Plan: 1. Development of healing in Ancient Rus'. The formation of state medicine in Russia (IX-XVI centuries). 2. Reforms in the field of medical education and science at the end of the 18th – 19th centuries. 3. Development of pediatrics in the XVIII – XIX centuries. in Russia. 4. Development of theoretical and clinical medicine at the end of the 18th-19th centuries.
Three areas of healing in Ancient Rus': 1. Traditional medicine (since pagan times). 2. Monastic medicine (with the adoption of Orthodoxy). 3. Secular (secular) medicine (formed parallel to monastic medicine, in the world).
A healer in Rus' was called: ü Lchets ü Healer ü Lchets-cutter ü Doctor “wise”, “cunning”, “filozov”
Kiev-Pechersk Lavra The first hospital in Rus' was built by Theodosius of PECHERSK in the mid-1070s. at the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. "Kalika the Passer"
ANCIENT RUSSIAN HEALERS ANTONY (XI century) - the first to organize care for the sick in the monastery. ALYMPIUS (11th century) - was a famous icon painter and at the same time treated lepers. AGAPITUS (d. 1095), a free doctor, became famous for his treatment of Vladimir Monomakh.
Medical works of the 15th-16th centuries. “GALINOVO ON IPOCRATES” is a small translated treatise and commentary that briefly outlines the theories of medicine of ancient authors.
Medical works of the XV-XVI centuries. “ARISTOTLEAN GATE” or “THE SECRET OF THE SECRET” The ethical image of a doctor is outlined. The principles of building medical care in the state are expressed. Methods for examining the eyes, ear, palate, skin, chest, and limbs are outlined.
“VERTOCITY OF HEALTH” 1534. Prescriptions for the treatment of all diseases known at that time. Contained the chapters “Teachings”, “Discourses on the Pulse”, “On Fever”. Rules for “entering the ballnago”. Tips on how to behave healthy during pestilence.
THE FIRST DOMESTIC DOCTORS Yuri DROGOBYCHSKY He received his education in Poland (Krakow), and worked abroad for a long time. Francis Georgy SKORINA Was educated in Poland (Krakow) and Padua. Ivan ALMANZENOV - studied medicine at Cambridge
Pyotr Vasilyevich POSNIKOV In 1692 he went to study abroad. In 1701 he returned with a diploma from the University of Padua with the title of Doctor of Philosophy and Medical Science.
1. CONSTRUCTION OF PHARMACIES 1672 - the second pharmacy in Rus'. 1581 – the first Tsar’s pharmacy
2. CREATION OF THE STATE MEDICAL MANAGEMENT BODY 1620 - PHARMACY ORDER REORGANIZATION: 1716 - PHARMACEUTICAL OFFICE 1721 - MEDICAL OFFICE 1763 - MEDICAL COLLEGE 1803 - MINISTRY OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS
3. ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC HOSPITALS AND HOSPITAL 1682 - HOSPITAL ALMS (“hospital houses”) 1707 - the first MILITARY HOSPITAL. 1670 - Order for the BUILDING OF ALMS 1712 - Decree on the construction of "SPITALET" for the most crippled 1715 - Decree on the compulsory construction of HOSPITAL
4. CREATION OF PUBLIC MEDICINE PUBLIC MEDICINE is the activity of medical workers aimed at improving health care for the population, carried out in addition to or contrary to the corresponding work of government institutions. PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS newspapers, magazines of the SOCIETY OF RUSSIAN DOCTORS June 15, 1861 FREE HOSPITAL HOSPITAL March 25, 1861
5. CARRYING OUT THE REFORM OF ZEMSTVO MEDICINE Zemstvo MEDICINE is a form of medical care for the rural population that arose in Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th century. (1864) Zemstvo doctor - public figure Public service to the people The experience of zemstvo medicine was transferred to Soviet healthcare, and in 1934 it was recommended by the League of Nations for all countries. The basic principles are the same as in zemstvo steel: 1. Local ownership. 2. Public availability. 3. Free.
OFFICIAL NAMES OF DISEASES in the 18th-19th centuries. üIncreased temperature - FEVER üHeat and chills - FEVER üEpilepsy - EPILEPSY üMyocardial infarction - HEART RUPTURE üTyphoid - Rotten Fever üHepatitis - BILLE FEVER üStroke - APOPLEXIC STROKE üand in case of death - COND RUSSIAN üPulmonary tuberculosis – CONSUMPTION üScarlet fever – RUBELLA üDiphtheria and croup – SWALLOWING üGangrene – ANTONOV FIRE üangina – toad pectoris
The second question is REFORM in the FIELD of MEDICAL EDUCATION and SCIENCE at the end of the 18th – 19th centuries.
TRAINING OF DOCTORS before the 19th century. 1654 – the first SCHOOL OF RUSSIAN DOCTORS. N. L. Bidloo 1707 - a HOSPITAL SCHOOL was opened at the first military hospital in Moscow.
MEDICAL-SURGICAL SCHOOL 1727 A MEDICAL-SURGICAL SCHOOL was established at the Great Marine and Land Hospital. Since 1786, all hospital schools were transformed into medical-surgical schools.
PETERSBURG ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1724 Lomonosov considered medicine to be the most useful science for the human race, which through knowledge of the properties of the body. . . reaches the cause." He closely connected medicine with natural science, in particular with physics and chemistry.
MOSCOW UNIVERSITY On January 25, 1755, the university project was approved. Since 1758, it was planned to divide students into three faculties (philosophical, legal and medical). The Faculty of Medicine began its activities in 1764-1755.
MEDICAL-SURGICAL ACADEMY 1798 In 1798, the medical-surgical schools were reorganized into the Medical-Surgical Academy. In 1881, the Moscow Art Academy became known as the IMPERIAL MILITARY SURGICAL ACADEMY. physiologist I. M. SECHENOV, therapist S. P. BOTKIN, surgeon L. A. BEKKERS, ophthalmologist E. A. JUNGE, chemist A. P. BORODIN, psychiatrist I. N. BALINSKY and others.
TOMSK UNIVERSITY 1888 Founded in 1878, opened in 1888 as part of a single faculty - medical, which was later transformed into a medical institute (currently the Siberian State Medical University). Tomsk State University Siberian State Medical University
DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN PEDIATRICS in the 18th century 1727 - a decree was issued “On the construction of hospitals in Moscow for the placement of illegitimate infants and on giving them and their nurses a monetary salary.” Since 1775, “ORDERS OF PUBLIC CHARITY” began to be created.
Mikhailo Vasilievich LOMONOSOV examined in detail the causes of morbidity and mortality in newborns. He proposed to compile and publish a manual on obstetrics and the treatment of childhood diseases. He proposed to establish educational homes, which became prototypes of children's hospitals. 1711 -1765 “ON THE PRESERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE” (1761)
THE FIRST CHILDREN'S HOSPITALS IN EUROPE In Germany - in the 30s and 40s. XVIII century Children's departments and the first department of children's diseases were created at the Berlin Charité Hospital. In France - in 1802 the first children's hospital was opened in Paris. IN RUSSIA IN 1834 in St. St. Petersburg (2nd in Europe). In 1842 - in Moscow. In 1844, a clinical hospital for young children was founded in St. Petersburg.
FIRST WORKS ABOUT CHILDREN'S DISEASES Nestor Maksimovich AMBODIK MAKSIMOVICH Semyon Gerasimovich ZYBELIN (1735 -1802) (1744 -1812) One of the first to try to isolate children's diseases from general internal medicine. Described issues of child care and diseases of young children. He gave a classification of a number of childhood diseases. “The Art of Weaving, or the Science of Womanizing”
DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN PEDIATRICS in the 19th century Stepan Fomich KHOTOVITSKY (1796 -1885) In 1836, he began to read an independent course on childhood diseases, including the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the child’s body, diseases of children of all ages, and acute childhood infections. In 1847, he wrote the first manual on pediatrics, “PEDIATRICS.” He defined the goals and objectives of pediatrics as an independent branch of medicine, and developed the first curriculum on childhood diseases.
Neil Fedorovich FILATOV (1847 -1902) DESCRIBED: scarlet fever rubella (Filatov-Dukes disease). infectious mononucleosis (Filatov's disease). “Semiotics and diagnosis of early signs of measles (spots of childhood diseases”, Belsky-Filatov-Koplik). "A short textbook of childhood diseases"
FORMATION OF SCIENTIFIC PEDIATRICS IN RUSSIA 1865 - Nikolay allocated a separate course of childhood diseases Ivanovich at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology BYSTROV at the Moscow Art Academy, and then the department (1841 -1906) of childhood diseases (Vasily Markovich Developed the first FLORINSKY program) 1870 - an independent one was created Department of Childhood Diseases at the Moscow Art Academy for Teaching Pediatrics. Under his leadership, in 1885, the first scientific society of children's doctors was created in St. Petersburg.
GUNDOBIN Nikolai Petrovich (1860 -1908) Studied the anatomical and physiological characteristics of childhood (age anatomy). He raised issues of raising children and school hygiene. Fought against child mortality. “General and private therapy of childhood” (1896) Founder of the Russian “Features of children’s scientific pediatrics of age” (1906)
Karl Nikolai Alekseevich Andreevich TOLSKY RAUHFUS (1832 -1891) Founder of the scientific school of pediatrics in Russia. On his initiative, the first children's clinic was created at Moscow University (1866). (1835 -1915) Organizer of hospital business. In 1864 he created a children's hospital in St. Petersburg (now named after Rauchfus). In 1872 - in Moscow (now named after I.V. Rusakov).
CONGRESSES AND MEETINGS OF PEDIATRICS INTERNATIONAL 1902 - leading pediatricians from various European countries united in the League to Combat Infant Mortality. 1911 - First International Congress for the Protection of Infants. ALL-RUSSIAN 1911 - First All-Russian Congress of Children's Doctors.
Georgy Nestorovich SPERANSKY (1873 -1969) Russian and Soviet pediatrician. In 1908, on his initiative, the first consultation for infants was opened in Moscow. In 1910 - the first hospital for infants. He was one of the organizers of the State Scientific Institute for Maternity and Infancy Protection. "Textbook of diseases of early childhood".
ANATOMY (from the Greek anatome dissection, dismemberment) Pyotr Andreevich ZAGORSKY (1764 -1846) Founder of the first anatomical school in Russia. The creator of the doctrine of the connection between the form of organs and function. “Abridged anatomy or a guide to the investigation of the structure of the human body for the benefit of students of medical science”, 1802.
EXPERIMENTAL FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY Nikolai Ivanovich PIROGOV Petr Frantsevich LESGAFT (1810 -1881) (1837 -1909) Founder of topographic anatomy. He created the first institute of practical anatomy in Russia (1846). He widely used experimentation, and also called for the study of the anatomy of a living person. He was one of the first to use X-rays in anatomy.
SURGERY (from Latin chirurgia manual work, or “handwork”; from grsch. cheir hand + ergon action) Ivan Fedorovich BUSH (1771 -1843) The first teacher of surgery at the IMHA. Fyodor Ivanovich INOZEMTSEV (1802 -1869) Simultaneously with Pirogov, he performed an operation under anesthesia
Nikolai Ivanovich PIROGOV (1810 -1881) Founder of military field surgery. He inserted a fixed plaster cast. Together with F.I. INOZEMTSEV, he was the first to perform an operation under ether anesthesia on the battlefield (1847). Together with A. M. FILOMAFITSKY he developed a method of intravenous anesthesia. He proposed a number of surgical operations that were included in world annals.
Nikolai Vasilievich SKLIFOSOVSKY One of the founders of domestic clinical surgery, abdominal surgery. (1836 -1904) Actively contributed to the introduction of antiseptic principles into domestic surgery. One of the founders of military field surgery.
THERAPY (from the Greek therapia treatment) Matvey Yakovlevich MUDROV (1776 -1831) Insisted on diligently filling out medical histories. Sergei Petrovich BOTKIN (1832 -1889) Founder of military field therapy
The most prominent therapists of the 19th century. Grigory Antonovich ZAKHARIN (1829 -1898) He attached great importance to anamnesis in diagnosis. Alexey Alexandrovich OSTROUMOV (1844 -1908) Main works on the physiology and pathology of blood circulation.
PHYSIOLOGY (from the Greek physis nature + logos teaching) Ivan Mikhailovich SECHENOV (1829 -1905) Studied the functions of the brain. He discovered central braking (“Sechenov braking”). He substantiated the reflex nature of conscious and unconscious activity. Established an inextricable connection between physiological and psychological processes. The main work “Reflexes of the brain”.
Ivan Petrovich PAVLOV (1849 -1936) Studied the physiology of the cardiovascular and digestive systems. Created the doctrine of higher nervous activity. Justified the method of conditioned reflexes. In 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.
IMMUNOLOGY (from Latin immunitas liberation, deliverance + logos teaching) Ilya Ilyich MECHNIKOV (1845 -1916) In 1887 he formulated the phagocytic theory of immunity. Worked on longevity problems. In 1908 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.
2. The formation of Soviet medicine
The historical events of 1917 brought devastation not only to the political and economic spheres of life. They affected both the life of the population and, of course, the general health of people. At the beginning of the Soviet period, with the Bolsheviks coming to power and the establishment of a new regime, a wave of epidemics of cholera, typhoid, smallpox and other diseases swept across the country. The situation was aggravated by a widespread shortage of qualified personnel, equipment and medical equipment, and medicines. There were very few hospitals and preventive medical institutions. The Civil War left a deep mark on history, bringing with it devastation in the country's industrial activity and agriculture. A wave of famine swept across the country. In agriculture, there was not only a shortage of seed material, but also fuel for agricultural machinery. Communication between settlements was reduced to a minimum; there was not enough water even for cooking and quenching thirst, not to mention other household needs. Cities and countryside were literally “overgrown with dirt,” and this already served as a threat of epidemics. H.G. Wells, who visited the Union in 1920, was shocked by what he saw compared to what he saw 6 years earlier. It was a picture of complete collapse, the country that appeared to his eyes was the wreckage of a great empire, a huge broken monarchy that had fallen under the yoke of cruel, senseless wars. At that time, the mortality rate increased 3 times, the birth rate decreased by half.
Only an organized healthcare system could save the country from extinction and help in the fight against diseases and epidemics. Such a system began to actively take shape in 1918.
To create a developed structure that could effectively serve all segments of the population, it was necessary to unite all types of departmental medicine under a single state control: zemstvo, city, insurance, railway and other forms. Thus, the formation of a unified healthcare system attracted more and more people and was of a “collective nature” - literally recruited from the world one by one. This “collection” of medicine took place in several stages.
The first stage fell on October 26, 1917, when the Medical and Sanitary Department was formed. It was created under the Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, headed by M.I. Barsukov. The main task of the department was to unite and attract to work all doctors who recognized the new government; It was also necessary to radically change the health care system in the country and organize qualified assistance to workers in enterprises and soldiers in the active forces, as well as those in reserve.
Since the reform had to be carried out everywhere in order to cover more area, medical and sanitary departments and medical colleges began to be created locally. The tasks facing the latter were of a public nature, so on January 24, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars signed a decree on the creation of the Council of Medical Colleges. This council became the highest medical body of the workers' and peasants' government. A. N. Vinokurov became the head of the body, V. M. Bonch-Bruevich (Velichkina) and I. M. Barsukova were appointed his deputies. So that the people knew about the active work of the Council, on May 15, 1918, the first issue of Izvestia of Soviet Medicine was published under the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR. This was the first Russian medical public publication, which was then published regularly. The Council of Medical Colleges saw its main task in fulfilling the following conditions: continuing the widespread organization of medical and sanitary departments, consolidating the reforms begun regarding the transformation of military medicine, strengthening, developing sanitary affairs and strengthening epidemic control throughout the country.
However, in order to act on a nationwide scale and objectively monitor the results of the work done, it was necessary to hold an All-Russian Congress of representatives of the medical and sanitary departments of the Soviets. The congress was held on June 16–19, 1918. It raised not only issues of the organization and work of the People's Commissariat of Health, which were the most important at that time, but also issues of insurance medicine, the issue of combating epidemics, and questions about the tasks of local medicine.
The result of the congress was the decision to create the People's Commissariat of Health, which was to become the main health authority and be in charge of all medical and sanitary matters. On June 26, 1918, a project for the creation of the People's Commissariat of Health was presented. On July 9, the project was published for the general public, and on July 11, the Council of People's Commissars signed a decree “On the establishment of the People's Commissariat of Health.” The first board of the People's Commissar of Health of the RSFSR was created, in which there were V. M. Velichkina (Bonch-Bruevich), R. P. Golubkov, E. P. Pervukhin, Z. P. Solovyov, P. G. Dauge, and the first commissioner of health was appointed N. A. Semashko. His first deputy was Z. N. Soloviev. In July 1936, the People's Commissariat of Health, by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars, was renamed the People's Commissariat of Health of the USSR. Its first head was G. N. Kaminsky.
N. A. Semashko
Nikolai Aleksandrovich Semashko (1874–1949) made a huge contribution to the development of not only Soviet, but also world medicine.
Semashko’s career did not begin with brilliant success: he graduated from Kazan University, after which he worked for 3 years as a zemstvo doctor in the Oryol province, and then in Nizhny Novgorod. The revolution in February 1905 ended for him with arrest, imprisonment for 10 months, and then 10 years of emigration to France, Switzerland and Serbia. In the summer of 1917, at the age of 43, he returned to Moscow with a group of other emigrants. He took part in the medical development of the country from the moment the idea of creating a state healthcare system arose: first he headed the medical and sanitary department of the Moscow Council, and later became the first People's Commissar of Health of the RSFSR. He managed the People's Commissariat of Health for 11 years, during the most difficult years for the country, when there was a bloody Civil War and epidemics raged in the Union. He also took part in the development of anti-epidemic programs, seriously stated the need to create a program for the protection of motherhood and childhood and the need to develop Soviet medicine by improving and expanding the network of research institutes. Under him, the sanitary and resort business began to develop intensively, and the system of higher medical education was transformed.
N. A. Semashko made a huge contribution to the development of hygiene in the USSR, opening in 1922 the Department of Social Hygiene at the Faculty of Medicine of Moscow State University. He himself was the head of this department for 27 years.
In 1927–1936 The first edition of the Great Medical Encyclopedia was created and published, the creation of which was initiated by N. A. Semashko. From 1926 to 1936 he headed the children's commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.
He put especially much effort into studying the sanitary and hygienic situation after the war. N. A. Semashko became one of the founders and one of the first academicians and members of the presidium of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. He was director of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences from 1945 to 1949. Since 1945, he held the title of Academician of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR. He also became the founder of the Institute of Healthcare Organization and History of Medicine of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, after its creation he headed it from 1947 to 1949. This institute bore his name for a long time; later it was renamed the National Research Institute of Public Health of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences.
Nikolai Aleksandrovich Semashko, despite the great responsibility resting on his shoulders and the large number of positions he held, managed to leave his mark in the development of physical culture and sports, as he became the first chairman of the organization in charge of this area of medicine, and also headed the board of the All-Union Hygienic Society (1940–1949).
All his life he wrote scientific papers and works, of which there are more than 250. All of them were devoted to theoretical, organizational and practical issues of hygiene and health care in general, which earned him an immortal memory among the people.
3. P. Soloviev
Zinovy Petrovich Solovyov (1876–1928), in addition to the high positions he held in the healthcare sector, is known for the fact that in 1925 he initiated the creation of the children's health-improving All-Union Pioneer Camp "Artek" on the Black Sea coast, which exists to this day. He left behind many scientific works in which he raised questions and actively developed programs to overcome difficulties in the development of medicine and higher medical education in the USSR.
G. N. Kaminsky
Grigory Naumovich Kaminsky (1895–1938), before being appointed the first People's Commissar of Health of the USSR, served for 2 years as People's Commissar of Health of the RSFSR (1934–1935) and the USSR (1935–1937). He was the organizer of the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate. In 1935, based on his developments, a program was adopted to improve medical provision and services to the city and rural population. He contributed to the transfer of the chemical and pharmaceutical industry to the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR. He left a deep mark on the development of medicine as a science and in medical education; he also became one of the organizers of VNEM in Moscow and Leningrad.
Special thanks could be given to G. N. Kamensky for his assistance in organizing the first international congresses.
However, his activity in the public sphere was short-lived, the period of his active work was only 4 years, since on June 25, 1937, he was arrested and shot after he made a condemning speech at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (Bolsheviks) against the policy of repression, Many of his comrades were arrested and shot with him. Later they were all posthumously rehabilitated.
2. Importance of studying the topic.
Educational significance of the topic being studied: Show the features of the emergence and development of Soviet medicine.
Professional significance of the topic being studied: training of a specialist who meets the qualification requirements.
Personal significance of the topic being studied: To form a respectful attitude towards the founders of medical science.
3. The purpose of studying the topic: to learn about the features, important dates and scientists involved in the development of medicine in the USSR.
To achieve this goal it is necessary: Determine the most important features of medicine in the USSR.
Know: dates of important discoveries and events in the field of medicine.
Be able to: Make a message, report on the topic of the lesson.
Have an idea: about the scientific and social activities of representatives of Soviet medicine.
Have skills independent work with primary sources: books, archival materials.
4. LESSON PLAN
5. Basic concepts and provisions of the topic
In Soviet historical literature, October 1917 is considered the beginning of modern times. In most foreign publications, the beginning of modern times is associated with 1918, the time of the end of the First World War. In a number of publications, recent times are defined as modern history (English - contemporary history) or as the history of the 20th century.
Due to the uneven historical development of mankind, modern times, like other periods of history, are characterized by diversity of socio-economic relations in different countries of the globe.
Modern times are the shortest period in human history; its duration is calculated only in decades. However, the achievements of this period in all spheres of social activity (including in the field of medicine) in many ways exceed what was created by the human mind over many previous centuries. A short course in the history of medicine, which is taught to second-year students, allows you to study only the main directions and trends in the development of medicine in recent history. Moreover, second-year students do not yet have sufficient specialized knowledge to professionally perceive material on the history of clinical disciplines. That is why the history of the development of individual medical specialties in the modern period is studied at the relevant medical-biological and clinical departments (in the process of the professional development of the future doctor); It is no coincidence that in textbooks and teaching aids for each discipline a special chapter is devoted to its history.
In this textbook, the history of modern medicine is presented in three chapters: 1) the formation of health care and medicine in the USSR (the first years of Soviet power), 2) Nobel Prizes in the field of physiology and medicine and related sciences, 3) the formation of international cooperation in the field of health care. The content of these chapters, on the one hand, reflects the main achievements of medicine during this period, and on the other, allows us to understand the development of medicine in the modern world as a single world-historical process.
In the first years of Soviet power, epidemics of typhus, cholera, typhoid fever and other infectious diseases raged in Russia. Medical care was dispersed among departments, did not have sufficient funding and was provided mainly through zemstvo budgets and the dedicated work of leading zemstvo doctors. Everywhere there was an extreme shortage of qualified medical personnel, medical institutions, and medicines. The civil war and military operations throughout the country intensified the devastation in industry and agriculture. The population of the country was starving. There was not enough fuel. Transport, water supply and cleaning systems in cities and villages were in a very disrepair, which created a dangerous epidemiological situation.
“The main impression of the situation in Russia is a picture of a colossal irreparable collapse,” wrote Herbert Wells, who visited our country in September-October 1920. “The enormous monarchy that I saw in 1914, with its administrative, social, financial and economic systems , collapsed and shattered under the heavy burden of six years of continuous wars. History has never known such a colossal catastrophe. In our opinion, this collapse overshadows even the Revolution itself... The Bolshevik statistics with which I became acquainted are completely frank and honest... Mortality in Petrograd is over 81 people per thousand; Previously it was 22 people per thousand, but this was also higher than in any other country. European city The birth rate among an undernourished and deeply depressed population is 15 people per thousand; before it was almost twice as large"
In the emergency situation that had arisen, the efforts of the government of Soviet Russia were aimed primarily at establishing peace, which was so necessary for solving all internal problems. The Decree on Peace of October 26 (November 8), 1917 became one of the first decrees of the Soviet government. He also created conditions for the implementation of tasks to preserve the life and health of workers, declared by the government to be among the highest priorities. “In a country that is ruined,” said V.I. Lenin in 1919, “the first task is to save the working people. The first productive force of all humanity is the worker, the laborer. If he survives, we will save and restore everything."
The fight against dirt, epidemics and diseases on a national scale required the organizational unity of healthcare, the elimination of departmental fragmentation, the creation of a state network of hospitals and pharmacies, and overcoming the shortage of medical personnel. The implementation of these tasks on the scale of a huge country in conditions of war, famine and devastation was possible only with the presence of a state health care system, which was institutionalized in 1918.
Creation of the People's Commissariat of Health
On October 26 (November 8), 1917, a Medical and Sanitary Department was formed under the Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies (headed by M.I. Barsukov); The department was tasked with reorganizing health care in the country.
Implementing the tasks set back in 1903 in the first program of the RSDLP, the Council of People's Commissars issued decrees: on an 8-hour working day - from October 29 (November 11), 1917, on assistance to victims of accidents at enterprises - from 9 ( 22) November 1917, on the free transfer to sickness funds of all medical institutions of enterprises - from November 14 (27), 1917, on health insurance - from December 22, 1917 (January 4, 1918), etc.
To implement these decisions and provide medical care to the population locally, since November 1917, Medical and Sanitary Departments (under local Councils) and Medical Colleges (under some People's Commissariats) began to be created in various regions of the country.
On December 2 (14), 1917, the medical boards of the People's Commissariats of Internal Affairs, Communications and State Charity addressed the population of Soviet Russia with a joint appeal “On the fight against morbidity, mortality and unsanitary living conditions of the broad masses of the population.” This appeal was the first programmatic document of the Soviet state in the field of medical affairs. The appeal stated:
War, economic collapse and the resulting malnutrition and exhaustion of the population raise the question of the workers' and peasants' government to fight on a national scale against morbidity, mortality and unsanitary living conditions of the broad masses of the population.
There is a need for comprehensive sanitary legislation on water supply, rational sewerage and sanitary supervision, for commercial and industrial establishments, residential premises, for the organization of sanitary inspection elected by the population, for the fight against morbidity and mortality and, in particular, with infant mortality, tuberculosis, syphilis, to combat infectious diseases, to provide the population with public sanatoriums, healing places, etc.
The commonality of tasks facing the Medical Colleges led to their unification. On January 24 (February 6), 1918, by decree of the Council of People's Commissars, the Council of Medical Colleges was formed, which was entrusted with the functions of “the highest medical body of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Government.” A. N. Vinokurov was appointed its chairman, and V. M. Bonch-Bruevnch (Velichkina) and M. I. Barsukov were appointed deputy chairmen.
On May 15, 1918, the first issue of the official printed organ of the Council of Medical Colleges under the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR, “News of Soviet Medicine,” the first Soviet medical newspaper-magazine, was published.
The Council of Medical Colleges (as M.I. Barsukov later wrote) faced three main tasks at that time: "
"1. Continue organizing local medical and sanitary departments under the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies.
2. To consolidate the ongoing reorganization of military medicine...
3. Strengthen the sanitary sector in every possible way, organize the fight against epidemic diseases and do everything possible to help the Soviet government in eliminating sanitary devastation.”
At the same time, the main task of the Council of Medical Colleges remained to unite efforts in the field of health care throughout the country. In this regard, work was carried out to prepare the All-Russian Congress of Representatives of Medical and Sanitary Departments, which was to resolve the issue of forming the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR.
The All-Russian Congress of Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Soviets took place in Moscow on June 16-19, 1918. Along with the main issue “Tasks and organization of the People’s Commissariat of Health” (report by Z. P. Solovyov and V. M. Bonch-Bruevich), the congress discussed the most important issues for health problems of that period: “On the organization and tasks of Soviet local medicine” (report by N. A. Semashko), “On the organization of the fight against epidemics in the conditions of the Soviet Republic” (report by A. N. Sysin), “On insurance medicine” ( reports by I.V. Rusakov and G.V. Lindov).
The resolution of the congress noted: “Based on the unity of state power underlying the structure of the Soviet Republic, it should be recognized as necessary to create a single central body - the Commissariat of Health, in charge of all medical and sanitary matters.”
On June 26, 1918, the Council of Medical Colleges sent a memorandum and a draft decree on the creation of the People's Commissariat of Health (Narkomzdrav) of the RSFSR to the Council of People's Commissars. On July 9, 1918, they were published in the Izvestia of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee for wide circulation.
On July 11, 1918, after repeated and thorough discussions, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree “On the establishment of the People's Commissariat of Health” - the first highest state body that united under its leadership all branches of the country's health care.
The first Board of the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR included: V. M. Bonch-Bruevich (Velichkina), A. P. Golubkov, P. G. Da-uge, E. P. Pervukhin, N. A. Semashko, 3. P . Soloviev. N. A. Semashko was appointed the first People's Commissar of Health of the RSFSR (Fig. 153), his deputy was Z. P. Solovyov.
Nikolai Aleksandrovich Semashko (1874-1949) - headed the People's Commissariat of Health until 1930 - during the civil war, foreign military intervention and the post-war period, when the state health care system was created, epidemics were fought, a program for the protection of motherhood and childhood was developed, and sanatorium and resort services were developed. business, the network of research institutes was expanded, the system of higher medical education was reorganized.
In 1922, N. A. Semashko headed the country’s first department of social hygiene at the medical faculty of Moscow University (since 1930 - Moscow Medical Institute, since 1990 - I. M. Sechenov Medical Academy) and directed it in for 27 years.
N. A. Semashko was the initiator and editor-in-chief of the first edition of the Great Medical Encyclopedia (1927-1936).
For ten years (1926-1936) he headed the children's commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK).
After the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945), on the initiative of N.A. Semashko, the study of the sanitary consequences of the war began. He participated in the creation of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences (1944), became one of its first academicians and became a member of the first Presidium of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. In 1945-1949 he was the director of the Institute of School Hygiene of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, and since 1945 - academician of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR. Under his leadership, the Institute of Healthcare Organization and History of Medicine of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences was created (now the All-Union Research Institute of Social Hygiene, Economics and Health Management named after N. A. Semashko of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences), of which he was director in 1947-1949. He was also the first chairman of the Supreme Council for Physical Culture and Sports and headed the Board of the All-Union Hygienic Society (1940-1949). The scientific heritage of N. A. Semashko is more than 250 works on organizational and theoretical issues of health care. Among them are “Essays on the Theory of Organization of Soviet Health Care” (1947).
Zinovy Petrovich Solovyov (1876-1928) was appointed first deputy people's commissar of health of the RSFSR. Along with this, since 1918, he was the head of the medical unit and a member of the board of the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs, as well as a member of the Council of Medical Colleges.
In 1919, 3. P. Solovyov was elected chairman of the Executive Committee of the Russian Red Cross Society, and in January 1920 he headed the Main Military Sanitary Directorate of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (which since August 1918 was part of the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR).
In 1923, 3. P. Solovyov organized and headed the second department of social hygiene in the country at the medical faculty of the 2nd Moscow State University (now the Russian State Medical University). On his initiative, the All-Union Pioneer Camp “Artek” was created in 1925 on the Black Sea coast.
In his works “The Paths and Crossroads of Modern Medicine”, “Preventive Tasks of Medical Care”, “What kind of doctors should be trained by a higher medical school”, “Scientific foundations of the military health service”, issues of organizing medical practice and medical education in the country were developed.
In July 1936, by resolution of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, the People's Commissariat of Health of the USSR was created.
Grigory Naumovich Kaminsky (1895-1938, Fig. 154) was appointed the first People's Commissar of Health of the USSR. Before this appointment, in 1934-1936. he held the post of People's Commissar of Health of the RSFSR, was the Chief State Sanitary Inspector of the USSR (the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate was created in 1935 on the initiative of G. N. Kaminsky). At the XIV-XVII party congresses he was elected as a candidate member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks).
On June 25, 1937, after speaking at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks condemning the policy of repression, G. N. Kaminsky was arrested and executed in February 1938. Together with G.N. Kaminsky, his deputies at the People's Commissars of Health of the RSFSR and the USSR and other associates were arrested.
Currently, all of them have been rehabilitated (posthumously).
Despite the short period of work as the People's Commissar of Health of the RSFSR and the USSR, G. N. Kaminsky managed to leave a deep mark on the history of domestic health care.
Based on his report, the XVI All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1935) adopted a detailed program of measures to improve the medical care of the urban and rural population. On his initiative, the All-Union Association of the Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industry was transferred from the jurisdiction of the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry. industry in. People's Commissar of Health of the RSFSR. G. N. Kaminsky showed special concern for scientists, for the development of research institutes, higher and secondary medical education. With his direct participation, the formation and construction of the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine (VIEM) took place in Moscow and Leningrad (now St. Petersburg).
G. N. Kaminsky also contributed to the establishment of international scientific cooperation: with his active participation, the first international congresses were organized and successfully held in our country - the IV International Congress against Rheumatism (1934) and the XV International Congress of Physiologists (1935) . The activities of G. N. Kaminsky aroused deep respect among fellow doctors and medical scientists.
The development of the ideas contained in them began long before 1917. Suffice it to recall Johann Peter Frank, who for the first time clearly formulated the idea of public health care and developed it in his 6-volume “Universal Medical Police System,” or turn to the legacy of the great thinkers of various eras who foreshadowed the future of preventative medicine (Hippocrates, Ibn Sina, N.I. Pirogov and many others). Nevertheless, the elevation of these principles to the rank of state policy was carried out only in Russia in the first years of Soviet power.
1. State character is the basic principle of healthcare in the USSR during its formation. Its main contents are: centralization of management, state financing and state planning of health care programs. Public health care provides free and generally accessible medical care to the entire population of the country.
The creation of a state health care management system in the RSFSR ended with the establishment of the People's Commissariat of Health in 1918 (see p. 322). It is clear that in those years the newly formed supreme body for the protection of public health focused its attention primarily on the most pressing problem of the moment - the fight against epidemics. On July 18, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars approved the “Regulations on the People's Commissariat of Health,” which determined the range of state tasks facing it:
a) development and preparation of legislative norms in the field of health care,
b) monitoring and control over the application of these norms and taking measures to ensure consistent
their implementation,
c) publication of generally binding orders and regulations for all institutions and citizens of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic in the field of health care,
d) assistance to all institutions of the Soviet Republic in the implementation of medical and sanitary tasks,
e) organization and management of central medical and sanitary institutions of a scientific and practical nature,
f) financial control and financial assistance in the field of health care activities of central and local health care institutions,
g) unification and coordination of medical and sanitary activities of local Councils of Deputies.
Thus, the Resolution consolidated the strict centralization of the country's healthcare management. In the conditions of the first years of Soviet power, this system, on the one hand, provided the necessary medical care needs for the population at that time. In those years, free healthcare and benefits made a network of hospitals and outpatient clinics (now polyclinics) accessible to the general public. It was in those years that for tens of millions of people, turning to a doctor, paramedic, or government medical institution became a common form of behavior in case of illness. On the other hand, the centralization of health care management, elevated to an absolute principle, together with the residual financing of health care that had already come into force, laid down the elements of an unbalanced development of the health care system. However, during the years of collectivization and industrialization they were not yet so obvious. Nowadays, while maintaining the principle of public health care, in addition to it, new forms of providing medical and social assistance to the population are being developed.
2. Preventive direction is a health care principle that has been consistently implemented in the USSR since the first years of Soviet power. This is evidenced by the first decrees: on measures to combat typhus (January 28, 1919), on measures to combat epidemics (April 10, 1919), on compulsory smallpox vaccination (April 10, 1919), on the supply of bacteriological institutes and laboratories materials and equipment necessary for their work (April 10, 1919), on the sanitary protection of homes (June 18, 1919), on the fight against typhus on the Eastern and Turkestan fronts (November 5, 1919), on ensuring the Red Army and civilian the population with soap (December 30, 1919), about sanitary checkpoints at Moscow train stations (May 13, 1920), about providing the population of the Republic with baths (September 30, 1920) and many others.
The state’s tasks in this area were defined in a special section of the second program of the RCP (b), adopted in March 1919 at the Eighth Party Congress:
The RCP bases its activities in the field of protecting public health primarily on the implementation of broad health and sanitary measures aimed at preventing the development of diseases...
Nowadays, when the clouds of environmental disaster are gathering over humanity, attention is drawn to the fact that in the first years of Soviet power (under the conditions of the civil war, intervention and the accompanying devastation, blockade, hunger and poverty) among the first state tasks in the field protecting the health of the people was also “improving the health of populated areas (protecting soil, water and air).”
For a long time, the prevention and control of epidemics in our country remained among the top government priorities. In 1919, speaking at the VII All-Russian Congress of Soviets, V.I. Lenin identified three key problems of that time - war, famine, epidemics. His words: “Comrades, all attention to this issue. Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice!” were not an exaggeration. In five years (from 1918 to 1922), 20 million people suffered from typhus. Poor nutrition, lack of necessary medications, and insufficient network of medical institutions led to high mortality. Other diseases also claimed many lives: relapsing fever, typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever, malaria, etc.
More than 100 decrees of the Council of People's Commissars were aimed at combating epidemics and preventing diseases. A special place among them is occupied by the decree “On the sanitary bodies of the Republic” (September 15, 1922). He defined the scope of tasks and rights of the sanitary-epidemiological service as a state sanitary control body.
In those years, the concept of “sanitation” included not only sanitary and anti-epidemic measures, but also included the protection of motherhood and infancy, the fight against tuberculosis, the protection of children and adolescents, physical culture and health education. Therefore, the decree “On the sanitary bodies of the Republic” provided not only for the further development and strengthening of the sanitary organization (sanitary protection of water, air, soil, food products, public catering, housing, public places), but also determined measures to prevent infectious diseases and combat them, on the health of children and adolescents, on health education for physical education, occupational health and safety statistics.
This decree finally formulated the rights of sanitary authorities in the field of preventive sanitary supervision. The same decree established the categories of sanitary doctors, their rights and responsibilities, and emphasized the need to develop the specialization of sanitary doctors, increase the number of epidemiologists, housing sanitary doctors and other specialists.
Sanitary doctors were given the right to enter, for the purpose of sanitary inspections, all public and private premises without exception, and the right to raise questions with the Soviet executive bodies about the imposition of administrative penalties for violation of sanitary requirements. They also had the right to initiate cases in local people's courts, prosecute culprits for violations of sanitary requirements, and act as official prosecutors or experts.
In 1921, when the first results of the fight against epidemics were already being felt, on the initiative of the head of the Moscow Health Department V.A. Obukh (1870-1934) put forward the slogan “From the fight against epidemics to the improvement of labor.” “Improvement of labor” was then understood not only as an improvement in the conditions of production itself, but also as a change in the way of life of workers: improvement and improvement of living conditions, an increase in wages, a rational distribution of work and rest time, improved nutrition, etc. It was in those years that the development of basic theoretical principles of medical examination; new types of treatment and preventive institutions have been created - specialized dispensaries (tuberculosis, psychoneurological, drug addiction, venereology), night and day sanatoriums, dispensaries, dietary canteens; dispensary services for workers of large industrial enterprises were introduced; Dispensary observation of mother and child began. Scientific research to study the health of workers began to be conducted at the dispensaries.
Changing tasks in the field of prevention led to the strengthening of the country's sanitary and epidemiological service. In 1935 (as already mentioned) the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate was created. In an extremely short period of time, especially dangerous infections were eliminated in the country: cholera (1923), smallpox and plague (1936). The network of sanitary and epidemiological stations, a cordon of epidemiological well-being, expanded everywhere. This system has historically justified itself: there were no mass epidemics in the country not only during the years of peaceful development, but also during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) - an unprecedented fact in the history of wars.
In the post-war period, typhus (typhoid, typhoid, relapsing) were eliminated, and the incidence of gastrointestinal infections and trachoma decreased significantly. By 1960, malaria had been practically eliminated. The structure of morbidity has changed significantly: infectious diseases have receded and cardiovascular and malignant diseases have come to the fore. Under these conditions, the question of the need for widespread medical examination of the population was again raised.
This is a brief history of the formation of preventive health care in the USSR - the principle; organization of medical affairs, which is accepted today to one degree or another in all countries of the world. In each specific country, the success of its implementation is determined by: the socio-economic development of society, the level of development of science and the perfection of the system of organizational measures.
3) Participation of the population in healthcare is a principle of healthcare that originated in the most difficult conditions of the first years of Soviet power, when the fight against epidemics, diseases and hunger was carried out with an acute shortage of medical personnel. In those years, a significant part of doctors did not share revolutionary ideas. Many of them emigrated abroad, others took a wait-and-see attitude. Many medical workers died at the front during hostilities or in the rear from hunger and disease. Many died in the fight against epidemics.
As already noted, in those years the task of preserving the life and health of workers was proclaimed among the most important in the country’s state policy, however, in conditions of a total shortage of medical personnel, it could only be achieved by involving the broad masses of workers (workers, peasants, intelligentsia).
After the Civil War, new forms of medical and sanitary work emerged, born of time: commissions for the improvement of work and everyday life; sanitary courts; mass performances and sporting events promoting a healthy lifestyle and cleanliness; release of special posters and windows of the Russian Telegraph Agency (ROST windows), in the design of which the poet V.V. Mayakovsky took part, who wrote short, easy-to-remember poems about a healthy lifestyle especially for them.
At the same time, work was underway to train qualified doctors in medical universities, the number of which was constantly increasing. By 1922, in addition to the existing 13 medical faculties, 16 new ones were opened.
The development of higher and secondary medical education in our country, the training of a sufficient number of professional medical workers returned medicine to the mainstream of professionalism, and over time, the relevance of this principle, so important for the first years of Soviet power, gradually decreased. Nowadays, health education and health culture are becoming an integral part of the general education system and national culture as a whole.
4. The unity of medical science and healthcare practice is a principle of healthcare directly related to its state nature.
During the period of civil war and intervention, Russian science developed in extremely difficult conditions.
“Our blockade,” wrote Herbert Wells in 1920, “cut off Russian scientists from foreign scientific literature. They do not have new equipment, there is not enough writing paper, and the laboratories are not heated. It's amazing that they do anything at all. And yet they work successfully: Pavlov conducts studies of the higher nervous activity of animals, amazing in their scope and virtuosity; Manukhin is said to have developed an effective method for treating tuberculosis, even in the last stage. ...They are all passionate about obtaining scientific literature; knowledge is more valuable to them than bread.”
Many outstanding scientists of Russia PL N. Burdenko, N. F. Gamaleya, V. M. Bekhterev, D. K. Zabolotny, A. A. Kisel, M. P. Konchalovsky, T. P. Krasnobaev, V. M. Levitsky , E. N; Pavlovsky, S.I. Spasokukotsky, A.N. Sysin, L.A. Tarasevich and others from the first years of Soviet power took part in the restoration and development of domestic science.
In August 1918, under the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR, the Scientific Medical Council was created (chaired by L. A. Tarasevich), which included representatives of various branches of medicine. His tasks included developing areas of scientific, scientific-practical and educational activities in the field of medicine and sanitation. The Scientific Medical Council rallied hundreds of scientists around itself who took part in the implementation of government programs on the most pressing problems of practical health care at that time.
In 1920, on the initiative of the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR, the State Institute of Public Health (GINZ) was created. It included eight research institutes: the Institute for the Control of Vaccines and Serums (director L. A. Tarasevich), the Sanitary and Hygienic Institute (director P. N. Diatroptov), the Tropical Institute, or Institute of Protozoal Diseases and Chemotherapy (director - E. I. Martsinovsky), Microbiological Institute (director - V. A. Barykin); and later - institutes: nutrition (director - N.M. Shaternikov), biochemistry (director - A.N. Bakh), tuberculosis (director V.A. Vorobyov) and experimental biology. In the 30s, the institutes that were part of the GINZ became independent scientific institutions.
During the first 10 years of Soviet power, 40 scientific research institutes were organized in the country. Among them: the Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology in Saratov (1918), the Bacteriological Institute in Tiflis (1918), the Institute of Infectious Diseases named after. I. I. Mechnikova (1919), State Institute of Venereology (1921), Institute of Maternal and Infant Protection (1922), Institute of Occupational Diseases (1923), Institute of Blood Transfusion (1926), Brain Institute (1927) in Moscow, etc.
It is clear that in the conditions of those years the principle of the unity of medical science and healthcare practice was most clearly manifested in the fight against epidemics and mass diseases. Scientific developments of research institutes were used in healthcare practice. And vice versa, the successful fight against epidemics made it possible to test in practice and consolidate scientific conclusions, and put forward new scientific tasks.
Thus, despite the economic difficulties of the first years of Soviet power, the state found the strength and means to develop priority scientific areas that were vital for the entire country.
IvanPetrovich Pavlov(1849-1936) - great Russian physiologist, academician (1907), creator of a number of new directions in physiology, Nobel Prize laureate (1904).
I.P. Pavlov studied many problems of physiology and medicine. A special place in his activities is occupied by the physiology of the cardiovascular and digestive systems and the higher parts of the central nervous system, which are rightfully considered classical.
I.P. Pavlov introduced the method of chronic experimentation into the practice of physiological research. He brought the principle of nervism to the pinnacle of success, according to which all his research was permeated with the idea of the decisive role of the nervous system in regulating the functional state and activity of all organs and systems. In the field of studying the physiology of the cardiovascular system I.P. Pavlov laid the foundation for the theory of trophic innervation of tissues, which was further developed in the research of L.A. Orbeli and A.D. Speransky. He proposed a whole series of ingenious and subtle surgical operations on dogs - transection of the esophagus in combination with a gastric fistula, the imposition of original fistulas of the salivary gland ducts, etc.
In 1897 I.P. Pavlov published the scientific work “Lectures on the work of the main digestive glands,” for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize. He called acquired reflexes conditioned, and innate ones unconditioned.
He created a materialistic doctrine of higher nervous activity, according to which higher nervous activity is carried out by the higher departments of the Central N.S. and regulates the relationship of the organism with the environment.
Pavlov identified indirect signaling - speech and called it the second signaling system, considering it a product of human social life and work activity.
He revealed a fundamentally new role of the inhibition process in the activity of the cerebral cortex - the role of a protective, restorative and healing factor for its nervous elements (sleep, hypnosis). Successors and students of I.P. Pavlova: K.K. Bykov, A.D. Speransky, I.P. Razenkov, P.S. Kupalov, P.K. Anokhin and others.
I.P. Pavlov was completely devoted to science until the end of his days. The words of Socrates “Know thyself” may belong to him. When he underwent surgery to remove gallstones in 1927 at the age of 70, he practically participated in the experiment himself. Dying in 1936, he said what he felt.
Medicine is one of the most important aspects of the social life of society. Medicine as a science has existed as long as humanity has existed. The level of development of medical knowledge has always directly depended on the level of socio-economic development.
We can glean information about the initial stages of the development of medicine from ancient drawings and ancient medicinal supplies that were found by archaeologists. We also learn information about medicine of past times from written sources: the works of thinkers of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, in chronicles, epics and thoughts.
In the early stages of the development of medicine, observational methods were mainly used. The first diagnoses were made after examining the external manifestations of the disease, unlike, for example, modern dentists, who can make a diagnosis based on your feelings if you know everything about your smile.
Medicine developed separately in different parts of the world. In China already in 770 BC. there was a book on medicine. Despite the fact that all the methods and treatment tips in this book were mainly based on legends and myths, it still contained genuine information about human health. It is known for certain that in the 5th century BC. Even surgical operations were performed in China using the first forms of modern surgical techniques.
In 618 BC. doctors in ancient China first announced the existence of infectious diseases, and in 1000 BC. The Chinese even vaccinated against smallpox.
In another Asian country, Japan, medicine did not develop so successfully. The Japanese drew their basic knowledge from the experience of Chinese medicine.
The real breakthrough in medicine occurred in Ancient Greece. The first schools of doctors appeared here, making medical education accessible to secular people.
It was thanks to the activities of one of these schools that Hippocrates received all his knowledge about medicine. The role of this thinker in the development of medicine cannot be overestimated. His works combine all the scattered accumulated information about the treatment of people. Hippocrates identified the causes of disease. The main reason, in his opinion, was a change in the ratio of fluids in the human body.
Hippocrates' conclusions became the basis of modern practical medicine, and his description of surgery surprises even modern doctors. Hippocrates described methods of treatment that are widely used even today.
Of course, many famous scientists contributed to the development of medicine even after Hippocrates. Thanks to their work, modern medicine has reached unprecedented heights. In addition, modern technologies are used to train doctors.
The term “medicine” is translated from Latin literally as “medical”, “healing”. This is the science of the human body in its healthy and pathological states, as well as methods of diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of various diseases. Thus, it cannot be said that this is exclusively a system of scientific knowledge, since practical activity is an important component.
The history of medicine began with the history of mankind - when a disease appeared, people always sought to find a way to eliminate it. However, at present it is difficult to judge what skills healers possessed in the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras, as well as in later times - until writing appeared. Therefore, historical conclusions can only be drawn on the basis of treatises found by archaeologists. In particular, the code of laws of Hammurabi, which mentions the rules of work for doctors, as well as the observations of Herodotus, describing medical activities in Babylonia, are of great value.
Initially, healers were priests, so healing was considered part of religion. Pathological processes, inexplicable by the knowledge available at that time, were associated with punishment from the gods, so diseases were often treated only by expelling demons and similar rituals. But already in Ancient Greece, attempts were made to study the human body, for example, Hippocrates made a great contribution to medical science, in addition, it was there that the first educational institutions for doctors were opened.
During the Middle Ages, scientists continued the ancient tradition, but significant contributions were also made to the development of medicine. Thus, the works of Avicenna, Rhazes and other physicians became the foundation of modern science. Later, the authorities of antiquity were questioned, for example, by the experiments of Francis Bacon. This became the impetus for the development of such disciplines as anatomy and physiology. A more precise study of the body and its work has made it possible to better understand the causes and mechanisms of many diseases. Most of the knowledge was obtained through autopsy of corpses and studying the structural features of internal organs.
Further discoveries in the field of diagnosis, treatment, and disease prevention were associated with general scientific and technological progress. In particular, in the 19th century, thanks to the invention of the microscope, it became possible to study cells and their pathologies. The emergence of such science as genetics played a revolutionary role.
Today, doctors have at their disposal not only thousands of years of experience and the latest developments, but also modern equipment and effective drugs, without which it is impossible to imagine either accurate diagnosis or effective therapy. However, despite such progress, many questions still remain open; scientists have yet to answer them.
