 species. Cultivated forms differ in terms of ripening, and therefore are supplied to the market evenly throughout a significant part of the year. The area occupied by them is stable and averages 260 thousand hectares over a number of years. Based on the size of the allotted wedge (about 70%), watermelons, tomatoes, potatoes, melons, cucumbers, cabbage, and okra stand out. Their harvest is sold mainly on the domestic market.

Syria is also a traditional center of horticulture, where 20 types of fruit crops are cultivated on an area exceeding 600 thousand hectares. The most ancient and widespread is the olive culture, which is extremely diverse in quality and appearance, the plantings of which are systematically growing and now reach 400 thousand hectares. The areas of its production stretch along the coast, located in the foothills, partly on mountain slopes.

Syria is one of the largest centers of viticulture. The main plantations of this crop (67 thousand hectares) are concentrated in the governorates of Aleppo, Idlib, Es-Suwayda, and Homs. The most popular are local varieties with large light berries and high taste. There are more than 50 million vines in the country.

Among other horticultural crops, the most common are pistachios, apples, almonds, dates, and cherries. Growing attention is being paid to apricot, a promising export crop whose processed products - apricots and dried apricots - have medicinal properties. Of the citrus fruits, for which up to 20 thousand hectares are allocated, oranges stand out.

Livestock farming is the second most important agricultural sector in Syria, developing, however, mainly on an extensive basis. The country's dairy herd numbers about 500 thousand heads, of which 60% are dairy cows. In general, the number of cattle, including camels, ranges from 700 to 800 thousand heads.

Small cattle are represented mainly by goats, the number of which is 1 - 1.2 million, and sheep, the number of which is extremely unstable and varies from 10 to 12 million heads in different years. There are also other types of livestock used for transporting goods or as tax, in particular horses and mules, the herd of which is declining and now amounts to 30 and 20 thousand heads, respectively, as well as donkeys, the number of which is maintained at the level of 190 - 200 thousand.

Poultry farming as a highly profitable industry received an impetus for development in the 1970s, when capitalist-type poultry farms began to take shape intensively, most of them falling into the category of suburban farms. The total number of livestock now reaches 19 million. Geese and ducks are bred in small quantities, and turkeys and pigeons are bred in relatively large quantities.

The base for the development of beekeeping in the form of 120 - 150 thousand hives is also preserved; individual farms also do not abandon the traditional occupation for Syria in previous times associated with the breeding of silkworms. Fishing still occupies a modest place in the structure of agricultural production, although in recent years there has been an increase in catch, now exceeding 11 thousand tons per year. At the same time, sea fishing is losing ground to river fishing, which provides more than 75% of the total production of fisheries.

Transport of Syria

Transport in Syria is poorly developed. Road transport plays a vital role in the transportation of goods and passengers within the country. The movement of passenger and cargo flows is now carried out along a single network of roads, which continues to be improved. Historically, the road system was mainly concentrated in the western part of the country along the Mediterranean coast and along the north-south axis, which met economic needs and was determined by the level of economic development of the territories located here.

The main transport arteries of the country stretch from the Turkish border to the Jordanian along the line Bab-el-Khawa - Hama - Homs - Damascus - Daraa (470 km), from the Turkish border to the Lebanese - Kassab - Latakia - Baniyas - Tartus (170 km) and further to Tripoli, Beirut, Saidu, from the Lebanese border to the Iraqi one - Damascus - Abu Shamat (300 km) to Baghdad. In the 1970s and 80s, the length of roads with improved surfaces increased significantly. Nowadays, the length of asphalt concrete highways reaches almost 40 thousand km. The development of the road network was accompanied by an increase in the vehicle fleet. In the second half of the 90s, there were up to 490 thousand transport units of all types in the country. Compared to 1980, by the end of the decade the number of pickups, minibuses, and trucks had increased significantly.

35% of vehicles and about 50% of passenger cars are concentrated in Damascus and the capital governorate. The country's vehicle fleet is diverse. There is a large share of Japanese cars in it, and there is a certain number of cars of Western European brands.

Rail transport in the national transport system ranks second after road transport, although it appeared in Syria much earlier: the first Damascus-Beirut railway line was opened in 1885. Historically, two centers of railway construction developed in Syria: in the southern part, connected with Lebanon, a narrow gauge was laid, in the north a standard gauge was used. As a result, the road network was artificially broken. In 1995, the Syrian government bought out all the existing railways that were in the hands of foreign capital and later began building a network of roads that met international standards.

Air transport began to develop in Syria in the second half of the 1960s. The limited national territory and the relatively small needs for transporting people and cargo by air are factors that significantly constrain the use of air transport on domestic routes. Nevertheless, local air routes connect not only Damascus, Aleppo, Al-Qamishli, Latakia, Deir ez-Zor, Tadmor, Homs, where there are corresponding airfields and flight support services, but also some other settlements in which takeoff and landing facilities have been built sites. Moreover, all flights are carried out from the center to the periphery and back along linear routes, and provincial cities are not connected with each other.

Civil aviation, initially created through the efforts of the state, is under the jurisdiction of the state organization “El-Khutut el-Jawiya es-Suriyya” - “Sirienair”. In the mid-1990s, the national aircraft fleet consisted of 12 aircraft, operated by Syrian crews.

By the early 1980s, Damascus International Airport (about 30 km from the capital) was fully operational, equipped with the latest technology and capable of receiving the most modern airliners, including Airbuses, and processing large quantities of cargo. The airfield has two runways 2.6 and 2.7 km long and 60 m wide. The airport's capacity is 2 million passengers per year.

Water transport has not become widespread in Syria. Despite the presence of inland reservoirs and rivers, there is practically no river navigation in the country due to the irregularity of flow and the turbulent nature of the rivers. Even on the most full-flowing Euphrates, river transportation is carried out mainly on short routes.

Syria's own maritime transport, although landlocked, is in its infancy and consists mainly of a few medium-tonnage bulk carriers moving within the Mediterranean basin. The functions of the small fleet are limited to cabotage transportation in the sea section from Turkey to Lebanon.

The main volume of trade export-import operations is carried out through Latakia and Tartus - large national ports, as well as Baniyas, used as an oil terminal.

Pipeline transport is represented primarily by oil pipelines for the transit pumping of crude oil from Iraq and Saudi Arabia to the Mediterranean coast. The three routes on the Kirkuk-Tripoli route were built at different times in the 30s, 40s and 60s. In the 50s, the Kirkuk - Baniyas and Abqaiq - Saida lines were laid. The duplication of oil pipelines was caused by the low throughput of the first lines, a disadvantage that was eliminated by increasing the diameters of subsequent ones.

The country has created a network of inland oil pipelines to transport liquid carbohydrates from production sites to processing sites in Homs and Baniyas and for delivery to the oil terminal at the port of Baniyas. In 1968, the main line Karachuk - Homs - Tartus was built with a length of 650 km and a throughput capacity of 8 million tons per year. As of 2008, the total length of roads in Syria is 36,377 km. Of these: with hard surface - 26,299 km, without hard surface - 10,078 km.

The total length of railways is 2,750 km. In Syria, two types of gauge are used at once. 2423 km of roads were built with a standard gauge of 1435 mm, and 327 km with a gauge of 1050 mm. The 1050 mm gauge road was built by the Ottoman Empire at the beginning of the 20th century and connected Damascus with Medina. This thread is currently not functioning. Railway connections are established with three neighboring countries: Türkiye, Iraq and Jordan. The construction of the Tartus - Latakia line is currently underway; it is planned to build the Damascus - Dara and Deir ez-Zor - Abu Kemal railways.

The number of airports is 104 (1999), of which 24 have concrete runways. 3 have international status. The state airline, Syrianair, operates flights to more than 50 cities. The total length of pipelines is 1,304 km, of which 515 are oil pipelines.

The main ports on the Mediterranean Sea: Tartus, Latakia, Baniyas. There is a logistics base for the Russian Navy in Tartus. Currently, work is underway to deepen the harbor with the aim of possibly relocating the Russian Black Sea Fleet from Sevastopol to Tartus.

Foreign trade of Syria

Foreign trade plays a big role in the economic life of Syria. The weak development of industry makes the country extremely dependent on the import of a wide range of industrial goods. Syria completely covers its needs for machinery and equipment, means of transport, ferrous metals and many other types of industrial products through imports.

On the other hand, due to the one-sided development of agriculture, Syria depends on the export of many types of agricultural products.

The main export items were and remain food, raw materials and fuel, which in the 70s - 90s accounted for an average of over 75% of the total export value. An increasingly prominent role in Syria's exports is played by the export of chemical goods, equipment and finished industrial products. The country's exports include such products as dyes, plastics, detergents, perfumes, equipment for digging wells, winches, electrical equipment and household appliances, metal products, etc.

But in the commodity structure of industrial exports, the main place was occupied by cotton yarn, shoes, various textile products, food industry products, cement, etc., that is, technologically simple goods.

Despite the fact that the export of fuel has taken the main place in the country's exports, Syria is still forced to import oil and petroleum products in ever-increasing quantities. This is explained by the fact that the country for a long time received light oil from Iraq and Saudi Arabia, and therefore its plants were built with the expectation of processing imported light oil, and not its own heavy oil.

Another important import item is finished industrial products, the import of which accounts for an average of 20–22% of the total import value. The main place in it is occupied by the rolling of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, metal structures, scientific instruments and instruments.

Developed capitalist states in the 1970s–90s occupied a leading place in Syria's foreign trade. They accounted for over 50% of the total value of Syrian trade. Syria supplies these countries with oil, some agricultural products (dried onions, legumes, tobacco, cotton) and finished industrial products (cotton fabrics and yarn, clothing, handicrafts, perfumes). Syrian imports from this group of states are wide and varied - from various machines and equipment to household electrical appliances and lighters.

Syria's largest trading partners are the states of the European Community (EU), primarily Italy, Germany, France - 35-40% of Syria's total trade. The US accounts for 4–5% of the total value of Syrian trade, and Japan 3–4%. Syria is also taking steps to develop trade relations with other groups of states, primarily with the countries of Eastern Europe, which are regular buyers of not only traditional Syrian export goods, but also oil and petroleum products, industrial and consumer goods (artificial fabrics, sulfuric and sulfurous acids , triple superphosphate, transformers, etc.). In solving the problems of expanding trade turnover and increasing exports, Syria pays special attention to the development of trade and economic relations with developing countries. Syria's main trading partners among the liberated states have traditionally been Arab countries.

A characteristic feature of Syria's foreign trade policy in 1970–90 was protectionism. The country applied various forms of foreign trade regulation, but the most important were licensing, exchange controls and non-tariff restrictions.

Syria's total exports in 2008 amounted to $13.97 billion. The main exported goods are oil, minerals, fruits and vegetables, and textiles. The main buyers are Iraq 30.7%, Germany 9.8%, Lebanon 9.6%, Italy 6.4%, France 5.5%, Egypt 5.4%, Saudi Arabia 5.1%.

Syria's total import volume in 2008 amounted to $15.97 billion. The main imported goods are industrial products and food. The main suppliers are Saudi Arabia 11.7%, China 8.7%, Russia 7.5%, Italy 5.9%, Egypt 5.8%, UAE 5.7%.

Source - http://ru.wikipedia.org/
http://altsoch.narod.ru/
http://www.geografia.ru/
http://www.ekhoplanet.ru/