The purposes of taking an anamnesis are as follows: to assess the general health and conditions of the animal; identify existing problems; characterize the competence of the owner; obtain the information needed for the upcoming survey. The veterinarian should exercise the utmost care and accuracy in taking the case history, taking into account the owner's observations and not their interpretation. It is important to obtain data on vaccination and deworming, previous and current diseases, and their treatment.
The anamnesis includes information about the animal's reproductive activity, including fertility data; the number of estrous cycles; duration of intervals between proestrus; the duration of the phases of the cycle (proestrus, estrus, metestrus / anestrus); the presence and nature of vaginal discharge; features of sexual behavior. It is also necessary to obtain information on the number of matings and dates of their occurrence, the number of pregnancies, the number of litters, complications during childbirth, as well as mortality of puppies or kittens. The ratio of fertile and infertile matings should be determined. In some cases, young females have an irregular cycle that can cause infertility. The owner should be informed that such symptoms are usually age-related and are likely to disappear over time without any treatment.
After compiling an anamnesis, it will be possible to formulate the current problem as:
Absence of manifestations of estrus;
Infertility, accompanied by deviations in the cycle (short interval of inter-proestrus, short proestrus, protracted proestrus / estrus);
Infertility against the background of an apparently normal estrous cycle;
Inability to mate or spontaneous abortion.
Initial inspection
The general clinical examination of the bitch or cat should begin with an examination that includes assessment of general condition, temperament, behavior, weight, and identification of major symptoms.
Palpation of the mammary glands (to detect mastitis, tumors, nodules, lactation, hypertrophy);
Inspection of the vagina (to determine its size, turgor and the presence of discharge);
Examination of vaginal discharge to determine the stage of the cycle and the number of leukocytes;
In the case of suspected estrus, the identification of signs of behavioral estrus (tail retraction, croup elevation), which can be done by stroking the perianal region;
Examination of the vagina in bitches by palpation and using an endoscope (in cats, such an examination is difficult, see section Diagnostic methods, vaginoscopy);
Palpation of the abdominal cavity to detect fetuses or pathologies of the uterus (tumors, enlargement of the uterus due to pyometra).
In a sexually mature non-pregnant bitch, the stage of the cycle is determined based on the results of vaginal cytology and the concentration of progesterone in the blood plasma (Table 3.1). It should be noted that the characteristics of a prepubescent female are identical to those of an adult animal in the anestrus phase. There may also be similar rates in the metestrus phase and during pregnancy, therefore, to determine the reproductive status, it is necessary to establish whether the bitch is pregnant.
The volume of subsequent laboratory tests (general and biochemical blood tests, urinalysis) is determined by the level of culture and commercial considerations of the doctor. It is unethical and unprofessional to prescribe research without discussing the real need and cost of such events with the owner of the animal.
Disorders characterized by the absence of estrus
Anestria can manifest as either a female not cycling at the appropriate age, or an increased duration of inter-proestrus (i.e., more than 12 months for bitches and more than 20 days for cats), or no cyclic activity. Pathology is due to the absence of obvious signs of proestrus and estrus or structural or functional disorders in the hypothalamus-pituitary-ovary system.
In bitches, the duration of the inter-pro-estrus interval is 4-12 months, depending on the individual. In older animals, the duration of the interval increases to 10-12 months.
Differential Diagnosis
Prepubertal anestria. Puberty usually occurs between 6 and 24 months of age in dogs and around 10 months in cats. Puberty is associated with a certain body weight and occurs approximately 2 months after reaching 70-80% of the weight of an adult animal. Sometimes the entry of a bitch into puberty can be expected until 2-3 years of age, and in Greyhounds - even up to 4 or 5 years of age.
Tab. 3.1. Determination of the phase of the reproductive cycle and some pathologies of the reproductive tract by the manifestation of estrogen activity (determined by vaginal cytology) and plasma progesterone concentration+ present; - missing
Aplasia / hypoplasia of the ovaries. Congenital absence or underdevelopment of one or both ovaries is rare. A characteristic feature is an increase in the concentration of gonadotropins in plasma due to the insufficiency of the inhibitory effect of ovarian hormones on the hypothalamic-pituitary activity. In the case of unilateral (but not bilateral) aplasia, the GnRH stimulation test detects a response increase in the concentration of estradiol. Laparotomy reveals underdeveloped ovaries or their absence.
seasonal cycle. The sexual cycle of a domestic dog (with the exception of African breeds, i.e. Basenji) is not seasonal. Wild dogs (dingoes, wolves) mate in autumn. Under natural light, the mating season in cats continues in spring, summer and autumn, and in winter the anestrus period begins. Keeping under artificial light (i.e. indoors) has an effect on cycling.
Photoperiodism. For normal cyclic activity, animals with a seasonal mating season (cats and wild dogs) require an appropriate light regime. With an unfavorable light regime, i.e., insufficient lighting, a decrease in cyclic activity is observed. The stimulation photoperiod for cats is 12–14 hours of daylight and 10–12 hours of darkness, although there are reports that cyclic activity persists even with 10 hours of light (corresponding to 14 hours of darkness).
Cats: social factors. At animals standing at the bottom rung of the hierarchical ladder, a "hidden estrus" can be observed. The period of estrus is not accompanied by appropriate behavior, despite the presence of characteristic endocrine and cytological changes. An indicator of estrus is vaginal discharge, indicating an increased level of estrogen.
Stress, fatigue, exhaustion. These factors can inhibit the activity of the ovaries in most animal species. Active training is often the reason why Greyhounds do not have oestrus. In cats, stress can be the result of overcrowding, extreme temperatures, poor diets, frequent exhibitions, and related moves.
Inadequate observation/manifestation of symptoms of estrus. It is explained by the mistakes of the owner or the characteristics of the animal. Owner errors are inattention or misunderstanding of the features of estrus. Most often, such errors are observed when keeping animals in the yard, enclosures or in a group. The features of the animal include poor physical manifestations of proestrus / estrus (for example, swelling of the vulva in Greyhounds is much less pronounced than in Boxers), the presence of long hair (Newfoundland, Samoyed), the absence of behavioral estrus can provoke a lack of interest on the part of males or insufficient excitement of the females. To detect proestrus/oestrus, careful observation of the female's behavior, examination of the vulva twice a week, and a weekly check for vaginal discharge are recommended. Determination of the progesterone concentration is not necessary, since this increase is preceded by the appearance of vaginal discharge, due to the activity of estrogens. However, during the initial examination, it is recommended to determine the level of progesterone in order to ensure that the female has not ovulated during the previous 2 months.
Cysts and ovarian neoplasia. Progesterone-secreting cysts and tumors (eg, granulosa cell tumors) can stop the cyclic activity of the ovaries because they produce progesterone, which suppresses the secretion of gonadotropins. In such cases, the concentration of progesterone in the blood plasma exceeds 6 nmol / l (2 ng / ml). The presence of a large tumor is established by palpation, radiography or ultrasound. Basically, progesterone-secreting neoplasms are small in size, they can be either single or multiple, they capture one or both ovaries. The level of progesterone is reduced compared to the metestrus phase (more than 1.5-6 nmol / l, 0.5-2 ng / ml), and the decrease is observed over a longer period compared to metestrus (60-90 days). Treatment consists in giving the animal prostaglandins that can cause regression of the luteal tissue, or surgical removal of neoplasms. Tumors and cysts that do not have hormonal activity (for example, in rete ovarii) cause ovarian atrophy (in the case of bilateral lesions), which causes the absence of estrus.
Premature (senile) ovarian dysfunction. The duration of functional activity of the ovaries in dogs and cats has not been studied. The symptoms of cessation of functioning are similar to those of menopause in women. Ovarian activity declines with age, and in some bitches prematurely. In cats, with age, the intervals between cycles increase, and a complete cessation of activity gradually occurs. In animals with hypofunction of the ovaries, an increased concentration of gonadotropins is usually observed.
Immune-mediated oophoritis. This disease is rare. Diagnosis is based on histological examination of the ovaries. The symptoms in the affected bitch are diffuse lymphocytosis, follicular degeneration, oocyte degeneration and necrosis, and zona pellucida thickening.
Ovariectomy. A previous oophorectomy is indicated by the presence of a scar or tattoo. In bitches subjected to ovariectomy, there is an increased concentration of LH and FSH (higher than during the period of anestrus and metestrus in healthy animals). However, in practice, the definition of these hormones is not used, therefore, oophorectomy can be confirmed by diagnostic laparotomy or laparoscopy. Alternatively, a test with gonadotropin stimulation (using equine chorionic gonadotropin (CG) isolated from the blood serum of pregnant mares) or GnRH (see Clinical Methods) is used.
False pregnancy in cats. It develops as a result of infertile mating, spontaneous ovulation or the death of embryos in early pregnancy. As a rule, corpus luteum remain viable for 35-37 days, preventing the activation of the ovaries. The cycle resumes 7–10 days after the regression of the corpus luteum. The time of absence of estrus is 40–50 days. False pregnancy sometimes develops after ovulation. In this case, the absence of pregnancy after mating may be due to the infertility of the male or female, due to which fertilization did not occur, or the death of the embryos. The diagnosis of "false pregnancy" is confirmed by vaginal cytological studies conducted twice a week for 4 weeks - this allows you to detect changes due to an increase in the concentration of estrogen. To verify the activity of the corpus luteum, fluctuations in the concentration of progesterone in plasma are measured.
A false pregnancy can develop as a result of the death of the embryos due to infection. Systemic infections in cats, even in the absence of a clinical picture, can lead to embryonic death, spontaneous abortion, or fetal mummification. Such infections include panleukopenia and feline infectious peritonitis. Serological diagnosis of panleukopenia is reliable only at the stage of viremia. The feline leukemia virus also infects the reproductive tract, causing embryo resorption, spontaneous abortion, and infertility. To combat the spread of this virus, it is necessary to identify (using serological analysis) infected cats and exclude them from breeding. Cats that do not have the virus in a single test are tested again. Serological studies are carried out at intervals of 90 days until a negative result is obtained in two consecutive tests.
The influence of other infections on the development of pregnancy has not been studied.
Lactational/post-lactational anestrus in cats. During lactation, estrus is usually absent in cats, and resumes 2-3 weeks after its end (sometimes after 6-8 days, if kittens are taken away from their mother or the litter dies a few days after birth). It should be noted that in dogs, neither pregnancy nor lactation has a significant effect on the estrous cycle.
Violations of sexual differentiation. According to the phenotype, such animals are females, however, as a rule, they have an underdeveloped vagina and vulva with a hypertrophied clitoris. The gonads are represented by underdeveloped testicles or ovaries (male pseudohermaphroditism) or contain elements of the gonads of both sexes (true hermaphroditism). Typically, such animals have an altered set of sex chromosomes (77,XO, 79,XXX, 79,XXY, 78,XX / 78,XY, 37,XO) in contrast to healthy bitches or cats (78,XX, 38,XX). Such a chromosome set may reflect disturbances at the stage of meiosis or mitosis of gametes. Diagnosis is based on karyotyping and detection of abnormalities in the chromosome set. No treatment has been developed for this disorder.
iatrogenic diseases. Drugs are often prescribed to regulate estrus, including progestogens, androgens, anabolic steroids, and glucocorticoids; these drugs suppress the secretion of gonadotropins. As a result of androgen therapy, bitches may experience clitoral hypertrophy and purulent vaginal discharge.
Accompanying illnesses. In some cases, anestria is explained by violations of other body systems (poor living conditions, exhaustion, hypothyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, hypoadrenocorticism). The least common reason for the absence of estrus is hypothyroidism, if the bitch does not have visible signs of this disease, such as poor coat, lethargy, decreased appetite, increased sensitivity to cold, obesity, alopecia.
hypofunction of the pituitary gland. This is a rare disease of German Shepherds, manifested by congenital dwarfism. The basis for the diagnosis is the data of the anamnesis and clinical examination (physical examinations). Endocrinological tests reveal a decrease in pituitary-thyroid or pituitary-adrenal activity.
Protracted idiopathic anestrus. One of the authors of this chapter has observed bitches that cycle only in response to gonadotropins, but these bitches still produce healthy offspring. Probably, such a pathology is explained by insufficient hypothalamic-pituitary activity and, accordingly, the absence of endocrine changes necessary for the proestrus phase to begin. Diagnosis is carried out on the basis of the reaction to the introduction of gonadotropins.
Clinical diagnosis and treatment
Methods for diagnosing possible violations are given in table. 3.2.
It is necessary to determine the source of the problem, which may be due to both the health of the animal and the mistakes of the owner. It should be established whether the owner is aware of the signs of estrus and the phases of the normal reproductive cycle, and whether his observations are adequate. In some cases, the first estrus occurs only when the bitch reaches 2–3 years of age, and the interval between cycles is extended to 12–14 months. It is necessary to find out if the patient was prescribed drugs that can suppress the activity of the ovaries, whether the bitch or cat demonstrates behavior characteristic of males, which may indicate pseudohermaphroditism (however, it should be noted that imitation of the cage is also characteristic of healthy females).
Initial inspection
It is necessary to establish the presence / absence of a scar, indicating an ovariectomy. Determine the presence / absence of clitoral hypertrophy (intersexuality, iatrogenic diseases). Make sure that there are no violations from other body systems.
Tab. 3.2. Diagnosis of disorders characterized by the absence of signs of estrus
Further examination
Ovarian hypofunction is established on the basis of data from a study of vaginal discharge and determination of the concentration of progesterone in the blood plasma;
In some cases, to determine the functional activity of the pituitary / ovaries, a stimulation test with equine CG or GnRH is performed;
Elevated plasma progesterone concentrations indicate corpus luteum tissue activity, which occurs during false/physiological pregnancy in cats or normal metestrus/pregnancy in dogs, as well as in the presence of luteal cysts or ovarian neoplasia;
An elevated plasma LH/FSH concentration in the absence of signs of estrus indicates a decrease in the inhibitory effect of ovarian steroids on LH/FSH secretion. Such an increase in the concentration of LH / FSH can be observed after ovariectomy, with ovarian hypoplasia / aplasia and ovarian hypofunction.
Other diagnostic procedures:
Karyotyping (intersexuality);
Ultrasound / X-ray examination of the reproductive tract (ovarian cysts, neoplasia);
Study of the reproductive tract using laparotomy (ovarian hypoplasia / aplasia, intersexuality);
Gonadotropin stimulation test (ovarian function).
In some cases, it is required to familiarize the owner with the main signs of estrus and the phases of the normal reproductive cycle. To restore the cycle, if possible, eliminate the cause of the violations (endocrine diseases, poor living conditions). Many disorders cannot be corrected (ovarian hypoplasia/aplasia, senile ovarian hypofunction, ovariectomy), in which case the real prospects for treatment should be discussed with the owner.
Estrus-inducing drugs (such as gonadotropins, see Chapter 16) are given to apparently healthy animals. These drugs can also be used to determine the functional activity of the ovaries (gonadotropin stimulation test). Therapy begins during the period of anestrus and after the regeneration of the endometrium. The authors of this chapter have repeatedly been convinced of the effectiveness of such treatment if the animal had a normal cycle before the disease. However, there is no such method of treatment that would provide fertile estrus and ovulation for all bitches without exception.
CYCLE DISTURBANCES
Disorders characterized by short proestrus turning into anestrus (no estrus or ovulation)
Such disorders, which cause a reduction in the visible signs of proestrus, are explained by the presence of factors such as stress, poor nutrition, exercise, iatrogenic or comorbidities. In addition, these disorders may be due to the same reasons as split estrus, i.e., inadequate or untimely secretion of gonadotropins or a weak ovarian response to their effects. These disorders are discussed in more detail in the previous and subsequent sections of this chapter.
Reducing the interval between proestrusNormally, the interval between proestrus in bitches lasts about 7 months, and in cats about 20 days. A short interval between proestrus in females is spoken of when it is reduced to 4–4.5 months. In the absence of mating in cats, the period between proestrus is about 8 days (range 2 to 18 days).
Tab. 3.3. Diagnosis of disorders characterized by a short proestrus interval
Differential diagnosis (Table 3.3) Split leak. This disorder is more commonly seen in young dogs and cats. Behavioral and physiological proestrus are interrupted, followed by another, normal proestrus/estrus or "false estrus". In females, estrus resumes after a week or 2 months, in cats - after a few days. This pathology is explained by inadequate development of follicles in the first proestrus. No treatment is required, and the problem usually resolves when the animal reaches maturity. However, this disorder makes progestogen therapy difficult. Insufficient duration of therapy with short-acting progestogens leads to the rapid onset of a new proestrus, which is regarded by the owner as a consequence of ineffective treatment. Adult animals are prescribed an 8-day course, while young females require a longer therapy (14 days).
Frequent proestrus. Sometimes in old animals one or two proestruses are observed, which do not end with estrus and ovulation. The etiology of this disorder, similar to split estrus, has not been elucidated, but it can be explained either by inadequate stimulation of the ovaries by gonadotropins, or by an inadequate response of the ovaries to gonadotropins. The optimal treatment regimen has not been developed. Symptomatic treatment involves the introduction of either gonadotropins at the onset of proestrus, or the use of androgens or progestogens to delay it. Standard monitoring methods (vaginal cytology, measuring the concentration of progesterone in the blood plasma) allow you to evaluate the activity of the ovaries and determine the moment of ovulation, if (and when) it finally occurs.
Follicular cysts. As a rule, such cysts are accompanied by prolonged estrogen activity (see protracted proestrus/oestrus).
Lack of ovulation. In bitches, this problem is caused by a shortening of the interval between proestrus due to the absence of metestrus (normally lasting about 60 days). This reduction can occur as a result of taking progestogens at the onset of proestrus. In cats, the absence of ovulation is noted when there are not enough matings or when mating is carried out at the beginning of oestrus. Estrus in cats resumes earlier than after 18 days. Not ovulating is diagnosed when low progesterone concentrations occur during estrus (in bitches only) and immediately after estrus (in bitches and cats). In order to induce ovulation, GnRH or human CG is given to animals early in estrus. However, when prescribing such therapy, the choice of the timing of its implementation is crucial.
shortened proestrus. This syndrome needs an adequate definition. In some cases, infertility in females is observed against the background of normal estrus and ovulation, but a reduced interval between estrus. The disorder is common in German Shepherds and Rottweilers. The causes of infertility are not clear, but it can be assumed that the contraction of the anestrus prevents the regeneration of the endometrium after detachment, which occurs at the end of metestrus / at the beginning of anestrus. If such a violation is indeed the cause of infertility, then to confirm the diagnosis at the beginning of proestrus, a cytological examination of the endometrium or a biopsy of uterine tissue should be performed. There is an opinion that the prolongation of the interval between estrus due to the delay of estrus (as a result of taking progestogens or androgens) leads to fertile estrus. Although the effect of progestogens on the exfoliation and regeneration of the endometrium has not yet been studied, however, it is possible that treatment with these drugs, leading to an increase in the interval between estrus, affects the mentioned processes in the endometrium. Some bitches showing short estrus intervals, normal anestrus and short metestrus have anovulatory cycles (see above). In the presence of ovulation, the fertility of such animals should be normal.
Cats: shortened interval between estrus. This disturbance may have behavioral or endocrine causes (see protracted proestrus/estrus).
Note: In some animals, such as cattle, horses, acute endometritis leads to a reduction in the interval between estrus, since the secretion of prostaglandins by the uterus causes the destruction of the corpus luteum. However, neither bitches nor cats show a shortened interval between estrus due to such reasons. Moreover, there is no evidence of a decrease in this interval in pyometra, although the concentration of prostaglandin metabolites in plasma increases in this disease.
Clinical StudyAnamnesis: in young females, the most likely diagnosis is split estrus; in old animals, there is a mild, reduced estrus, lack of ovulation (rarely) or frequent proestrus.
Initial inspection: using vaginal cytology, signs of conditions due to estrogenic activity are detected to distinguish them from other, non-estrogen-related conditions characterized by the presence of vaginal discharge, swelling of the vulva and increased interest in the female by males (including vulvitis and vaginitis).
Further research: the fact of ovulation is established by the results of determining the concentration of progesterone during the period of estrus and immediately after its completion; a cytological examination or biopsy of uterine tissue in bitches helps determine how the endometrium is recovering.
Tab. 3.4. Diagnosis of disorders characterized by lengthening of proestrus/estrus
Treatment: as a rule, split estrus syndrome in young animals does not require treatment; to suppress estrus, therapy with the use of progestogens is prescribed, however, in the first estrus, the use of these drugs is contraindicated. Old bitches are prescribed treatment only after diagnosis and differential diagnosis. Hormone therapy is indicated for conditions such as lack of ovulation, frequent proestrus, and reduced anestrus.
Increased duration of proestrus/estrus
Such disorders (Table 3.4) reflect an increase in the period of estrogen secretion. Sources of estrogen can be exogenous or endogenous. An increase in the duration of proestrus is stated if its signs persist for more than 21 days. However, in wild dogs, proestrus can last up to 2 months. Estrus is considered prolonged if its signs persist for more than 21 days in bitches and cats.
Differential DiagnosisYoung females. In the course of the first cycles, deviations can be observed, in particular, they are lengthened. As a rule, such violations are normalized with age.
Follicular cysts. Estrogen-secreting follicular cysts cause the follicles to persist, which prevents ovulation. The origin of the pathology has not been clarified, although in other species of animals a similar condition is explained by an insufficient preovulatory increase in LH levels. Cysts are single or multiple, in rare cases, polycystic ovaries are observed. Estrogen activity is determined by characteristic manifestations (such as vaginal cytology, behavior, changes in the external genital organs). The diagnosis is confirmed by ultrasound, since the cysts are larger than healthy follicles. The optimal treatment regimen has not been developed. In some cases, the problem resolves spontaneously, in others, the cysts may become luteinized and produce progesterone. Therapy with human hCG or GnRH may induce ovulation or luteinization of the follicles. The introduction of prostaglandins causes regression of the corpus luteum. Prolonged secretion of estrogen and subsequent secretion of progesterone by the luteal tissue can lead to the development of cystic endometrial hyperplasia and pyometra. Prescribing progestogens for the treatment of cysts is associated with the risk of developing pyometra, therefore, in the presence of these symptoms in bitches, ovariohysterectomy is recommended. After surgical removal of cysts or the entire ovary, in some cases, a complete recovery of the cycle is observed. However, ovariohysterectomy is preferred because the disease is usually seen in bitches past fertile age.
Cats: Adrenal estrogen secretion. The adrenal glands can be a source of excess estrogen secretion. Prednisolone (2.2 mg/kg orally for 5 days) is prescribed to treat the pathology.
Cats: prolonged estrus. The condition is explained by the confluence of successive waves of follicular development or the persistence of behavioral estrus in the interval between these waves. Vaginal cytology will identify this condition. Typically, the disorder does not require treatment, but ovulation induction with human hCG or cervical stimulation provides good results.
exogenous estrogens. They are prescribed after mating to prevent unwanted pregnancy (Chapter 16).
Non-hormonal deviations. Symptoms characteristic of estrus (male interest, vulvar swelling, bloody vaginal discharge) may be due to non-hormonal causes (vulvovaginitis, foreign body in the vagina, tumor). Unlike true proestrus, vaginal cytology will reveal no evidence of estrogen activity. With vulvovaginitis, local therapy is prescribed, which consists in local irrigation with solutions of antiseptics or antibiotics, as well as systemic antibiotic therapy.
Tumors of the ovaries. They are rarely observed and mostly in old animals. Estrogen-secreting are granulosa cell tumors, cystadenoma and alenoma. Tumors can vary in size and affect one or both ovaries. They are detected by palpation of the abdomen, using ultrasound, radiography or laparotomy. Treatment consists of surgical removal.
Liver diseases. Estrogens are processed and excreted by the liver. An increase in estrogen activity can be observed as a result of incomplete metabolism caused by liver diseases. As a rule, in such cases, the animal has accompanying symptoms associated with liver disease.
Anamnesis: includes the age of the animal, the pattern of estrogenic activity and associated behavioral changes, and details of the oophorectomy.
Inspection: using vaginal cytology, signs of estrogen activity are detected. To determine if the ovaries are not enlarged (due to tumors), the abdomen is palpated.
Further examination: carried out in the following areas:
Imaging of the ovaries (usually ultrasound) to look for follicular cysts or ovarian tumors
Determination of the basal concentration of hormones in the blood plasma (estrogens, progesterone) and stimulation tests to detect the presence of ovarian tissue;
In some cases, surgical methods are used to diagnose ovarian diseases or detect active ovarian tissue.
Treatment options:No treatment required (young females);
Hormone therapy (follicular cysts, prolonged oestrus in cats);
Surgical treatment (ovarian cysts, intersexuality);
The use of antibiotics / antiseptics (vaginitis, vulvitis).
Infertility with a normal cycle
As a rule, one can speak of infertility if two matings that took place during the period of normal estrus did not end in pregnancy.
Failure to conceive despite normal oestrus may be due to female infertility, male infertility, mating or artificial insemination errors.
Infertility also includes cases of embryo death in early pregnancy. It is not known how common this pathology is, moreover, it cannot be diagnosed and in bitches it does not affect the interval between cycles. In cats in such cases, the development of a false pregnancy is observed, estrus resumes 40–50 days after mating.
It should be noted that determining the causes of infertility is very difficult, and in some cases impossible.
Tab. 3.5. Diagnosis of infertility in a normal estrous cycle
Differential diagnosis (Table 3.5.) Bitches: Wrong timing of mating/artificial insemination. Natural mating or artificial insemination with fresh semen during the mating-friendly oestrus phase (except for the first or last 2-3 days of this phase) usually results in pregnancy and the birth of a normal litter. This is possible, since the spermatozoa in the female genital tract remain viable for a long time, and the eggs are capable of fertilization for quite a long time. Capacitation of spermatozoa takes 7 hours, and the ability to fertilize lasts 4-7 days. Ovulation occurs approximately day 2 (36–50 hours) after the LH peak (usually observed on the first day of estrus). The eggs undergo a maturation period that lasts another 2-3 days, after which they retain the ability to fertilize for 24-48 hours. Due to the fact that these indicators are approximate and some deviations are possible, a period lasting 3–4 days is considered fertile, counting from 2–6 days after ovulation. The duration of the fertile period is the longer, the more eggs have matured.
The main problem associated with determining the optimal timing of mating is the calculation of the day of ovulation in relation to the onset of proestrus. The vast majority of breeders practice mating/insemination between 10 and 14 days from the onset of proestrus, however this approach does not provide good results as ovulation can occur as early as 5 days after the onset of proestrus and likely up to 21 days. Insemination with frozen semen requires a more accurate calculation of the date, since the viability of spermatozoa in this case is reduced to approximately 12 hours. It must be borne in mind that the lack of fertilization in these cases can be explained not only by incorrect determination of the date, but also by pathologies of the uterus, poor quality or reduced viability of sperm. Methods for determining estrus and calculating mating/insemination dates are discussed later in this chapter.
male infertility. The fertility of males is determined based on the results of previous matings with other females. However, the ability or inability of the male to fertilize in the past does not always coincide with his current capabilities. It is likely that the young male's sperm - immature and therefore infertile at the time of the previous mating (for example, characterized by a high sperm count with morphological abnormalities but good motility) - has matured and become fertile.
Segmental aplasia of the paramesonephric duct. This pathology is characterized by the absence or underdevelopment of sections of the genital tract (uterus, fallopian tubes). It is observed extremely rarely. Diagnosis is by radiography, ultrasound, or laparotomy. With bilateral lesions, complete sterility is observed.
Tumors and polyps of the uterus interfere with the transport of spermatozoa and implantation of eggs. The diagnosis is made on the basis of palpation, ultrasound and radiography. Treatment consists of surgical removal of the tumor. The prognosis for maintaining fertility is cautious.
cervical stenosis. Rarely observed. The infertility caused by this disorder is explained by the obstruction of the reproductive tract, which prevents the transport of spermatozoa to the uterus. As a rule, spotting during proestrus is absent in such females. The presence of a problem is indicated by the impossibility of introducing a catheter through the cervix from the side of the vagina (in bitches) or removing it from the uterus during laparotomy (bitches, cats).
Fallopian tube obstruction rarely observed. This may be a birth defect or a consequence of an infection (salpingitis). Diagnosis is difficult (see below for diagnostic methods) and is based on the results of laparotomy and observation. Treatment is usually ineffective.
Lack of ovulation is not among the common problems in bitches. With this pathology, normal estrous behavior and a shortened interval between estrus are noted. The diagnosis is based on the absence of an increase in progesterone levels at the onset of estrus. The etiology of the disorder is not clear, but is probably associated with an insufficient preovulatory increase in LH. If the problem recurs, ovulation induction with GnRH or human hCG at the start of oestrus is recommended, followed by mating or artificial insemination 3–4 days later. The onset of estrus is confirmed by vaginal cytology. The administration of GnRH or human CG towards the middle of estrus ensures ovulation but not fertility, since the released eggs have already undergone the aging process by that time.
In cats, the lack of ovulation may be due to an inadequate number of matings, mating too early or too late. To prevent such errors, it is recommended to carry out at least 4 matings within 1 day in the middle of estrus. The number of matings is controlled, focusing on the cat's specific cry, aggression towards the male, and characteristic behavior after copulation (rolling on the floor, licking). In the absence of ovulation, a low concentration of progesterone is observed a week after mating, there is no period of false pregnancy, estrus quickly resumes.
Embryo death in early pregnancy. Difficulties in diagnosis are associated with the difficulty of confirming pregnancy in the early stages. Probable causes of the pathology are endometritis, cystic endometrial hyperplasia, embryonic defects, and possibly inbreeding. There is an opinion that the reason for the death of embryos may be inadequate activity of the corpus luteum, but it needs to be confirmed. In females, this pathology does not affect the course of the estrus cycle, while in cats, after the death of the embryos, a false pregnancy occurs (see above disorders characterized by the absence of estrus).
Insufficiency of the luteal phase. Manifested as an insufficient increase in progesterone concentration and presumably causes the death of embryos in early pregnancy in both dogs and cats.
Experimental studies have established that in order to maintain pregnancy in bitches, the progesterone concentration should be at least 6–9 nmol / l (2–3 ng / ml), its further decrease for a period of more than 3 days leads to termination of pregnancy. In the case of termination of pregnancy against the background of a low concentration of progesterone, it is not clear what is the cause and what is the effect.
Cystic endometrial hyperplasia (ECH) is a common pathology seen in older animals. Risk factors include age, treatment with progestogens (to delay estrus) or estrogens (to terminate pregnancy). Bacteria present in the uterus at the end of estrus may be involved in the pathogenesis, since due to the opening of the cervix during estrus, the vaginal flora is usually present in the uterus. Diagnosis: macrocysts are determined on the basis of ultrasound data; microscopic cysts are detected by biopsy and histological examination of the uterine wall. There is still no complete clarity on the clinical development and treatment of CGE. After treatment of pyometra (a common complication of CGE) with prostaglandins, fertility in young animals is usually restored. Since the development of CGE is due to the effect of steroids on the uterus (estrogens, progestogens), it is preferable to use androgens to delay estrus and metestrus. In addition, prophylactic antibiotics at the end of estrus can be recommended to suppress bacterial infection in the uterine cavity.
Endometritis. The effect of endometritis (separate from pyometra) on fertility has not been elucidated, which is to some extent due to the difficulty in diagnosing this disease. The difficulty in making a diagnosis is due to problems in obtaining material for microbiological and cytological studies aimed at identifying an inflammatory process in the uterus. The presence of bacteria in the vagina is normal and does not indicate endometritis. To diagnose endometritis, the contents of the uterus are examined for the presence of bacteria and white blood cells. Material for research is obtained by catheterization through the cervix or laparotomy. Treatment consists of prescribing systemic antibiotics. Due to the approximate diagnosis, the treatment regimen is poorly developed.
Herpes virus. How often the herpes virus causes infertility in bitches has not yet been clarified. However, this virus has been found to cause spontaneous abortions and stillbirths.
Antibodies against sperm/eggs. There is no documented evidence that infertility in bitches and cats can be due to the effect of antibodies on germ cells. Whereas in other animal species such antibodies, natural or induced, can cause infertility.
Clinical diagnostic methodsAnamnesis:
For males - confirm fertility based on the results of previous matings;
Confirm the correctness of the mating (terms and number of matings);
For cats - establish the presence / absence of viruses of feline panleukopenia, feline leukemia or feline infectious peritonitis;
For cats, find out if mating has taken place (based on postcoital behavior) and the interval to the next estrus;
For cats - based on the concentration of progesterone in blood plasma, measured one week after mating, determine whether ovulation has occurred;
For cats, an interval between estrus of less than 18 days indicates the absence of ovulation (mating did not take place, the timing or number of matings was chosen incorrectly), while an interval of about 40 days indicates ovulation has occurred, but the absence of fertilization (due to male infertility or disease females, such as CGE, endometritis) or embryonic death.
Inspection: an increased white blood cell count in vaginal discharge indicates the presence of an infection (it is necessary to remember the increase in the white blood cell count at the end of estrus). Endometritis is detected on the basis of microbiological examination of the contents of the uterus and cytology of the endometrium.
Further examination: CGE or some anatomical defects of the uterus are detected using ultrasound. Through laparotomy, the pathology of the ovaries and fallopian tubes is revealed.
Tests of progesterone concentration after the end of estrus indicate the following disorders:
Lack of ovulation (decreased concentration);
Insufficiency of the luteal phase (constantly low concentration).
TreatmentIf the anamnesis and primary examination do not reveal deviations, they are limited to observation during the control cycle;
For females: at the beginning of proestrus, endometrial cytology and microbiological examination of the contents of the uterus are performed, if appropriate equipment is available;
To study the uterus, contrast radiography is used;
To confirm the correct choice of timing of mating and the presence of ovulation in bitches, the concentration of progesterone in the blood plasma is determined;
To confirm pregnancy at 3-4 weeks after mating, an ultrasound scan is performed.
As a rule, the control cycle ends with pregnancy. Animals in which pregnancy has not occurred or has not been preserved need further examination, including with the help of a laparotomy, which makes it possible to establish pathologies of the fallopian tubes and conduct a biopsy of the uterus.
Determining the timing of artificial insemination in bitches
When choosing the date of insemination, it must be taken into account that, in order to ensure fertility, mature eggs and viable spermatozoa must be simultaneously present in the reproductive tract of the female. On average, egg maturation occurs 5 (4–8) days after the LH peak, which is usually observed at the beginning of estrus (the period when the female admits the male to her). Thus, the presence of mature eggs is determined by determining the concentration of hormones (LH, progesterone) in the blood or based on anamnesis, behavioral and physical manifestations of estrus. There is no doubt that the measurement of hormone concentrations provides the most objective picture.
For insemination with frozen semen to be successful, particularly careful calculation is required, since the viability of spermatozoa is reduced (about 12-24 hours). When inseminating with fresh sperm, such accuracy of calculations is not required, since the viability of spermatozoa is much higher (4–7 days with natural or artificial insemination). Insemination with frozen semen is preferably done 5 days after the LH peak or 2 days after the progesterone concentration exceeds 30 nmol/l (10 ng/ml) for the first time. Whereas insemination with fresh sperm provides a good result at any stage of estrus, except for the first and last days.
AnamnesisThe probable time of fertilization is established by determining the day of fertilization during the previous estrus(previous estrus). The date of birth is taken as the starting point and the day of fertilization is determined by countdown. The duration of pregnancy in bitches, counting from the date of fertilization to delivery, is approximately 60 days. Thus, if mating was carried out on the 12th day of the cycle (the beginning of proestrus is the 1st day), and the birth took place after 64 days, fertilization occurs on the 16th day of the cycle. In the presence of data from several cycles, it is recommended to fix the variants characteristic of a particular animal. Such information allows us to calculate the fertile period of the current estrus, as well as the optimal timing of blood tests and vaginal secretions.
BehaviorPositive reflexes (tail retraction, croup raising in response to interest from the male, or perineal stroking) are usually observed during the LH surge (the first day of estrus) and at the beginning of the preovulatory increase in progesterone concentration. Discrepancies can be observed in the time of manifestation of these signs, for adult bitches their earlier manifestation (i.e., before the LH surge) is characteristic than for young bitches.
physical signsAt the beginning of estrus, the color of the vaginal discharge changes from red (bloody discharge) to yellowish (mucous). However, in some females, spotting occurs throughout estrus, while in others, there may be little or no bleeding during both proestrus and the estrus phase.
A characteristic sign of estrus is the swelling of the vulva, with endoscopy, the vaginal epithelium looks like a cobblestone pavement.
Tab. 3.6. Reasons for timing peak LH and first day of estrus
Laboratory research Measurement of plasma progesterone concentration is the most common laboratory test used to determine the optimal timing of mating. Some tests reveal the fact of an increase in the concentration of progesterone, others allow you to determine quantitative indicators. Serum progesterone concentration rises to 6-12 nmol/l (2-4 ng/ml) at the same time as the LH peak and can serve as an indicator of this surge. Ovulation occurs approximately 2 days after ovulation (progesterone levels 12–30 nmol/L, 4–10 ng/mL) and fertilization occurs 2–3 days after ovulation (30–75 nmol/L, 10–25 ng/mL or higher ). Blood tests to determine the concentration of progesterone are repeated every 2-3 days, starting from the end of proestrus. However, in some bitches, at the beginning of the rise, the concentration of progesterone reaches a plateau, observed for several days, after which it begins to increase. Such dynamics indicates a later ovulation compared to the norm.
The preovulatory LH surge lasts 24 to 48 hours. It is possible to measure the LH concentration during the peak, but this requires daily blood tests; The method has not found practical application.
Vaginal cytology can confirm the presence of estrus, but does not reveal the exact time of endocrine (LH surge) or physiological processes (ovulation, the presence of mature eggs). By far, vaginal cytology gives the best estimate of the time of ovulation in retrospect. Ovulation occurring approximately 6 days before the onset of metestrus is indicated by a decrease in the number of surface cells in vaginal secretions (up to at least 20%).
DIAGNOSIS METHODS
Vaginal vestibule, vagina, cervix
Vaginal dischargeThe presence of vaginal discharge is established by examining the vulva. The color and nature of the discharge make it possible to judge the cause of their occurrence. The white color of the discharge indicates the presence of leukocytes, the red indicates the presence of blood, the transparency indicates the virtual absence of mucus. The source of secretions may be the genitals or organs of the urinary system.
Whitish discharge is observed with the following disorders:
In prepubertal leukorrhea, which is a symptom of vaginitis in young females, which usually resolves after the first estrus;
With vaginitis associated with the presence of a foreign body in the vagina;
With early metestrus; discharge occurs at the end of estrus (the first day of metestrus) and may be purulent for several days;
With pyometra, if the cervix is open;
With cystitis.
The red color of the discharge indicates:
Proestrus and is caused by diapedesis of blood from the vessels of the uterus;
Follicle persistence;
Tumors of the ovaries, estrogen-secreting tumors;
Transmissible venereal sarcoma;
Ulceration of the vagina as a result of trauma;
coagulopathy;
Foreign body in the vagina;
Placental abruption during pregnancy;
Subinvolution of places of attachment of the placenta.
Other highlights:
Normal - transparent mucous discharge of a brown tint;
Normal postpartum - dark green;
Amniotic fluid - clear watery discharge;
In the absence of labor activity due to the presence of a single puppy - brown (with a specific smell);
During mummification of fruits - thick, tarry, black;
When measured - brown.
VaginoscopyVaginoscopy in bitches is performed using a rigid endoscope. The auroscope is too short for the examination. Examination of the cervix and cranial part of the vagina in bitches is associated with certain difficulties associated with the narrowness of the cranial part of the vagina and with the ventral direction of the cervix, except for the dorsal vault. The narrowing of the reproductive tract is explained by the presence of a transverse postcervical fold located on the dorsal wall of the vagina 2 cm caudal to the neck. Inspection of the cervix is carried out using a narrow endoscope. Examination during metestrus and anestrus is associated with particular difficulties, since the vagina at this time (compared to other phases of the cycle) becomes narrower, its walls are thinned. During estrus, examination of the cervix may be obstructed by pronounced folds in the vaginal walls.
The study of the vagina in cats is difficult due to its narrowness, in particular in the area of the vestibulo-vaginal junction.
Vaginoscopy makes it possible to detect such vaginal pathologies as septa, strictures, neoplasia and foreign bodies, to select material for biopsy, and to examine secretions that are present in a small amount in the cranial part of the vagina, which remain on the endoscope after its removal.
Vaginal cytologyIt is used to determine the phase of the reproductive cycle, diagnosing inflammatory diseases of the vagina and uterus (during the opening of the cervix), transmissible venereal sarcoma.
An increase in the concentration of estrogens can be judged by such changes as hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the vaginal epithelium, keratinization and exfoliation of its cells. Vaginal cytology reveals characteristic changes that serve as an indicator of the activity of this hormone. At the stages of the cycle that occur against the background of minimal estrogenic activity (anestrus, metestrus, prepubertal period), parabasal cells predominate in vaginal secretions in bitches (Fig. 3.1), which have rounded outlines and a low volume of cytoplasm in relation to the nucleus. Under the influence of estrogens, hypertrophy of the epithelial cells of the vagina develops, affecting small intermediate cells (they are larger than parabasal cells, with rounded outlines and a relatively higher ratio of nucleus to cytoplasm; Fig. 3.1–3.3), large intermediate cells (polygonal cells with an intact nucleus; Fig. 3.3 ) and superficial cells (similar to large intermediate cells, but, as a rule, non-nuclear or with a pyknotic nucleus; Fig. 3.4). The number of superficial keratinized non-nucleated cells increases in the proestrus phase, remains constant during estrus (Fig. 3.4) and decreases sharply by the time it ends. A rapid decrease (more than 20%) in the number of these cells indicates the onset of the first day of metestrus (Fig. 3.2). It is characteristic that by this time the vaginal discharge is clear and no longer contains any organic residues or colored mucus. An elevated white blood cell count may indicate the presence of an infection, and the presence of abnormal cells may indicate a tumor process. The increased content of neutrophils observed at the beginning of metestrus (Figs. 3.1 and 3.5) is considered normal and is not a sign of a pathogenic infection.
Fig. 3.1. The smear of vaginal discharge from the bitch on the first day of metestrus is dominated by small intermediate cells, there is a small amount of parabasal cells and neutrophils (Diff-Quik® smear staining)(see Attachment)
Fig. 3.3. The onset of proestrus in the bitch. Vaginal secretion smear is dominated by small cells but few large intermediate cells and red blood cells are present (Diff-Quik® smear stain)(see Attachment)
Fig. 3.2. In a smear of vaginal discharge from a bitch on the second day of metestrus, small intermediate cells predominate, a small amount of parabasal cells is found (smear staining with modified Schorr's trichrome)(see Attachment)
Fig. 3.4. Surface cells in a smear of vaginal discharge from a bitch during estrus (Schorr's trichrome smear staining)(see Attachment)
Fig. 3.5. The onset of metestrus in the bitch. Neutrophils and small interstitial cells present in vaginal secretion smear (Diff-Quik® smear stain)(see Attachment)
Similar cytological changes are observed in cats, although they are less pronounced and are not accompanied by characteristic spotting at the stage of proestrus.
Vaginal microbiologyBacteria that can in some cases cause disturbances in the reproductive cycle may be present in the normal flora. Due to the opening of the cervix during proestrus and estrus, bacteria from the vagina enter the uterus. Thus, the bacteria found in the uterus during the proestrus/oestrus study represent the microflora of the cranial vagina rather than the uterus itself. On this basis, the results of the microbiological examination must be interpreted in the light of other symptoms of infection of the reproductive tract, for example, the presence of purulent discharge or an increased content of leukocytes in the vaginal swab. In the microflora of the vagina, many different organisms are found, the content of which increases significantly at the stage of proestrus and estrus, however, the only microbe, the presence of which is regarded as a pathology requiring treatment, is Brucella canis.
Fig. 3.6. Transcervical catheterization with the introduction of an endoscope into the uterus of a Greyhound bitch during estrus
Fig. 3.7. Degenerative neutrophils in an endometrial cytology specimen taken from a female with pyometra (sample stained with modified Schorr's trichrome)(see Attachment)
Fig. 3.8. Large clumps of normal endometrial epithelial cells in an endometrial cytology sample taken from a Greyhound bitch at the onset of metestrus (sample stained with Diff-Quik®) (Reproduced with permission from the Journal of Small Animal Practice (1998) 39, 2–9)(see Attachment)
Fig. 3.9. Endometrial cells and macrophages with foamy cytoplasm in an endometrial cytology specimen taken from a Greyhound bitch 46 days before the onset of proestrus. The anestrus phase of this dog lasted at least 114 days (sample stained with Diff-Quik®) (Reproduced with permission from Journal of Small Animal Practice (1998) 39, 2–9)(see Attachment)
Fig. 3.10. Spermatozoa and endometrial epithelial cells in an endometrial cytology sample taken from a Greyhound bitch 24 hours after mating on day 5 of oestrus (sample stained with modified Schorr's trichrome)(see Attachment)
Fig. 3.11. Degenerative endometrial epithelial cells in an endometrial cytology specimen taken from a Greyhound female during postpartum sloughing. Characteristically, many cells have pyknotic nuclei and vacuolated cytoplasm (sample stained with Diff-Quik®)(see Attachment)
Other bacteria are normal or conditionally pathogenic microflora. The influence of this microflora on the likelihood of developing endometritis in the estrus phase was not revealed. The requirement that the vaginal discharge be “clean”, i.e. free of bacteria, which is often put forward by the owners of breeding males before mating, seems unreasonable, since the presence of microflora is the norm and does not indicate the presence of pathogenic infections. In addition, flora similar to that of the vagina is also present in the prepuce of the male. Nevertheless, in such cases, it seems appropriate to take a detailed anamnesis of reproductive activity, conduct a vaginal examination and analysis of discharge, and then issue the following conclusion: “Based on the anamnesis, clinical examination, microbiological and cytological analyzes of vaginal discharge, it can be argued that pathogenic infections in the reproductive the tract of this bitch was not found, the results obtained indicate normal fertility.
Vaginal radiologyPositive contrast radiography is used to identify septa, strictures, and tumors. The radiopaque agent can enter the uterus only at the stage of proestrus, estrus and in postpartum period.
Cytology of the endometrium and microbiology of the uterusA procedure that allows obtaining material for cytological examination of the endometrium and microbiological examination of the contents of the uterus has been developed quite recently. Examining the cervix with an endoscope (Fig. 3.6), 2-5 ml of sterile saline is injected through the transcervical catheter, and then it is removed from the cavity. After that, a cytological and bacteriological examination of the obtained aspirate is carried out.
Microorganisms are present in the uterus during proestrus and estrus, but are usually not detected at other stages of the cycle. Perhaps they are of vaginal origin and enter the uterus through an open cervix. The diagnosis of endometritis is made if bacteria and a significantly increased number of neutrophils are found (Fig. 3.7). Normal secretions contain endometrial cells (Fig. 3.8), leukocytes (Fig. 3.7 and 3.9), erythrocytes, cervical cells, bacteria, and spermatozoa (Fig. 3.10). Endometrial cells usually undergo degeneration (Fig. 3.11) at the end of metestrus and the beginning of anestrus (desquamation of the endometrium), in other phases of the cycle they do not change. An increase in the number of degenerative cells can be observed with postpartum subinvolution of the uterus. Of the leukocytes during proestrus, estrus and metestrus, neutrophils predominate, during anestrus - lymphocytes. Spermatozoa can be detected 6 or more days after mating (Fig. 3.10), and their presence indicates ineffective mating.
HysteroscopyA rigid endoscope can be inserted into the uterus within 3 weeks after delivery (Fig. 3.12). In addition, this study facilitates the diagnosis of miscarriage, endometritis, uterine rupture, or retained placenta.
HysterographyA normal non-pregnant uterus is difficult to visualize using radiography.
Contrast hysterography can be used to diagnose cystic endometrial hyperplasia, pyometra, retained placenta, uterine cysts, as well as to detect tumors, uterine torsion or rupture. The introduction of a contrast agent is possible at any phase of the sexual cycle using a uterine catheter; during proestrus, oestrus, or postpartum, a catheter is not required because the cervix is open and radiopaque can be inserted into the vagina.
Ultrasound examination (ultrasound)Ultrasound is used to diagnose pyometra, endometrial cystic hyperplasia, uterine tumors, delayed placenta, fetuses, uterine rupture. During proestrus, estrus, and also after childbirth, the echogenic medium introduced into the vagina can penetrate into the uterus, providing a clearer image. In anestrus, the normal uterus is not visualized, and only the introduction of echogenic fluid (saline) through the uterine catheter provides a study.
Fallopian tubes, ovaries
HysterosalpingographyHysterosalpingography is an unreliable method for examining fallopian tube patency. The radiopaque agent used to image the uterus does not always pass into the fallopian tubes in a healthy bitch (as opposed to a woman). When the contrast agent passes into the tubes, it also enters the ovarian bursa, which makes it possible to see the outline of the ovary and determine the presence of cysts. Survey abdominal radiography reveals only a significant increase in the size of the ovary.
Fig. 3.12. Endoscopic picture of the bifurcation of the uterine horns in a bitch, observed on the 23rd day after birth
ultrasoundIt is used to assess the condition of the female ovaries at the stage of proestrus, estrus and at the beginning of metestrus, allows you to see ovarian tumors. At the stage of anestrus, the ovaries are not visualized. Ultrasound is not used to determine ovulation, since the walls of the follicles in bitches, unlike other animal species, do not collapse after ovulation.
Determination of the concentration of hormones in blood plasmaTo determine the concentration of progesterone, there are ready-made tests; for LH and estradiol, such tests are less available. The concentration of progesterone in the blood plasma determines the time of the ovulatory peak of LH, and also calculates the timing of ovulation and the fertile period (see the definition of the timing of artificial insemination in bitches).
The level of estradiol concentration may indicate the presence of estrogen-secreting structures (follicles, granulosa cell tumors), although, as already noted, vaginal cytology is usually used to detect signs of estrogenic activity. An increase in the concentration of estradiol after the appointment of GnRH indicates the presence of a functioning ovarian tissue (stimulation test using GnRH). The absence of an increase in concentration indicates the absence of active ovarian tissue (after ovariectomy, with aplasia or hypoplasia, with ovarian insufficiency).
An increase in the level of concentration of gonadotropins is normally observed at the end of anestrus, at the stage of proestrus and at the beginning of estrus. In addition, the concentration of gonadotropins (LH, FSH) in plasma increases after ovariectomy, with premature ovarian insufficiency, ovarian aplasia / hypoplasia, since there is no inhibitory effect of inhibitors produced by the ovaries (estradiol, progesterone). Measurement of LH in plasma allows you to identify the ovulatory peak of LH and determine the time when the eggs are in the tubes, ready for fertilization (see timing of artificial insemination in bitches).
Laparoscopy and laparotomyThese procedures allow you to visually inspect the reproductive organs and take material for a biopsy. Inspection of the ovaries is difficult because they are surrounded by a bursa. To detect the patency of the fallopian tubes, saline is injected into the uterus, before that, one tube is clamped proximally To uterus, and the second - distally, to see how it is passable. However, fluid often does not pass through the tubes in healthy dogs either. There is no information on the successful treatment of tubal obstruction (a very rare pathology).
DescriptionIn bitches, B. canis can cause spontaneous abortions, infertility due to embryonic death and fetal resorption, latent abortions in early pregnancy, or vaginal discharge. Males have epididymitis.
EtiologyB. canis is an obligate intracellular gram-negative coccobacillus. The natural carrier of the infection are representatives of the canine family. When a person is infected, the disease is asymptomatic or causes mild symptoms (intermittent fever, headache, chills, lymphadenitis) and is easily treatable.
InfectionInfection occurs by eating the placenta, vaginal secretions, mammary secretions, as well as sexually or in utero.
SymptomsFever and other systemic symptoms are rare. As a rule, the diseased bitch shows signs of damage to the reproductive tract: spontaneous abortions (usually between 45 and 59 days of pregnancy); infertility due to the death of embryos in early pregnancy; mucopurulent vaginal discharge. Males are characterized by lesions such as epididymitis, scrotal dermatitis (due to licking and secondary infection with other microorganisms), and testicular degeneration (as a complication of epididymitis). Orchitis is observed in rare cases. Other more generalized symptoms include swollen lymph nodes, uveitis, discospondylitis, meningoencephalitis, glomerulopathy, prostatitis, arthritis, or polyarthritis.
DiagnosisConduct a microbiological study of blood, milk, urine, vaginal discharge, semen, placental tissue, prostate secretion, testicles, testicles, lymph nodes and bone marrow. B. canis is difficult to cultivate. Although the basis for the diagnosis is the data of serological analysis, nevertheless, titers are not determined for a sufficiently long time after infection (8-12 weeks), vary at the stage of bacteremia and decrease after it ends.
TreatmentAs a rule, antimicrobial therapy does not ensure the removal of the pathogen from the body of the animal. According to accepted practice, antibiotics tetracycline derivatives are prescribed together with aminoglycosides.
ControlTo prevent the spread of infection in nurseries, a monthly serological examination is carried out and infected carrier animals are isolated. Newly arrived animals are tested (two negative results in two consecutive tests) and kept in a separate enclosure for at least a month.
LITERATURE
Andersen A. C. (1970) The Beagle as an Experimental Dog. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Burke T. J. (1986) Small Animal Reproduction and Infertility: A Clinical Approach to Diagnosis and Treatment. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.
Concannon P. W., McCann J. P. and Temple M. (1989) Biology and endocrinology of ovulation, pregnancy and parturition in the dog. Supplement 39 , 3–25.
England G. C. W. (1998) Allen's Fertility and Obstetrics in the Dog, 2ndedn. Blackwell Science, Oxford.
Feldman E. C. and Nelson R. W. (1996) Canine and Feline Endocrinology and Reproduction, 2nd edn. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Johnston S. D. and Romagnoli S. E. (eds) (1991) Canine reproduction. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Small Animal Practice21 , № 3.
Schille V. M. and Sojka N. J. (1995) Feline reproduction. In: Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, ed. S. J. Ettinger and E. C. Feldman, pp. 1690–1698 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Watts J. R. and Wright P. J. (1995) Investigating uterine disease in the bitch: uterine eannulation for cytology, microbiology and hysteroscopy. 36 , 201–206.
Watts J. R., Wright P. J. and Lee C. S. (1998) Endometrial cytology of the normal bitch throughout the reproductive cycle. Journal of Small Animal Practice39 , 2–9.
Watts J. R., Wright P. J., Lee C. S. and Whitear K. G. (1997) New techniques using transcervical uterine eannulation for the diagnosis of uterine disorders in the bitch. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility Supplement 51 , 283–293.
Watts J. R., Wright P. J. and Whithear K. G. (1996) The uterine, cervical and vaginal microflora of the normal bitch throughout the reproductive cycle. Journal of Small Animal Practice37 , 54–60.
VETERINARY PROPADEUTICS
Teaching aid
Stavropol
Compiled by:
Doctor of Veterinary Sciences, Associate Professor V.A. Orobets
candidate of veterinary sciences, assistant N.E. Orlova
Reviewers:
Veterinary propaedeutics: teaching aid / comp. V.A. Orobets, N.E. Orlov. - Stavropol: AGRUS, 2008. - p.
REGISTRATION OF THE ANIMAL.. 4
ANAMNESIS. 4
Anamnesis of life. 4
Anamnesis of the disease (Information about the animal since the disease). 5
GENERAL INVESTIGATION.. 5
GABITUS.. 5
SKIN EXAMINATION.. 6
Pathological changes in the skin. 7
STUDY OF THE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. 7
STUDY OF LYMPH NODES.. 8
BODY TEMPERATURE.. 8
STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL SYSTEMS.. 9
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM.. 9
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.. 21
THYROID.. 22
CHEST.. 24
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.. 28
URINARY SYSTEM.. 37
Sexual organs of females. 43
Sexual organs of males. 51
NERVOUS SYSTEM.. 57
Somatic department. 58
Motor area. 58
Sense organs. 58
ENGINE EQUIPMENT. 63
CONCLUSION.. 64
References.. 66
REGISTRATION OF THE ANIMAL
It is indicated:
1. serial number (according to the journal for registering sick animals);
2. individual characteristics of the animal;
3. type of animal (large or small cattle, horse, pig, dog).
4. nickname, number, brand;
5. Sex (cow, bull, ox, stallion, gelding, mare, sheep, ram, valukh, pig, boar, wild boar, goat, goat, male, female).
6. suit, color and signs;
7. age (years, months, days);
8. date of birth;
9. breed;
10. fatness;
11. live weight;
12. the owner of the animal (last name, first name, patronymic, household, institution);
13. owner's detailed address and phone number;
14. dates: admission of the animal to the clinic, departure from the clinic;
15. the outcome of the disease. This section also has an initial diagnosis and a final follow-up diagnosis.
ANAMNESIS
Anamnesis of life.
This part of the anamnesis characterizes the animal before the moment of the disease. It includes:
1. Where and when did this animal enter the farm or is it home-grown.
2. Characteristics of the premises in which the animal is kept (wooden or stone, reinforced concrete; dry or damp, light or dark; bedding, ventilation - sufficient or insufficient, the presence of drafts, manure removal - regular or irregular, mechanized or manual), under a canopy, under open sky.
3. System and method of keeping: tethered or loose (box). Care is impersonal or not. Motion (active, passive or absent).
4. Feeding: quantitative and qualitative composition of the feed ration, the quality of the feed, the presence of mineral and vitamin supplements, the feeding regimen. Type of feeding (general, group or individual).
5. Drinking. Sources of watering (water supply, well, artesian well, river, lake, pond), quantity and quality of water (plenty, insufficient; fresh, clean, poor quality, impurities), water temperature (cool, cold, warm), type of watering (group or individual).
6. Purpose of the animal on the farm. The nature and duration of the work performed, load, productivity (daily and annual milk yield).
7. Use for reproduction. Pregnancy and childbirth (number of calvings, date of last calving and last fruitful insemination, duration of launch and dry period, course of childbirth (successful or unsuccessful) and postpartum period.
8. Conducted veterinary treatments and diagnostic studies (for glanders, tuberculosis, brucellosis, etc.).
Anamnesis of the disease (Information about the animal since the disease).
1. When and under what circumstances did the animal get sick (after feeding, during work, etc.).
2. What signs of diseases were noted at the beginning of the disease and subsequently.
3. Has the animal been sick before (when, signs, diagnosis),
4. The presence in the farm of sick animals with similar or other signs. Have there been such diseases before (when and for how long).
5. Was the animal treated (when, by whom and with what). result of this treatment.
6. What diagnostic studies and prophylactic treatments has the animal undergone recently and their results.
It is quite clear that the given scheme for collecting anamnesis can be expanded, and sometimes a number of questions can be completely omitted.
In order to make a diagnosis, it is also important to know epizootological the state of the economy (successful or unfavorable in terms of infectious and parasitic diseases and which ones).
GENERAL STUDY
HABIT
Animal body position:
voluntary, natural forced, standing or lying down, unnatural postures (throwing back the head, posture of a sitting dog, observer, etc.), forced movements (uncontrollable movement forward, backward, in a circle, clockwise, etc.).
Body type:
strong (correct, good), medium and weak (wrong, bad). Indicate defects.
Fatness:
good, satisfactory, unsatisfactory, exhaustion, obesity.
Constitution:
rough, tender, dense (dry), loose (raw). The type of constitution (in horses) is light (asthenic), heavy (picnic) and muscular.
Temperament
lively, phlegmatic (inert).
disposition
good, evil (aggressive).
When recording the results of a study of a sick animal (Status praesens) in the case history, students can use the following description of the state of the organism of a healthy cow as an example.
General research.
Temperature - 38.1 ° C, pulse - 62, respiration - 24.
Habit. The position of the body is natural - standing. Medium build; individual parts of the body are proportionally developed. Fatness is good. The constitution is tight. Phlegmatic temperament, good disposition.
Similarly, the description of other organs and systems is carried out.
SKIN EXAMINATION
Skin covering:
(hair, wool, bristles, feather, fluff) - located correctly (in streams), evenly adjacent, ruffled (in what areas), glued. Shiny, matte (dirty), long, short, dense, sparse, held firmly (good) or weakly (moult into account), elastic, brittle. Hair splitting, graying, cutting, baldness (specify where).
Color of the skin:
(in non-pigmented areas) - pale pink, pink, gray, pale (anemic), red, cyanotic (cyanotic), icteric.
Elasticity:
saved (elastic), lowered, lost (inelastic).
Temperature:
examine in symmetrical areas (the base of the ears, horns, limbs, side surfaces of the chest, in pigs - the patch and ears, in dogs - the tip of the nose). The skin is moderately warm, equally expressed in symmetrical areas. General or local, increase or decrease (specify where).
Humidity:
moderate, dry skin (hypohidrosis), increased (hyperhidrosis). General or local sweating (specify areas); sweat cold, warm, clammy, watery.
Smell:
specific (moderately, sharply, weakly expressed), acetone, uremic, putrid.
Similar information.
In most cats, vomiting occurs as a result of pathology of the gastrointestinal tract. The main causes of vomiting are listed in Table 1.
Vomiting in cats can be acute or chronic.. Diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for the two forms of vomiting differ.
At acute vomiting in a cat simple symptomatic supportive treatment is most often required, while with chronic vomiting- carrying out specific diagnostic methods before starting the appointment of appropriate therapy. Some healthy cats are prone to vomiting, in which it is physiological.
Initial Approach
The general scheme of examination of a patient with chronic vomiting is shown in Figure 1. It includes the collection of anamnesis data and a thorough general physical examination of the patient.
Figure 1 Logical approach to diagnosing the causes of chronic vomiting in cats.
Anamnesis
When collecting data from the anamnesis, you should pay attention to the following:
- How long does vomiting last?
- How often is it seen?
- What is the characteristic of vomit: color, consistency, presence of impurities of mucus, blood, bile, hair, grass;
- Is vomiting associated with eating?
- How fast does the animal eat?
- Other symptoms of the disorder: anxiety, walking from corner to corner, lacrimation, salivation;
- What is the appetite of the animal;
- Have there been similar episodes before, as well as exacerbations and remissions.
Table 1 Causes of Vomiting in Cats:
Diseases of the abdominal organs
Systemic and metabolic diseases
- Uremia
- Drug or drug poisoning (eg, acetaminophen, tetracyclines, digoxin)
- Ketosis
- dirofilariasis
- hyperthyroidism
General physical examination for vomiting in a cat:
- General impression and appearance of the animal
- Conditions (body weight, coat condition)
- Signs of vital activity (body temperature, pulse, respiratory rate)
- The condition of the mucous membrane (pale, edematous, icteric)
- Condition of the oral cavity (pay attention to the hyoid space and frenulum)
- Careful palpation of the abdominal cavity (the presence of stagnant masses, the thickness of the small intestine, the borders of the liver, the presence of lymphadenopathy, pain, effusions into the abdominal cavity).
The history data and the results of the general physical examination make it possible to identify the causes of the disease (Table 1).
With pancreatitis, vomiting in cats occurs in about 15% of cases. This pathology is usually characterized by anorexia. In inflammatory liver disease or lipidosis, vomiting occurs in 50% of affected cats.
Optimal examination of the animal:
- Clinical and biochemical blood tests.
- The study of liver function (determination of the content of bile acids) in violation of the activity of liver enzymes in the blood.
- Diagnostic tests for the presence of FeLV and FIV.
- Determination of T4-thyroxine in case of suspected hyperthyroidism.
- X-ray examination of the abdominal and chest cavities (in case of respiratory failure).
- Ultrasound examination of the abdominal cavity. Particular attention should be paid to local deviations and to determine the thickness of the walls of the small intestine. Thorough examination of the liver and pancreas.
- Endoscopic examination and biopsy of the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines.
- Examination of bowel function in diarrhea or malnutrition.
- If the results of blood tests indicate liver disease, a biopsy of this organ should be done.
- If stagnant masses or other injuries are detected in the abdominal cavity, a survey laparotomy is performed. Remember to get biopsies at the same time.
Therapeutic Approaches
Treatment depends on the cause of the vomiting. Pyloric obstruction in cats is rare, but requires mandatory surgical intervention. After carrying out the necessary maintenance therapy, foreign bodies are surgically removed from the stomach and intestines. Some of them can be removed during endoscopy (Figures 2 and 3).
Figure 2. Removal of hairballs in a cat during endoscopy. Hairballs of this size often form in the stomach when its motility is impaired. The animal suffered from severe inflammation of the stomach and small intestine.
Figure 3. Removal of a foreign body from a cat's stomach using an endoscope.
The nature of the treatment of tumors in the gastrointestinal tract depends on their type. Adenocarcinomas of the stomach or intestines should be surgically removed.
These tumors in cats grow relatively slowly, and after surgery, the animals usually live a fairly long time.
Intestinal lymphoma is amenable to chemotherapy. The accumulation of hairballs in the stomach is usually associated with impaired motility of this organ and inflammation of the large intestine. After removal of hairballs (surgical or endoscopically), a course of treatment for inflammation of the intestine should be carried out.
Colon inflammation is the most common cause of chronic vomiting in cats. For treatment, prednisone is used (1-2 mg/kg of body weight 2 times a day for 2-3 weeks). Over the next 2 weeks, the dose of the drug can be gradually reduced by 50%. then administer prednisone every other day.
In severe forms of inflammation of the large intestine, azathioprine (0.3 mg/kg of body weight every day or every other day) is used.
With daily use of this drug, it is necessary to monitor the number of leukocytes in the blood of a cat. Sometimes animals require long-term immunosuppressive therapy. In especially severe cases of the disease, aggressive therapy is used using cyclosporine or chlorambucil. Some cats with severe inflammatory bowel disease respond well to parenteral corticosteroids. For feeding sick animals, it is recommended to use dietary rations that do not contain proteins previously consumed by animals.
Diet therapy is especially effective if vomiting is accompanied by diarrhea.
Vomiting is a common manifestation of liver disease in cats.. With liver lipidosis, enteral nutrition is usually used through gastrostomy or naso-esophageal probes. Cholangiohepatitis is treated with prednisone and antibiotics such as enrofloxacin and metronidazole. A synthetic analogue of bile acids, ursodeoxycholic acid, has a good choleretic and anti-inflammatory effect.
Antioxidant supplements (vitamin E and S-adenosyl-methionine) are also helpful in treating liver disease in cats.
Conclusion
In severe forms of inflammatory bowel disease, cats require long-term immunosuppressive therapy.
If the results of the endoscopic examination do not match the existing symptoms, it is recommended to perform a survey laparotomy with simultaneous obtaining of biopsies of the examined organs.
Prof. C. F. Burrows BVetMed, PhD, MRCVS
Department of Clinical Small Animal Veterinary Medicine, Florida State University, USA
one). Anamnesis vitae.
According to the owner of the animal: the dog was purchased from a breeder at the age of 1.5 months. There is a pedigree. The dog participated in exhibitions and passed the OKD course. Currently kept at home. Walking daily, 2 times a day, at least half an hour. In summer, a load is given in the form of jogging with a bicycle, in winter in the form of free range in a fenced area. Also in summer, in good weather, during the day, it is in the aviary, where it can walk freely.
Feeding: dry diet Royal Canin Club Pro Cros Regular 200 grams 2 times a day, water without restrictions.
Dehelmetization is carried out 2 times a year with Polivercan.
Annual vaccination with Biovac DPA and Nobivac Rabies or other similar vaccines.
The animal is kept together with another dog and cats.
2). Anamnesis morbi
According to the owner of the animal: the dog exhibits inappropriate behavior approximately 2 months after estrus. She whines, licks her toys, puts them on her nipples. The dog licks the nipples, then she gets colostrum. After the first such case, all toys were confiscated from the dog, they gave it a big load, but still it shows signs of a “false pregnancy” (colostrum appears). These symptoms disappear within about a month. And since the dog is not of breeding value, it was decided to operate - ovariohysterectomy. The dog's last estrus was in December 2007. The dog is currently at rest.
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* This work is not a scientific work, is not a final qualifying work and is the result of processing, structuring and formatting the collected information, intended to be used as a source of material for self-preparation of educational work.
Introduction
1. Preliminary information about the animal
1.1. Registration of an animal
1.2. Anamnesis
1.3. Anamnesis of life Anamnesis vitae
1.4. Anamnesis disease Anamnesis morbi
2. Own research
2.1. General study of the animal
3. Methods of clinical research of an animal
4. Laboratory research
5. Literature used
Introduction
1. Preliminary information about the animal
1.1. Registration of an animal
Kind: dog;
Gender: male;
Age: 7.5 years;
Breed: Collie (longhair);
Color: marble;
Live weight: 20 kg;
Nickname or number: Robin, brand OAB 013;
1.2. Anamnesis
The dog is kept in a city apartment, living conditions and microclimate correspond to the norm and provide comfortable living conditions in this environment.
Daily routine: 07:00 walk, 7:30 feeding, wakefulness, sleep, second walk at 19:00, second feeding 23:ºº sleep. Access to water is free.
Anamnesis of life (Anamnesis vitae)
Date of birth 08/26/2003, origin of the animal: cattery. Preventive vaccinations: the first vaccination was made at the age of 9 weeks against canine distemper, the second was carried out after 2 weeks. The animal is vaccinated once a year. Every six months, the dog takes drugs against helminths.
Feeding conditions: in the morning the dog is given Pedigree dry food 300 g. In the evening, oatmeal porridge with meat. Diet: oatmeal porridge, buckwheat, meat, vegetables, dry food, raw chicken eggs, free access to water. Water is given boiled.
Anamnesis of the disease (Anamnesis morbi)
In autumn 2008 the dog had otitis media. The animal kept scratching its ear and shaking its head. The temperature was elevated, the auricle inside was scratched due to scratching, hyperemia and soreness were noted.
Treatment: 1. ear drops Otoferonol-gold, 2. Analgin (at night), 3. Amoxicillin.
In the spring of 2011 I had lichen. The dog had areas of baldness, accompanied by itching, hyperemia. Refused food.
Treatment: 1. Polivak-TM vaccine (against dog ringworm). 2. Fungoterbin.
2. Own research
2.1. General study of the animal
The condition of the animal during the study is healthy. Body temperature (rectal) - 38.7 C0, pulse - 70 beats / min, respiration - 18 breaths / min.
Build - weak;
Fatness - satisfactory;
Pose - natural;
The constitution is tender;
Temperament - lively, disposition - kind;
Examination of the skin and skin
Skin - the hair is located correctly, shiny, long, thick.
Skin examination:
Color - gray;
Elasticity - preserved;
Skin - moderately warm, the temperature is equally pronounced in symmetrical areas;
Humidity - normal;
The smell is specific;
Horn formations of the skin
form is correct;
integrity - not broken;
surface is smooth;
consistency - solid;
shine - no (haze);
local temperature is normal.
Examination of mucous membranes
Mucous membranes of the eyes:
color - pale pink;
humidity - moderate;
integrity - not broken;
swelling is absent.
The mucous membrane of the nasal cavity:
color - pale pink;
humidity - moderate;
integrity - not broken;
swelling is absent.
The mucous membrane of the oral cavity
color - red-pink;
humidity - moderate;
integrity - not broken;
swelling is absent.
Examination of lymph nodes
Lymph nodes (inguinal) - not enlarged, bean-shaped, smooth, mobile, elastic, dense, painless. There is no increase in local temperature.
Examination of muscles, bones, joints
Musculature is poorly developed, symmetrical. Tone is normal. Muscle tenderness on palpation is absent.
The bones are proportional to the skeleton, there is no deformity, there is no curvature of the spine, there is no pain.
Joints - without pathology.
Study of the cardiovascular system
Examination of the cardiac region
Cardiac impulse: Localized in the 5th intercostal space, below the middle of the lower third of the chest (better pronounced on the left), rhythmic, moderate. The cardiac region is painless on palpation.
Percussion of the heart: 3-6 ribs. The lower border is the sternum, the upper border of the paw-shoulder joint; absolute dullness in the 4th-6th intercostal space, its anterior border starts from the middle of the sternum parallel to the caudal edge of the 4th rib. It goes vertically to the costal symphyses, and the dorsal border goes horizontally into the 5th intercostal space and reaches the 6th intercostal space, forming a curve, curved back; caudally, without a sharp border, it passes into the zone of hepatic blunting, and from the midline of the sternum into right-sided cardiac blunting in the 4th intercostal space of the dorsal upper edge of the sternum, this forms one merging zone of blunting on the ventral part of the chest, well defined in a sitting position.
Heart sounds: loud, crisp, clear without change.
Vascular examination
Arterial pulse: 70 beats / min, rhythmic, medium, hard, full, uniform, strong.
Examination of the respiratory system
Upper section
No nasal discharge;
Exhaled air - moderately warm, odorless;
Cough - no;
The mucous membrane of the nasal cavity is pink, moist, without cracks and rashes;
The adnexal cavities of the nose during percussion give a boxed sound, which indicates the absence of exudate.
Larynx and trachea during auscultation, the noise of a laryngeal knock is caught, without pathological noises, wheezing was not detected; during external examination of the position of the head and neck, the physiological is not forced; palpation of deformation, pain and fever in this area was not detected; internal examination of tissue edema showed no increase in volume.
Chest examination
The shape of the chest is sharply narrowed;
The number of respiratory movements per minute - 18;
There is no pain on palpation, the local temperature does not differ from the temperature of the surrounding tissues, no vibration noises were detected. Percussion borders of the lungs: the posterior border of the percussion field crosses the maklok line in the 11th intercostal space, the line of the ischial tuberosity in the 10th intercostal space, the line of the scapula - shoulder joint in the 8th intercostal space; Percussion sound clear pulmonary;
Vesicular respiration is intense and sharp in character; it is close to bronchial respiration; There are no adnexal breath sounds.
Examination of the digestive system
Appetite - good;
Feed intake - willingly eats; swallows food little chewed;
Water intake - free;
Belching - absent;
Swallowing - free (not broken);
Examination of the oral cavity
The oral cavity is closed. The lips are compressed, overlays, rash, swelling, scratches, abrasions, wounds, ulcers are absent. There is no pain.
The smell from the mouth is specific;
The mucous membrane of the oral cavity - the color is pink, the humidity is moderate; Salivation, edema, plaque, rash, foreign bodies - no.
Gums - without violations;
Tongue - moist, clean, pink. Movement is free;
Teeth - there is no deviation in the number of teeth, deviations in size and shape (uneven, unequal) are observed, they are usually erased, dental disease (caries, loss) was not detected.
Throat examination
Conducted internal and external examination and external palpation of the pharynx: the head and neck are in a physiological relaxed position. No swelling in the pharynx was found, palpation does not cause pain. The temperature in this area does not differ from the temperature of the surrounding tissues. During internal examination, the mucous membrane of the pharynx and tonsils is pink without swelling and redness.
Salivary glands: palpation revealed no swelling or tenderness.
Esophagus: the patency of the food coma and water is free. The size of the esophagus is not enlarged; Pain, swelling, foreign bodies are absent.
Examination of the abdomen: When examining the abdominal area, no changes in volume and shape were found; palpation revealed no accumulation of fluid and pain. On percussion, the sound in the intestinal region is timponic. During auscultation, characteristic peristaltic noises are heard in this area.
On palpation: the stomach is empty, no pain is detected, there are no foreign bodies, percussion sound is dull - tympanic.
Intestines
Palpation revealed no abnormalities.
The liver is located on the right and on the left adjacent to the costal wall and is located almost in the center of the anterior abdominal cavity. The liver is inaccessible to palpation. Not enlarged. The area of hepatic dullness occupies on the right a strip from 10 to 13 ribs, and on the left it reaches 12 ribs.
Spleen
Not enlarged, the surface is smooth, the consistency is dense.
defecation
The posture is natural, the act of defecation is free, the passage of flatus is rare,
The amount of feces is moderate, the shape is sausages, the color is brown, the smell is specific, the digestibility of the feed is good.
Rectal examination
The tone of the anal sphincter is moderate, there is no pain, the filling of the rectum is moderate. The mucous membrane is warm, moderately moist, not painful. Integrity violation is not revealed.
urinary system
The area of the kidneys is painless, the position is normal, not enlarged, the shape is round, the consistency is elastic, the stones are not.
Bladder
Located in the pelvic cavity. The shape is pear-shaped, the filling is moderately filled, the consistency is elastic, the contents are urine, there is no pain.
There are no redness. The consistency is firm. Neoplasms, stones - no. Temperature - moderately - warm, patency - free.
Urination
The frequency is normal, the posture is natural, the process of urination is free, painless.
Nervous system
The general condition of the animal is satisfactory.
The shape of the bones - without deviations, symmetrical, curvature of the spinal column - absent, pain sensitivity - not changed. Percussion sound is dull.
Study of the somatic department:
deep sensitivity - preserved.
Surface reflexes: skin, ear, abdominal, tail, anal, plantar - preserved;
Mucous membranes: corneal, cough, sneezing - preserved.
Deep reflexes: knee, Achilles tendon, elbow - preserved.
Motor area:
muscle tone - moderate;
the motor ability of the muscles is normal, the movements are coordinated.
sense organs
Vision is preserved.
Eyelids - the position is correct, swelling, integrity violations, soreness - absent; palpebral fissure - normal; eyeball - normal position.
Iris: surface - smooth; drawing is saved.
Pupil: size - normal; form is characteristic.
Organs of hearing - hearing is preserved.
Sense of smell - saved.
Musculoskeletal system
The position of the limbs is anatomically correct.
Movements are free.
Study of the endocrine system
The location is not changed, soreness is absent, seals are not revealed. Physiological development corresponds to age. There were no signs of endocrine disorders.
Conclusion
Epicrisis (Epicrisis)
In the course of writing a term paper on clinical diagnostics, I examined a collie dog named Robin using general and special research methods (general examination, percussion, palpation, auscultation, thermometry, etc.).
After clinical studies, it can be concluded that the dog is in good physical shape, its health is normal. This can be seen in many clinical indicators. The healthy condition of the animal is ensured by good conditions of detention, proper care, and a properly selected diet.
The dog is kept in favorable sanitary conditions. Regularly and on time receives the necessary examinations and veterinary procedures. Based on the above, we can conclude that the dog is healthy.
3. Methods of clinical research of an animal
Inspection - gives an idea of the habitus. Determine the physique, fatness, position of the body in space, the condition of the skin and coat. And examination of the area of the painful area.
The examination was carried out during the day, in natural light. First, the head was examined, then the neck, chest, abdomen, pelvic part of the torso and limbs. The inspection was carried out alternately from the right and left sides, as well as front and rear.
The examination revealed the habitus of the animal, the condition of the mucous membranes, hairline and skin, the behavior of the animal, etc.
Palpation is a method of palpation, with the help of which the condition of both external and internal organs is determined.
Physical properties of tissues and organs (size, shape, consistency, temperature, etc.) were studied by palpation.
Palpation was carried out with light and sliding movements of the hands, comparing the results of the sites.
Superficial palpation was carried out with one and both palms laid freely, feeling the area with almost no pressure. The skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles, cardiac impulse, chest movements, blood and lymphatic vessels were examined. Stroking of the tissues was also carried out, while the hand smoothly glides over the area under study. Stroking was carried out to determine the shape of bones, joints, diagnose fractures, etc.
Sliding palpation examined organs located deep in the abdominal and pelvic cavities. Penetrating gradually with your fingertips deep into, during the relaxation of the muscle layer that occurs with each breath, and reaching a sufficient depth by sliding, consistently feeling the area under study.
Bimanual palpation (feeling with both hands) can grasp the organ on both sides and examine it (bladder, intestinal area, kidney) and determine the shape, consistency, mobility, etc.
Percussion is a research method carried out by percussion of any part of the body.
Percussion established the boundaries of the organs and thereby revealed the magnitude and quality of the percussion sound, the physiological state of the organs.
Loud percussion sounds were obtained by percussion of organs and cavities containing air (lungs, nasal cavity). Dense organs (kidneys, heart) gave a quiet sound.
Direct percussion was carried out with the tips of 2 fingers bent in the second phalanx. Short, jerky blows were applied to the surface of the skin of the area under study. It was used for percussion of the maxillary and frontal sinuses.
With mediocre percussion, the blows were applied to the finger pressed to the surface (digital percussion).
Auscultation - listening to sounds generated in functioning organs (heart, lungs, intestines), as well as in cavities (thoracic, abdominal).
Thermometry
The temperature was measured in the rectum with a mercury thermometer. Before measurement, the thermometer was lubricated with Vaseline. The temperature was measured for 5 minutes.
4. Laboratory research
blood test
In a dog, blood was obtained from the saphenous vein of the forearm. The anticoagulant sodium citrate was added to the blood so that it would not clot.
Erythrocytes were counted according to the test-tube method. 4 ml of 0.85% sodium chloride solution are added to the test tube, and then 0.02 ml of blood is added with a pipette from the Saly hemometer and mixed. With a Pasteur pipette, blood is drawn (dilution 1:200) and the counting chamber is charged.
Erythrocytes are counted 3-5 minutes after filling the chamber under a microscope (lens * 10).
The counting of cells in a large square starts from the upper left small square and continues in the second, third and fourth squares. Having counted the erythrocytes in the upper row, they move to the lower row. All erythrocytes that lie inside the small squares, as well as on the lower and right sides, are counted, they are not taken into account. The number of erythrocytes is determined by the formula.
The hemoglobin content was determined by the hematin method. A 0.1% solution of hydrochloric acid is added to the graduated test tube of the GS-3 hemometer to the mark "2". 0.02 ml of blood is taken with a capillary pipette, the tip of the pipette is wiped from the outside with cotton wool and, without causing foam, the blood is blown to the bottom of the test tube. The contents of the tube are mixed and incubated for 5 minutes. The mixture during this time acquires a brown color due to the formation of chlorhematin. Distilled water is added dropwise, stirring with a glass rod until the color of the liquid is the same as that of the standard. The amount of hemoglobin (g / 100 ml of blood) is determined by the division of the scale, which coincides with the liquid level. To convert to g/l, multiply by a factor of 10.
Urinalysis
The method of obtaining urine is waiting.
Physical properties of urine:
Color - determined in a cylinder on a white background. The examined urine is yellow, transparent, liquid, with a specific odor. Density - 1.04.
5. Literature used
1. Belov, I.M. diagnostics of internal non-contagious diseases of agricultural animals / I.M. Belov. - Kolos, 1975.
2. Smirnov, A.M. Workshop on the diagnosis of internal non-communicable diseases of agricultural animals / A.M. Smirnov, I.M. Belyakov, G.L. Dugin. - Kolos, 1986.
3. Usha B.V. Clinical diagnosis of internal non-communicable diseases of animals / B.V.Usha, I.M.Belyakov, R.P.Pushkarev. - Kolos,
