The most universal, i.e. applicable to most goods and services are the following requirements: purpose, safety, environmental friendliness, reliability, ergonomics, resource saving, manufacturability, aesthetics.

Purpose requirements - requirements that establish the properties of the product, defining its main functions for which it is intended (performance, accuracy, calorie content, speed of service execution, etc.) - functional suitability; composition and structure of raw materials; compatibility* and interchangeability**.

Ergonomic requirements are the requirements for consistency of the product design with the characteristics of the human body to ensure ease of use***.

Resource saving requirements are requirements for the economical use of raw materials, materials, fuel, energy and labor resources.

Safety requirements - absence of unacceptable risk associated with the possibility of damage.

Reliability requirements - preservation over time, within established limits, of all parameters characterizing the ability to perform the required functions in given modes and conditions of use, maintenance, storage and transportation.

Environmental requirements - absence of harmful effects of products on the environment during production, operation and disposal.

Requirements for manufacturability - the adaptability of products to manufacture, operation and repair with minimal costs and given quality indicators.

Aesthetic requirements are requirements for the ability of a product or service to express an artistic image, socio-cultural significance in sensually perceived signs of form (color, spatial configuration, quality of finish of a product or room).

Quality assessment is a set of operations performed to assess the compliance of a specific product with established requirements. Requirements are established in technical regulations, standards, technical conditions, contracts, technical specifications for product design. Standard samples, reference samples, and analogue products can also serve as carriers of established requirements. Failure to comply with a requirement is a non-compliance. To eliminate the causes of nonconformity, the organization takes corrective actions.

The main form of assessment is control. Any control includes two elements: obtaining information about the actual state of the object (for products - about its qualitative and quantitative characteristics) and comparing the received information with established requirements in order to determine compliance, i.e. obtaining secondary information.

Product quality control - control of quantitative and (or) qualitative characteristics of products.

The international standard ISO 8402 defines: “The quality loop is a conceptual model of interdependent activities that affect quality at various stages from identifying needs to assessing their satisfaction.”

Quality loop (according to life cycle)

The quality loop should show how and through what activities influence quality at different stages of the product life cycle.

3. Product quality is assessed on the basis of quantitative measurement of its defining properties. Modern science and practice have developed a system for quantitative assessment of product properties, which provide quality indicators. The classification of the properties of objects (goods and services) into the following groups, which provide the corresponding quality indicators, is widespread:

indicators of the purpose of the goods,

· reliability indicators,

· indicators of manufacturability,

· indicators of standardization and unification,

· ergonomic indicators,

· aesthetic indicators,

transportability indicators,

· patent and legal indicators,

· environmental indicators,

· safety indicators.

In relation to services, researchers L. Beri, A. Parasuraman, and V. Zeithaml also compiled a list of service quality indicators, finding that consumers mainly use simple criteria, regardless of the type of service. These criteria are:

· Availability: the service is easy to obtain in a convenient place, at a convenient time, without unnecessary waiting for its provision,

· Communication skills: the description of the service is made in the client’s language and is accurate,

· Competence: service personnel have the required skills and knowledge,

· Courtesy: the staff is friendly, respectful and caring,

· Trustworthiness: you can rely on the company and its employees, because they really strive to satisfy any customer requests,

· Reliability: services are provided accurately and at a stable level,

· Responsiveness: employees are responsive and creative in solving problems and satisfying customer requests,

· Safety: the services provided do not pose any danger or risk and do not give rise to any doubt,

Tangibility: the tangible components of a service truly reflect its quality,

· Understanding/knowledge of the client: employees try to understand the needs of the client as best as possible and pay attention to each of them.

4. The terms qualitology and qualimetry are almost never used in library science, despite their interdisciplinary nature, so it is advisable to briefly consider them. They entered scientific circulation in the 1960s.

The introduction of the term qualimetry, denoting the scientific discipline of studying and developing principles and methods for quantitative assessment of quality, was preceded by a discussion. A group of researchers became convinced that the scientific field, covering methodological and practical issues of quantitative assessment of quality, needed a commonly used term with an international sound. It should be easy, convenient and suitable for all areas of theoretical and practical knowledge involved in quality assessment. The term qualimetry has been adopted. It is based on two words kvali and metreo. In many languages, quali means quality. The term turned out to be convenient. It is concise, accurately conveys the content of the concept of quality measurement, and its components are understandable in different languages. Derivative words are easily formed from it (qualimeterologist, qualimetric, etc.). It is noted that the term fits well into the system of concepts logically associated with it.

The science of quality has been called both qualinomy and qualology. The term qualitology is currently used. It denotes the science of quality, the structure of which includes the theory of quality and the theory of its management, qualimetry and metrology. The term qualimetry is applied to a scientific discipline that studies the problems and methodology of quantitative and qualitative assessment of objects of various natures.

Among the qualimetry used in various industries (construction, architecture, medicine, biology, sociology, service sector, etc.), there is also psychological qualimetry. It is at the intersection of psychology and qualimetry, serves the purposes of psychodiagnostics and psychometry, using a variety of methods (expert assessments, generalization of independent characteristics, semantic differential, sociometry, etc.). In psychological qualimetry, quantification is used - the reduction of qualitative assessments of mental phenomena to quantitative ones for the purpose of formalization through social quantifiers, for example, words (never; rarely; neither often nor rarely; often; always) and points (using the method of polar profiles).

The term metrology is interpreted as a branch of science that studies and implements methods for measuring quality. In the conceptual apparatus of qualitology and qualimetry, such as criterion, efficiency, measure and its synonym quality indicator are distinguished. Among the types of quality measures are quantitative and qualitative assessments. Qualitative assessments include a semantic measure of quality. Scaling is a measure of quality that introduces ordering relationships on a measured set of properties. The concept of a semantic measure corresponds to semantic scaling. Understanding qualimetric scaling includes all types of scaling: metric (ratio, difference, interval), ordinal, nominal, semantic (verbal) and their various combinations. To determine the values ​​of quality indicators, measuring, registration, ergonometric, analytical, expert and combined methods are used.

In specialized literature, the word quality is interpreted as a derivative of the words like, which. In practice, one of two interpretations is usually used - philosophical or industrial. The concept of quality in a philosophical interpretation can be applied to various models of practice, while it does not carry any assessments (which is worse, which is better), fixing different qualities, different properties, without denoting good or bad. In philosophy, this category is not evaluative in nature, and therefore in the philosophical interpretation of quality it makes no sense to raise the question of measuring or otherwise assessing quality.

In the industrial interpretation, the key concept is quality as a set of essential consumer properties of services that are significant to the consumer. The set of these properties forms the basis of standards. With this interpretation, two signs of the quality of any service are distinguished: the presence of certain properties and consideration of their value not from the position of the service provider, but from the position of the user.

5.a) Product quality control - control of quantitative and (or) qualitative characteristics of products.

The quality control procedure may include measurement, analysis, and testing operations.

Measurements as an independent procedure are the object of metrology.

Analysis of products, in particular the structure and composition of materials and raw materials, is carried out by analytical methods: chemical analysis, microbiological analysis, microscopic analysis, etc.

Tests- a technical operation consisting of determining one or more characteristics of a given product, process or service in accordance with an established procedure.

An illustration of product quality control as a complex procedure is, for example, fabric quality control. It includes control of qualitative characteristics (external defects, compliance with the approved sample - standard for color, pattern), control of quantitative characteristics through simple measurements (length, width, thickness), tests (abrasion resistance, tensile strength), chemical analysis (determination of fiber composition ).

Let us consider in more detail the significance of the test as a procedure. The main means of testing is testing equipment. Testing equipment also includes basic and auxiliary substances and materials (reagents, etc.). used during testing.

During testing, various methods for determining the characteristics of products and services can be used: measuring, analytical, registration (determining failures, damage), organoleptic (determining characteristics using the senses).

Depending on the location of testing, they can be laboratory, field, or full-scale. Product testing is carried out mainly in laboratory conditions.

The main requirement for the quality of testing is the accuracy and reproducibility of the results. Meeting these requirements largely depends on compliance with metrology rules.

In recent years, laboratories themselves have begun to be checked directly for the quality of testing through interlaboratory comparative tests - parallel testing of a standard product or sample of a substance with known characteristics in several controlled laboratories. Based on the deviation of test results from each laboratory of the characteristics of a standard object, the accuracy and reproducibility of the results are judged, i.e. about the quality of testing of each laboratory.

For example, the United States Department of Agriculture's Central Testing Center sends out each month to all local cotton testing laboratories two control samples of the standard, the values ​​of which are encoded and entered into the data bank of the main computer (but are not communicated to local cotton testing laboratories). Laboratories test the standards sent, and the data obtained is sent to the central bureau, where a machine comparison (comparison) of the results takes place. In case of failure, information is sent by telex to local testing laboratories: the test results do not correspond to the control ones; certificates issued in such and such a month cannot be recognized at the cotton exchange.

This scheme is called a “round test” - testing proceeds in a circle, continuously, putting testers under strict conditions: they must constantly maintain themselves in the best working condition (this applies to both equipment and specialists). If any laboratory “falls out of the circle” at least once, i.e. from the Register of centers approved for issuing certificates, then it will lose contracts for conducting tests.

To confirm the required quality of testing, laboratories must undergo an accreditation procedure. Laboratory accreditation- official recognition that testing laboratories are competent to carry out specific tests or specific types of tests.

In Russia, as well as abroad, there is an accreditation system for testing, measuring and analytical laboratories.

According to the Certification Rules in the Russian Federation, only an accredited testing laboratory is allowed to test specific products.

B) Product quality control

PRODUCT QUALITY CONTROL - checking the compliance of the quality of the product or the process on which it depends with established requirements. Product quality control includes state supervision of product quality, departmental product quality control and technical quality control in associations, enterprises and organizations.

State supervision over product quality is carried out by the USSR State Standard and its bodies; it consists of monitoring compliance with standards, technical conditions and metrological rules, the condition of measuring instruments and the work of standardization and metrology services on site. Departmental quality control of products is carried out by quality inspections of the relevant ministries or departments.

Technical control of product quality is carried out at all stages of the production process, from the receipt of raw materials to the shipment of finished products. Its main functions: establishing compliance of product quality indicators with the requirements of design documentation, technical specifications, indicators of prototypes, obtaining information on the state of the production process, recording, analyzing and preventing defects and defects in production, failures and malfunctions at the consumer and developing measures to eliminate the causes of them appearance.

The main types of technical control are: incoming control of materials, semi-finished products, purchased components coming from outside; operational control performed during the technological process; control of the technological process for compliance with its established requirements; acceptance control of finished products. In form, all these types of control and measurements can be: active, carried out by technical means built into technological equipment; planned, carried out according to schedule; volatile, organized without predetermined deadlines; inspections carried out to check the quality of operational or acceptance control.

When choosing technical means of control, non-destructive testing means are preferred. Particularly important and expensive parts and assembly units are covered by continuous operational control using unique control and measuring tools, such as holographic, laser, etc.

Product quality control in associations and enterprises is carried out by technical control departments (QCD). The head of the quality control department has the right to stop accepting products, prohibit the use in production of items and means of labor that do not meet the requirements, and stop the production of products in departments that do not comply with technological discipline; he bears criminal and financial liability for the release of low-quality and incomplete products.

Improving product quality control is facilitated by the introduction of self-control of performers and granting them the right to personal branding.

This measure has a great educational effect, promotes the development of a sense of worker pride, and strengthens labor discipline. The effectiveness of technical control increases many times with the introduction of non-departmental control and the system of State acceptance of products.

The introduction of State Acceptance at 1,500 enterprises in various industries is a new, fundamentally important step in radically improving product quality, an event of great economic and political significance (see also Product Quality Management).

The experience of leading enterprises in the field of quality, repeatedly confirmed in practice, and the provisions of an authoritative textbook on management show that product quality depends on a number of external and internal factors:

External factors include:

quality requirements (consumers, progress, competitors);

suppliers of capital, labor, materials, energy, services;

legislation in the field of quality and the work of government bodies.

Internal factors for ensuring product quality are:

modern material base (infrastructure, equipment, materials, finance);

application of advanced technologies;

effective management (rational organization of work and skillful management of the enterprise in general and quality in particular);

qualified personnel interested in good work.

The dependence of product quality on these factors and their relationship can be presented in the form of a cause-and-effect diagram, clearly showing the principle of quality assurance.

To the above, we can add that qualified and motivated personnel and a modern material base with advanced technology determine the necessary basis for ensuring product quality - the quality base. Moreover, of all the factors influencing quality, the key is the human factor, and in it is the interest of employees in good work. This is explained by the obvious consideration that an uninterested employee will not work well even with good equipment, but an interested employee will search, find and use any opportunities to improve his skills and achieve high quality products.

Effective management with quality management complements the quality base and makes it possible to realize the opportunities created by the material base and the human factor. Because you cannot produce products with only equipment, materials and people. We still need to organize the work and establish management.

Thus:

The principle of ensuring product quality is to take into account external factors affecting quality (suppliers, quality requirements, laws and government bodies) and create internal factors (material base with advanced technology, effective management with quality management and motivated, qualified personnel). At the same time, primary attention should be paid to staff motivation.

From here it becomes clear how product quality is ensured, and therefore, what measures are necessary to ensure it.

In addition to the presented flat diagram, the principle of ensuring product quality can be shown in the form of a spatial “Quality Model”, which shows not only the composition and interrelation of factors necessary to ensure quality, but also the interaction of these factors and the result of this interaction - improving product quality.

7. At every enterprise, the quality of products is influenced by a variety of factors, both internal and external. Internal factors include those that are related to the enterprise’s ability to produce products of appropriate quality, i.e. depend on the activities of the enterprise itself. They are numerous, and it is advisable to classify them into the following groups: technical, organizational, economic, socio-psychological.

Technical factors have a significant impact on product quality. Therefore, the introduction of new equipment and technology, the use of new materials, higher quality raw materials is the material basis for the production of competitive products.

Organizational factors are associated with improving the organization of production and labor, increasing production discipline and responsibility for product quality, ensuring production culture and the appropriate level of personnel qualifications, introducing a quality management system and its certification, improving the performance of the quality control service and other organizational measures.

Economic factors are determined by the costs of production and sales of products, the costs of ensuring the required level of product quality, pricing policy and the system of economic incentives for personnel for the production of high-quality products. Socio-psychological factors significantly influence the creation of a healthy socio-psychological climate in the team, normal working conditions, education of personnel in the spirit of devotion and pride in the brand of their enterprise, moral incentives for workers for their conscientious attitude to work - all these are important components for graduation competitive products.

External factors in market conditions contribute to the formation of product quality (if the enterprise is not a monopolist). These primarily include: market requirements, i.e. buyers; competition: regulatory documents in the field of product quality; the need to gain a worthy place in both the domestic and foreign markets; ensuring the company's image among buyers, business people, etc.

Basically, all factors, both internal and external, are closely interconnected, and they all affect product quality. It is always necessary to remember that at each stage of enterprise development, the degree of influence of these factors is not the same. Therefore, the relevant services of the enterprise must rank them according to the degree of influence and give preference to those that have the greatest impact on product quality. This will allow you to manage product quality at lower costs and more effectively.

Standardization and certification are the basis for the production of high-quality products in the country.

Standardization throughout the world is a conductor of quality and acceleration of scientific and technological progress, so a lot depends on its state in the country.

Standard is a normative document on standardization, developed, as a rule, on the basis of consensus, characterized by the absence of objections, but significant issues among the majority of interested parties and approved by a recognized body (or representative), in which rules, general principles, characteristics, requirements and methods relating to certain objects of standardization, and which is aimed at achieving the optimal degree of ordering in a certain area (GOST R 1.0 - 92).

Certification is an activity to confirm product compliance with established requirements.

A certification system is a set of certification sites that carry out certification according to the rules established in this system. A certificate is a document certifying that the enterprise produces products that meet all the requirements of the standard.

8. Quality audit

A quality audit at an enterprise (Quality Audit) is a process of systematically studying the quality system, carried out by internal or external auditors. This is an important part of the organization of a quality management system and is a key element in the ISO standard ISO 9001. With the introduction of the concept of “Quality Management System”, relating to the entire operation of the enterprise, the need arose for an effective assessment of this system, for which the term in question serves. According to EN ISO 8402, a quality audit is a systematic and independent study to determine whether the results of activities meet planned requirements and objectives; whether these requirements are met in practice and whether they correspond to the goals set. The following assessment methods are distinguished:

Internal assessment by the enterprise itself (First Party Audits) is carried out in order to check the system and strengthen its weak points.

External assessment by one of the partners (Second Party Audits). A positive audit by external experts confirms the quality potential of suppliers. According to the previously existing provisions, the inspection was carried out by one of the existing partners. In this case, it often turned out that the same enterprise, being a supplier to many companies, was forced to carry out numerous inspections every year, which required a lot of time and expense.

External assessment by independent specialists (Second Party Audits). After the introduction of the international standard, it became possible to carry out audits by independent experts, through the so-called certification bodies. The audit of the enterprise is now carried out by employees of an officially recognized, accredited authority.

Certification/re-audit (Third Party Audits).

EN 45003 defines accreditation as follows: “It is a method by which some significant authority formally recognizes that some other authority or individual has sufficient competence to perform specified tasks.” There are many national and international certification bodies. To provide certification services, an organization must comply with the requirements of ISO 17021 “Conformity assessment. Requirements for bodies performing audit and certification of management systems”, it must be registered in accordance with Russian legislation. When certifying a quality management system, the accredited organization checks the QMS for compliance with the provisions of the standard and, if there is compliance, issues a certificate. A quality audit requires actual inspection of workplaces and observation of work in progress.

Internal and external quality audit

According to EN ISO 10011 there are different types of quality audits. Internal quality audit and external quality audit can be divided into three types:

Product audit as a control tool at the operational level. The task of a product audit is to assess the compliance of a manufactured product with established quality requirements. In addition to checking the quality of structural elements, components and the final product from the customer’s point of view, the following is also checked: manufacturing documentation; production process and machines, as well as controls. This is done using up-to-date quality management documentation, agreements, inspection plans and warranty plans, etc. Goal: creating an environment that meets quality, determining the feasibility of inspections and the capacity of inspection bodies, calculating opportunities to improve product quality, completing product certificates, acquiring the CE mark.

Process audit as a tool for monitoring mid-level management. The purpose of a process audit is to check the manufacturing method and process, such as in special processes. Here it is important to establish the quality potential of the method by determining the direct and indirect parameters of the process, which will allow the management of the process (methodological instructions, inspection instructions, work instructions, inspection plans, etc.), as well as verification of organizational principles. Thus, quality improvement can be achieved by taking into account two factors: improving employee behavior (human factor), increasing the potential of the method and process (technical factor). Goal: guaranteeing the safety of the process and its potential, as well as improving the process.

Systematic quality audit as a control tool at the highest management level. This type is aimed primarily at the organization of the enterprise by checking the feasibility, compliance and sufficient effectiveness of quality control activities, checking the maintenance of documentation relating to its management activities, confirming compliance with the requirements of the EN ISO 9001 standard and identifying the organization's weaknesses and deviations from the norm. . This allows you to put forward proposals for: carrying out corrective measures relating to organization and technology, improving the quality of products and processes.

9. In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation “On Certification of Products and

services" certification may be mandatory or voluntary

character.

Mandatory certification - confirmation

by an authorized body for product compliance with mandatory requirements established by law.

The most universal, i.e. applicable to most goods and services are the following requirements: purpose, safety, environmental friendliness, reliability, ergonomics, resource conservation, manufacturability, aesthetics.

Mandatory certification is a form of state control over product safety. Its implementation is associated with certain responsibilities imposed on enterprises, including those of a material nature. Therefore, it can be carried out only in cases provided for by legislative acts of the Russian Federation, i.e. laws and regulations of the Government of the Russian Federation.

In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation “On the Protection of Consumer Rights,” lists of goods (work, services) subject to mandatory certification are approved by the Government of the Russian Federation. Based on these lists, a decree of the State Standard of Russia “Nomenclature of products and services (works) in relation to which legislative acts of the Russian Federation” is developed and put into effect.

The Federation provides for their mandatory certification.”

With mandatory certification, the validity of the certificate of conformity and mark of conformity extends throughout the entire territory of the Russian Federation.

The organization and conduct of work on mandatory certification is entrusted to the specially authorized federal executive body in the field of certification - Gosstandart of Russia, and in cases provided for by the legislative acts of the Russian Federation in relation to certain types of products, and to other federal executive bodies. In Russia in 1999, there were 16 mandatory certification systems in operation. The most representative and well-known is the GOST R mandatory certification system, formed and assigned by the State Standard of Russia. Within the framework of this system, there are certification systems for homogeneous products (food products and food raw materials, toys, dishes, light industrial goods, etc.) and homogeneous services (catering services, tourist services and hotel services, etc.).

10. In the Russian Federation, a technical regulation is a document (normative legal act) establishing mandatory requirements for application and execution for objects of technical regulation (products, including buildings, structures and structures, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sales and recycling).

The concept of technical regulations was introduced by the Federal Law “On Technical Regulation” No. 184-FZ of December 27, 2002. The law separated the concepts of technical regulations and standards, establishing a voluntary principle for the application of standards. Technical regulations, in contrast, are mandatory in nature, but can establish only the minimum necessary requirements in the field of safety, and they can be adopted only for certain purposes, namely:

protecting the life or health of citizens, property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property;

protection of the environment, life or health of animals and plants;

prevention of actions that mislead purchasers.

For the transition period, until the adoption of the necessary technical regulations, the corresponding requirements of previously adopted GOST (GOST R), sanitary and construction norms and rules, as well as other departmental guidance documents (SanPiN, SNiP, RD, etc.) must be applied for these purposes.

The law provides for a closed list of exceptions, when other mandatory requirements for products may be established (placement of government orders for defense needs, regulation in the field of communication systems, etc.).

11. Article 11. Goals of standardization

Standardization is carried out for the purposes of:

increasing the level of safety of life or health of citizens, property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property, environmental safety, safety of life or health of animals and plants and promoting compliance with the requirements of technical regulations;

increasing the level of safety of facilities, taking into account the risk of natural and man-made emergencies;

ensuring scientific and technological progress;

increasing the competitiveness of products, works, services;

rational use of resources;

technical and information compatibility;

comparability of research (test) and measurement results, technical and economic-statistical data;

interchangeability of products.

12. Article 12. Principles of standardization

Standardization is carried out in accordance with the principles:

voluntary application of standards;

maximum consideration when developing standards of the legitimate interests of stakeholders;

application of an international standard as the basis for the development of a national standard, except in cases where such application is considered impossible due to the inconsistency of the requirements of international standards with the climatic and geographical features of the Russian Federation, technical and (or) technological features or for other reasons, or the Russian Federation, in accordance with established procedures, acted against the adoption of an international standard or its individual provisions;

the inadmissibility of creating obstacles to the production and circulation of products, the performance of work and the provision of services to a greater extent than is minimally necessary to achieve the goals specified in Article 11 of this Federal Law;

the inadmissibility of establishing standards that contradict technical regulations;

ensuring conditions for uniform application of standards.

13. The entire fund of standards in force on the territory of the Russian Federation includes the following categories:

international (ISO, IEC, ITU) and regional (EU) standards;

interstate standards (GOST);

national standards of the Russian Federation (GOST R);

organization standards (STO)

International Standard: A standard adopted by an international standardization organization and available to a wide range of users.

International standards include ISO standards, IEC standards and ISO/IEC standards, which are joint publications of ISO and IEC. ISO – international organization for standardization; IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission; ITU – International Telecommunication Union, EU – European Union.

Interstate standard (GOST): A regional standard adopted by the Eurasian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification and available to a wide range of users.

The Eurasian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification includes 12 countries of the former USSR, except the Baltic countries.

National standard (GOST R) - a standard adopted by the national standardization body (Rosstandart) and available to a wide range of consumers

Organizational standards (STO) - a standard approved and applied by an organization for standardization purposes, as well as for improving production and ensuring product quality, performing work, providing services, as well as for disseminating and using the results of research (tests) and measurements obtained in various fields of knowledge and developments.

14. The type of standard is a characteristic determined by its content depending on the object of standardization.

Depending on the purpose and content, GOST R 1.0 – 2004 established the following main types of standards:

Fundamental standards;

Standards for terms and definitions;

Product standards;

Service standards;

Standards for processes (work);

Standards for control methods.

In accordance with the interstate standard GOST 1.1 – 2002, the following can be additionally developed:

Compatibility standards;

Standards for the nomenclature of indicators.

16. Enterprise standards (STS) are developed and applied by the enterprise itself. The objects of standardization are usually the components of organization and management of an enterprise, improvement

which is the main goal of standardization at this level.

Standards of public associations (STO) are normative documents developed, as a rule, for fundamentally new types of products, processes or services; new test methods, etc. They can then serve as the basis for developing standards for enterprises, industries,

submission of information on accepted standards of industries and societies to the State Standard of the Russian Federation, etc. PR and R are developed by organizations and divisions subordinate to Gosstandart or Gosstroy of the Russian Federation.

Technical specifications (TS) are developed by enterprises when it is not practical to create a standard. The subject of specifications may be one-time delivery products produced in small batches.

17. International standardization organizations:

International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

The international organization ISO began to function on February 23, 1947 as a voluntary, non-governmental organization. It was established on the basis of an agreement reached at a meeting in London in 1946 between representatives of 25 industrialized countries to create an organization with the authority to coordinate at the international level the development of various industrial standards and to carry out the procedure for their adoption as international standards.

International Electrotechnical Commission

The IEC, founded in 1906, is a voluntary non-governmental organization. Its activities are mainly related to the standardization of the physical characteristics of electrical and electronic equipment. The IEC focuses on issues such as electrical measurements, testing, recycling, and safety of electrical and electronic equipment. Members of the IEC are national organizations (committees) for technology standardization in relevant industries, representing the interests of their countries in the matter of international standardization.

The original language of IEC standards is English.

International Telecommunication Union (International Telecommunication Union)

ITU is an international intergovernmental organization in the field of telecommunication standardization. The organization unites more than 500 governmental and non-governmental organizations. It includes telephone, telecommunications and postal ministries, departments and agencies of different countries, as well as organizations that supply equipment for providing telecommunications services. The main task of the ITU is to coordinate the development of internationally harmonized rules and recommendations for the construction and use of global television networks and their services. In 1947, the ITU received the status of a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN).

International organizations involved in standardization work

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) was founded in 1945 as an intergovernmental specialized organization of the United Nations.

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)

The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) is an organ of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), established in 1947.

World Health Organization (WHO)

The World Health Organization (WHO) was created in 1948 on the initiative of the UN Economic and Social Council and is a specialized agency of the UN. The goal of WHO, which is defined by its Charter, is the achievement by all peoples of the highest possible level of health (health is interpreted as the totality of complete physical, mental and social well-being). More than 180 states are members of WHO, including Russia. WHO has consultative status with ISO and participates in more than 40 technical committees.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an intergovernmental organization established under the auspices of the UN to promote cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of atomic energy. Operating since 1957, headquartered in Vienna; 146 members, including Russia. The official languages ​​of the IAEA are English, Russian, French, Spanish, Chinese; workers - English, Russian, French, Spanish.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in 1995 on the basis of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

International Organization of Consumers Unions (IOUC)

The International Organization of Consumer Unions (IOUC) does a lot of work related to ensuring the quality of products and, first of all, consumer goods. Created in 1960 - members of MOPS are over 160 consumer associations from different countries.

International Organization of Weights and Measures (IIOM)

The International Organization of Weights and Measures (IIOM) was founded in 1875 with the goal of unifying the systems of units of measurement used in different countries and establishing uniform standards of length and mass. Currently, in addition to units of length and mass, IOMV is engaged in systems of units of time and frequency, as well as electrical, photometric, stabilized laser, gravitational, thermometric and radiometric measurements.

International Organization of Legal Metrology (OILM)

The International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) is an intergovernmental international organization aimed at international harmonization of the activities of state metrological services or other national institutions, aimed at ensuring the comparability, correctness and accuracy of measurement results in OIML member countries. The organization was created in 1955 on the basis of the Convention, ratified by the legislative bodies of the participating countries.

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

The International Civil Aviation Organization, or ICAO, is a specialized agency of the United Nations whose mandate is to ensure the safe, efficient and orderly development of international civil aviation. ICAO develops the following types of Standards and other provisions:

Rules of Air Navigation Services (PANS);

Supplemental Regional Rules (SUPPs);

various kinds of instructional material.

International Consultative Committee on Space Data Systems Standardization (CCSDS)

The International Advisory Committee on Space Data Systems Standardization was formed in 1982 by the world's major space agencies and serves as a forum for discussing common issues in the development and operation of space information systems. It currently consists of 11 member agencies, 28 observer agencies, and over 140 industrial partners.

Standardized objects:

radio frequency ranges, ground-to-air link functions and structures;

parameters of receiving and transmitting devices;

standard blocks of formatted data;

radio command link procedures;

data processing and compression;

interfaces and protocols for data exchange at various levels;

decision-making logic, etc.

Regional organizations

Interstate Council of the CIS (IGU / EASC)

Full name - Interstate Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification (IGS) of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (EuroAsian Interstate Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification)

The IGU is an intergovernmental body of the CIS for the formation and implementation of a coordinated policy on standardization, metrology and certification. The working body of the IGU is the Bureau of Standards, consisting of a group of experts and a regional Information Center. 270 interstate technical committees for standardization have been created under the Council. IGU is recognized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) - Regional Organization for Standardization as the Euro-Asian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification (EASC) (Council Resolution ISO 26/1996).

European standardization organizations

CEN (the European Committee for Standardization) is a European committee for standardization of a wide range of goods, services and technologies.

CENELEC (the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization) - European committee for the standardization of solutions in electrical engineering.

ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) is a European standardization institute in the field of telecommunications.

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NATO standardization bodies

NATO Committee Standardization (NCS - NATO Committee Standardization)

NATO Standardization Staff Group (NSSG)

NATO Standardization Office (ONS - Office for NATO Standardization)

NATO Standardization Liaison Board (NSLB)

NATO Standardization Organization (NSO) to monitor, implement and improve the NATO Standardization Program

Types of standards

Publications AACP - AAP - AASTP - AECTP - AEDP - AEP - AJP - AOP - AQAP - ARMP - ATP - ADatP

Standardization agreements (STANAG - Standardization Argeement)

Other regional organizations

COPANT (Pan American Standards Commission) - Pan American Standards Committee

ASEAN Member Countries Standardization and Quality Advisory Committee

Pacific Standardization Congress (PASC)

Arab Organization for Industrial Development and Mining

African Regional Organization for Standardization

18. Rules of application. The GSS of Russia allows the following options for the rules for applying international and regional standards:

Adoption of the authentic text of an international (regional) standard as a state Russian regulatory document (GOST R) without any additions or changes (“cover method”). Such a standard is designated as is customary for a domestic standard;

Adoption of the authentic text of the international (regional) standard, but with additions reflecting the peculiarities of Russian requirements for the object of standardization. When designating such a normative document, the number of the corresponding international (regional) one is added to the code of the domestic standard.

Other options are also possible: using (borrowing) individual provisions (norms) of the international standard and introducing them into a Russian regulatory document. This is quite acceptable by the rules of the State Standards of the Russian Federation, but in such cases the international (regional) standard is considered only as a source of information taken into account when creating a domestic standard. The latter is not considered a form of adoption of an international (regional) standard. A similar interpretation applies to GOST R, which contains a reference to an international (regional) standard.

ISO/IEC Guide 2 also deals with the direct and indirect application of an International Standard.

Direct application is the application of an international standard regardless of its adoption in any other normative document.

Indirect application is the application of an international standard through another normative document in which this standard was adopted.

Thus, in terminology, the above two options are an indirect application of the international standard in the national standardization system of the Russian Federation.

Application of international standards in mechanical engineering. The most relevant area for the use of international standards in the Russian Federation is considered to be mechanical engineering, where out of 4988 existing standards, more than 2000 are international. Data for various engineering industries are given in table. 13.1.

19. 3.1 Structural elements of the standard

3.1.1 The standard contains the following structural elements:

Front page;

Preface;

Introduction;

Name;

Scope of application;

Definitions;

Notations and abbreviations;

Requirements;

Applications;

Bibliographic data.

3.1.2 Structural elements, with the exception of the elements “Title Page”, “Foreword”, “Name”, “Requirements”, are given if necessary, depending on the characteristics of the object being standardized.

3.2 Title page

3.2.1 The first page of the title pages of state standards of the Russian Federation, industry standards, enterprise standards, standards of scientific, technical, engineering societies and other public associations is drawn up in accordance with Appendices A, B, C, D.

3.2.2 A preface is placed on the second page of the title page. After the preface at the bottom of the sheet of the state standard of the Russian Federation they indicate: “This standard cannot be fully or partially reproduced, replicated and distributed as an official publication without the permission of ___________________________________

name of the body that adopted the standard

3.2.3 Standards, if necessary, may be compiled into a thematic collection. At the same time, they additionally draw up a common first page of the title page for the collection, on which the designations of all the standards included in the collection are placed. If the designations of the standards included in the collection have a continuous sequence of numbers, it is allowed to indicate the designations of the first and last (in ascending order of numbers) standards, separating them with a punctuation mark - “dash”.

3.3 Preface

3.3.1 The preface is placed on the second page of the title page. The word “Foreword” is written in capital letters in the middle of the page.

3.3.2 The information given in the preface is numbered in Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) and arranged in the following sequence:

1) information about the technical committee for standardization or the development company, the adoption of state standards of the Russian Federation

“DEVELOPED AND INTRODUCED __________________________________________

number and name of the technical committee for standardization or enterprise that developed and submitted the draft standard for adoption

ADOPTED AND ENTERED INTO EFFECT by Resolution _____________________

name of the body

__________________________________________________________________ »;

state administration of the Russian Federation, date of adoption and number of the resolution

2) information about the developer and adoption of the industry standard:

"DESIGNED ___________

name of the TC or enterprise that developed and submitted the draft standard for adoption

ADOPTED AND ENTERED INTO EFFECT ____________________________________

Name

organization that adopted the standard, date and number of the directive document

3) information on the application of an international, regional or national standard of another country as a state standard of the Russian Federation is drawn up in accordance with Appendix B1;

4) if the standard implements the legislative norms of the law(s) of the Russian Federation, the preface should indicate:

“This standard implements the norms of __________________________

name of the law(s) of the Russian Federation

5) information about the standard developed for products, the production of which is carried out under a license:

“The requirements of the standard comply with the requirements established in the technical and regulatory documents of the licensor”;

6) information about inventions used in the development of the standard. Provide numbers and dates of patents, applications for inventions and copyright certificates;

7) information about the regulatory documents to replace which the standard was developed: “IN INSTEAD OF __________________________________” or

“INstead of _________________________________ in part

designation of a normative document

If the standard is being introduced for the first time, they write “INTRODUCED FOR THE FIRST TIME”;

8) information about the reissue of the standard:

"REISSUE ____________________"

month, year

“REISSUE ___________________ WITH CHANGES No. ____________

month, year number

_________________________________________

changes, information document number

3.3.3 If necessary, additional information may be included in the preface.

3.5 Introduction

The introduction provides, if necessary, justification for the reasons for developing the standard. The introduction should not contain requirements.

The introduction is not numbered and is placed on a separate sheet.

3.6 Name

3.6.1 The name of the standard must be brief, accurately characterize the object of standardization and ensure the correct classification of the standard for inclusion in information indexes of standards.

3.6.2 In the name of the standard, as a rule, abbreviations (except for product symbols), Roman numerals, mathematical symbols, and Greek letters are not allowed.

3.6.3 In the name of the standards, if they are included in a set of standards united by a common purpose, the group heading is given before the title.

As a rule, a group heading is not included in the name of a product standard.

The name of the standard, depending on its content, has the following structure:

Title and subtitle.

1 INSTRUMENTAL MICROSCOPE

General technical requirements

2 SNOW LOADERS

Control methods

Group header, header, subheader

Example - Unified system of design documentation

ELECTRICAL DIAGRAMS

Terms and definitions

Group heading and subheading

Example - State standardization system

Russian Federation

Basic provisions

3.6.4 The title of the standard should be printed in capital letters. The group heading and sub-heading of the standard should be printed in lowercase letters with a capital first.

3.6.5 The title of the standard defines the object of standardization. The title should contain the necessary and sufficient characteristics that distinguish this object from other standardization objects.

3.6.6 The title of the standard for a group of homogeneous products is formed taking into account the names of the classification groups of the All-Russian Product Classifier (OKP).

3.6.7 For a more complete description of the object of standardization, additional definitions should be entered into the title of the standard, indicating characteristic features:

Belonging of an object to a specific product group.

Example - UNIVERSAL LOADS

Manufacture of this product in only one specific way.

Example - HOT-ROLLED BELTS

Manufacturing products from a specific material.

Example - WELDED PIPES FROM ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS

Manufacturing of products of certain sizes, shapes, etc.

Example - CONICAL SHAFT ENDS WITH TAPER 1:10

In the title of the standard, before the designation of the type, brand, model of the product, you should write the words “brand”, “type”, “model”, and then indicate their designation.

Example - DOUBLE LAY ROPE TYPE TLK-O

3.6.8 If the object of standardization is a part of the whole, then the part is indicated at the beginning of the title, and the whole is given as a sign.

Example - ENCLOSURES OF PANEL MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS

3.6.9 In the title of the standard, the first word should be a noun (the name of the object of standardization), and the subsequent words should be definitions (adjectives) in order of their significance (hierarchical generic subordination based on the principle from general to specific), i.e. The title of the standard should be written in reverse word order.

Example - ELECTRIC FOUNDRY BRIDGE CRANES

3.6.10 Direct word order in the title of the standard should be preserved in the following cases:

In the name of the standardization object, a noun without an adjective is not used in this meaning.

Example - HEADWEAR

The attribute of the object of standardization is expressed by a combination of a noun in the indirect case with an adjective.

Example - HYDRAULIC TANK

The standard for terms, definitions and letter designations of quantities indicates the field of knowledge, science, branch of technology or production to which they belong

1 VACUUM TECHNOLOGY

Terms and definitions

2 PHYSICAL OPTICS

Designations of major greatness

3.6.11 The name of the standardization object in the title of the standard must be written in the singular. If the standard applies to several standardization objects of the same name, the name of the standardization object in the title of the standard should be written in the plural.

3.6.12 When extending a standard to two or more standardization objects, the header must be written in the following order:

If the objects of standardization are characterized by the same characteristics, then first you should write nouns connected by the conjunction “and” (a comma and the conjunction “and”, if there are more than two nouns), and then the characteristics in order of their importance from general to specific.

1 ELECTRICAL DIGITAL DEVICES AND CONVERTERS

2 MACHINES, MECHANISMS, APPARATUS, DEVICES AND FOUNDATIONS FOR SHIPS

If the characteristics relate to one of the listed standardization objects, then this object should be written last, maintaining direct word order.

1 MICROPHONES AND MICROPHONE CONNECTORS

2 CABLES, WIRES, CORDS AND CABLE FITTINGS

If each object of standardization has its own characteristics, then with the reverse word order only a phrase is given that denotes the first object of standardization.

Example - PORCELAIN INSULATORS AND HIGH VOLTAGE BUSHINGS

3.6.13 If the standard applies to products of different types belonging to the same classification group of products, then the characteristics should be written separated by a comma and the conjunction “and” before the last characteristic of the product.

Example - FLAT, BOX AND RACK PALLETS

3.6.14 The subtitle of the standard indicates the name of the content established by the standard.

1 METAL CASES

Test methods

2 POLYMERS

Methods for determining viscosity

3.6.15 When publishing a standard using typesetting printing forms, the name of the standard should be highlighted in font.

3.7 Scope of application

3.7.1 The structural element “Scope” is given to determine the area of ​​its purpose (distribution) and, if necessary, to clarify the object of standardization, it is placed on the first page of the standard and numbered with one (1).

3.7.2 When specifying the object of standardization, the following wording is used:

“Does this standard apply to?”

EXAMPLE This standard applies to center lathes with a face-mounted device.

3.7.3 When clarifying the content of the standard, the following wording is used:

“What sets the real standard?”

Example - This standard specifies the dimensions of radial and axial clearance of bearings

3.7.4 When specifying the scope of application, the following wording is used:

“Does this standard apply?”

EXAMPLE This standard applies to all textile products supplied to the consumer.

3.7.5 For products supplied only to nuclear power plants, the following wording is used:

“This standard applies to equipment supplied only to nuclear power plants.”

3.7.6 In a standard containing safety requirements for life and health of the population and the environment, if these requirements are not separated into separate sections, the following should be indicated:

“Safety requirements are set out in ____________________________.”

designation of subsection, item

3.8.2 The list of reference standards begins with the words:

3.8.3 The list includes the designation of standards and their names in ascending order of registration numbers of designations in whole sequence:

State standards of the Russian Federation;

Industry standards.

3.9 Definitions

3.9.1 The Definitions building block contains the definitions necessary to clarify or establish the terms used in the standard.

3.9.2 The list of definitions begins with the words:

“For the purposes of this standard, the following terms with their respective definitions apply.”

3.10 Symbols and abbreviations

3.10.1 The structural element “Designations and abbreviations” contains a list of designations and abbreviations used in this standard.

3.10.2 Recording of symbols and abbreviations is carried out in the order they appear in the text of the standard with the necessary interpretation and explanations.

VI. The procedure for monitoring compliance with the requirements for anti-terrorism security of MMPL

VIII. Determining the relationship between the functional quality management strategy and other functional strategies and the requirements for them

The absolute change in the volume of output under the influence of changes in the value of fixed production assets is calculated using the formulas

Actinomycetes. Taxonomy. Characteristic. Microbiological diagnostics. Treatment

Quality is one of the fundamental characteristics of a product, which has a decisive influence on the creation of consumer preferences and the formation of competitiveness.

Quality- a set of properties of a product that determine its ability to satisfy certain needs in accordance with its purpose.

In order to protect the interests of consumers and the state regarding the quality of products and services, ensuring their safety for human life and health, and the preservation of the environment, standards are being developed.

The following types of regulatory documentation are in force in the Russian Federation: interstate standards (GOST), state standards of the Russian Federation (GOST R), industry standards (OST), enterprise standards (STP), technical specifications.

State standards of the Russian Federation (GOST R) are a new type of national standard, approved by the State Standard of Russia and valid throughout the Russian Federation.

Interstate standards (GOST) are standards adopted by states that have signed the Agreement on a Coordinated Policy in the Field of Standardization, Metrology and Certification.

GOSTs and GOST R include: requirements for product quality, ensuring its safety for human life and health and for the environment; basic consumer properties of products, requirements for labeling, packaging, storage, transportation; mandatory methods of product quality control; safety requirements and industrial sanitation, as well as other requirements, norms and rules.

According to Russian legislation, a product’s compliance with a certain level of quality is confirmed by a certificate of conformity.

The object of certification is products intended for sale on the commodity market of the Russian Federation, as well as those supplied for import. In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation “On the Protection of Consumer Rights,” the list of products subject to mandatory certification and the list of quality indicators that ensure the functional use of these products, as well as indicators that ensure their safety, are approved by the Government of the Russian Federation.

Property- an objective feature of a product (or product), manifested during its creation, evaluation, storage), consumption (operation). Product properties can be simple or complex. Water permeability is a simple property of shoes, but durability of a TV is a complex property.

Quality Score— quantitative and qualitative expression of the properties of a product (good).

Quality indicators:

. unit— intended to express the simple properties of the product;

. complex— designed to express complex properties of goods. Thus, the wear resistance of shoes is a complex indicator, characterized through a number of individual indicators: the strength of the attachment of the upper to the sole, deformation of the shoe, flexibility, etc.;

. basic— indicators taken as a basis;

. defining— indicators that are decisive in assessing the quality of a product.

If a product does not pose a health hazard, the most important requirement for its quality is reliable information about its properties. The consumer, using such information, makes an informed choice based on their preferences and dietary needs. Thus, this chapter will primarily focus on labeling.

We will also look at some meat and vegetable standards that will help you understand the technical requirements for products, such as sizing, quality classes, defect tolerances, packaging, etc.

From previous chapters we already know about a wide variety of documents that define the requirements for microbiological, toxicological, and radiation safety of products. Having become acquainted with two EU Directives, we learn that some countries impose mandatory requirements for other quality characteristics of food products - place of origin, technical parameters.

And if there are some mandatory requirements, there must be procedures for confirming compliance with these requirements - official inspections, inspections, expert reports.

Definition of quality

Quality is one of the most difficult subjects in international trade negotiations.

Quality is a complex term, and different people mean different things when they talk about it. It will be useful to provide some definition.

The buyer may define food quality as the combination of those characteristics that distinguish an individual product and define it as acceptable. In a broad sense, the concept of “quality” refers to the technological, physical, chemical, microbiological, nutritional and sensory parameters that make food products healthy. These factors depend on certain characteristics: organoleptic properties based on aroma, color, taste, structure; quantitative properties - sugar, protein, fiber content; hidden characteristics - content of peroxides, free fatty acids, enzymes, etc. Qualitative characteristics also include shelf life and are focused on the type of consumer.

There are two basic concepts of quality:

The first refers to the characteristics that make an object something that suits the final purpose of use. This concept was defined quite broadly in the ISO 9000:2000 standard: “... the entire set of features and characteristics of a product, process or service that is based on its ability to satisfy stated or intended needs”;

The second concept is related to “superiority” - it is something that distinguishes an object among similar objects, justifying the demand for it.

In both cases, there is no indication of who should determine the content of the concept of quality in the relationship between supplier and consumer. There is no indication of how quality characteristics are formulated or defined. Can we rely on market mechanisms, direct contacts of interested participants, or should it be government regulations that allow us to measure the needs that must be satisfied?

An essential characteristic of the quality of food products intended for human consumption is safety. Everyone has the right to ensure that the risks associated with microorganisms, toxins, hazardous chemical residues, etc. are minimized. Thus, quality and safety are inseparable, and we will mention this again here, but a more detailed discussion of this essential characteristic of quality was carried out in previous chapters.

Thus, there cannot be quality without safety, but quality is more than safety. There is the nutrition aspect, the concept of “healthy” food, and product characteristics such as taste, integrity and even authenticity.

The concept of quality may include ethical factors when customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction is not related to the characteristics of the product, but to the way in which it was produced. For example, if a production process harms the environment, uses child labor, or violates basic animal welfare practices, some consumers may view it as “poor quality” because it offends their personal values.

This broad concept of quality also includes individual attitudes toward specific technologies, such as biotechnology or irradiation, and procedures (kosher or halal products) for cultural and religious reasons.

Does high food quality in its most essential terms really correspond to high quality dietary nutrition? Of course not. Even the safest and best foods can cause unpleasant consequences if consumed in too large quantities or improperly combined with other foods. Creating a healthy diet from healthy foods is a matter of consumer education.

Different gradations of food quality can be defined at two levels:

Generic quality level: Absence of defects, fraud and adulteration and presence of expected properties.

Freedom from defects, fraud and tampering is a historical understanding of quality and is probably the area that is best covered by public and private standards and guidelines (from both quality and safety perspectives). Thanks to regional and international organizations, a high level of harmonization and consensus has developed in this area.

The presence of expected properties refers to organoleptic (e.g. taste) and nutritional characteristics or benefits associated with them. Operators are expected to take into account the legitimate interests of consumers and their actions will be appropriate. This area has been an area of ​​increased interest in recent years for the public sector to protect the interests of citizens.

Specific quality level: Presence of desirable characteristics.

Clearly, these characteristics justify the added value. Examples include the form of production (organic farming), respect for the environment, animal welfare, areas of production (indication of area of ​​origin, mountainous region) and associated traditions. This area is of interest as many operators seek to differentiate their product from similar products, attracting consumer attention and winning their preference.

Quality- one of the fundamental characteristics of a product, which has a decisive influence on consumer demand and its competitiveness.

Quality is a set of properties of a product that determine its ability to satisfy certain needs in accordance with its purpose.

The main properties of food products that are able to satisfy human nutritional needs, are safe for his health, and are reliable during storage are: nutritional value, physical and taste properties, and shelf life.

Nutritional value is a complex property that consists of the energetic, biological, physiological value, good quality and digestibility of food products.

Energy value is characterized by the energy that the body receives during the metabolic process. To build tissues and metabolic processes, all the components of foods are needed, and the energy requirement is satisfied mainly by proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

The energy value of products is expressed in kilojoules (kJ) or kilocalories (kcal) per 100 g.

Research has established that when 1 g of protein is oxidized in the human body, 4.1 kcal (16.7 kJ) is released; 1 g of fat - 2.3 kcal (37.7 kJ); carbohydrates - 3.75 kcal (15.7 kJ).

The human body receives the greatest amount of energy from the oxidation of alcohol and organic acids.

The energy value can be calculated by knowing the chemical composition of the products.

The information about the calorie content of the product included in the product labeling is intended to help the buyer make calculations for a balanced diet.

Biological value is characterized by protein composition and content of vitamins and minerals. The energy consumption of a modern person is small and amounts to approximately 2500 kcal, therefore the biological value of food is of particular importance.

Physiological value is the ability of products to have an active effect on the digestive, nervous and cardiovascular systems of a person, on the body’s resistance to infectious diseases. For example, lactic acid and antibiotics secreted by the microflora of lactic acid products prevent the development of putrefactive bacteria that contribute to the aging of the body. Fiber and pectin are regulators of intestinal motor function.

Organoleptic value is characterized by such quality indicators as appearance, taste, smell, consistency. Fresh, less-stored products contain more biologically active substances. Products that have an irregular shape, dull color, rough or too soft consistency are less digestible and may even contain substances harmful to the human body.

Digestibility is one of the important properties of the nutritional value of products; it depends on their appearance, taste, activity and composition of enzymes. The digestibility of foods is influenced by a person’s well-being, age, nutritional conditions and many other factors.

The digestibility of proteins in a mixed diet is 84.5%, carbohydrates - 94.5, fats - 94%.

Only food absorbed by the body is used to restore energy. Some foods have low energy value, but are indispensable in nutrition, as they supply vitamins and microelements important for the body.

Flavoring products (spices, seasonings) do not have high energy value, but improve taste and smell, thereby facilitating absorption.

The good quality of food products is characterized by organoleptic and chemical indicators. Food products must be harmless and safe. Food products must not contain harmful compounds (lead, mercury), toxic (poisonous) substances, pathogenic microbes, foreign impurities, glass, etc.

Storability of food products is the ability to maintain quality without significant losses for a certain period of time established by a standard or other regulatory documents.

The preservation of food products is closely related to safety, especially perishable ones (milk, fish, meat).

Based on quality, food products are divided into classes:

- goods suitable for their intended use. These are standard products that can be sold without restrictions;

- goods conditionally suitable for their intended use. Conditionally suitable goods can be sold at reduced prices, sent for industrial processing or for livestock feed;

— goods are dangerous, unsuitable for their intended use. This is illiquid waste that cannot be sold and cannot be sent for industrial processing or for livestock feed. Subject to certain rules, they can be destroyed or disposed of.

Wholesale and retail trade sells goods suitable for their intended use.

When assessing the quality of food products, various deviations from specified or expected requirements (defects) can be identified.

Defects in goods may be minor, major or critical.

Minor ones do not significantly affect the consumer properties, safety, or shelf life of products; these may be deviations in the size and shape of vegetables and fruits. Significant defects impair the appearance and affect the intended use of the product. For example, cracks, tears in the crust of bread; such bread is not allowed for sale, but can be used for other purposes. Products with critical defects are not allowed to be sold (bombing of canned food).

Defects can be obvious or hidden. For hidden defects, there are no rules, methods and means of detection or their use is impractical.

Defects in goods may be removable or irreparable. Removable defects are defects, after elimination of which the product can be used for its intended purpose (cleaning up the yellowed edge of butter).

Fatal defects cannot be eliminated (moldy smell of bread).

Quality gradation— consistent division of goods into classes, grades, categories, etc. in accordance with established quality requirements.

Tasting method— assessment of quality indicators obtained as a result of testing food products and perfumes.

Single quality indicator— characterizes one of the properties that make up product quality.

Product quality- a set of characteristics of a product that determine the degree of its ability to satisfy established and expected needs;

The set of consumer properties of a product (GOST R 51303-99).

Quality management— coordinated activities for the leadership and management of the organization in relation to quality.

Methods for determining product quality indicators— methods by which quantitative values ​​of product quality indicators are determined.

Flaw- non-compliance of the goods with mandatory requirements established by law or in the manner prescribed by it, or the terms of contracts, or the purposes for which goods of this kind are usually used, or the purposes of which the seller was informed by the consumer when concluding the contract, or a sample and (or) description when selling goods according to a sample and (or) according to the description.

Quality Assurance- part of quality management aimed at creating confidence that quality requirements will be met.

Organoleptic method- is based on the use of information obtained as a result of the analysis of sensations and perceptions using the human senses - sight, smell, hearing, touch, taste.

Quality planning- part of quality management aimed at establishing quality goals and identifying the necessary operational processes of the product life cycle and the corresponding resources to achieve quality goals.

Product quality indicator- a quantitative characteristic of one or more properties of a product, considered in accordance with certain conditions of its operation or consumption.

Quality Policy— the overall intentions and direction of the organization in the field of quality, formally formulated by senior management.

Consumer indicator of product quality- a quantitative characteristic of one or more consumer properties of a product, considered in accordance with the conditions of its consumption.

Sensory analysis- used to assess the quality of food products when determining the color, taste, smell, consistency of food products.

Product type— gradation of a certain type of product according to quality indicators and (or) the presence of defects established in regulatory documents.

Significant product defect- a fatal defect or a defect that cannot be eliminated without disproportionate costs or time, or is identified repeatedly, or appears again after its elimination, or other similar defects.

Product quality requirements- expression of certain requirements in the form of quantitatively or qualitatively established standards for individual characteristics of a product, which creates the opportunity to check the quality of the product when used for its intended purpose.

Quality management- part of quality management aimed at meeting quality requirements.

Product quality level- a relative characteristic of the quality of a product, obtained by comparing the values ​​of the quality indicators of the product being evaluated with the corresponding indicators of the base sample (base values).

Deterioration in product quality- a decrease in at least one of the indicators characterizing the quality of the product caused by defects in raw materials, defects in the material or product, damage, as well as violation of production technology, storage conditions, transportation and operation rules.

Formation of product quality— establishing, ensuring and maintaining the required level of product quality at all stages of its life cycle: production, delivery, storage and consumption.

Expert method— determination of quality indicators based on the opinions of qualified specialists - experts. They are used in cases where quality indicators cannot be determined by other methods due to insufficient information, the need to develop special technical means, etc.

Express method— determination of quality indicators and other characteristics of goods using simple, accelerated methods in a shorter time than with conventional methods.

15. Budget of the Russian Federation. Budget income and expenses

16. State credit: essence and functions performed. Classification of government loans

18. State financial management. State financial management bodies

19. System of organization and financial management of enterprises

20. The essence and role of local finance in the economic and social development of regions

22. Financial control: content, forms, types, methods. Control bodies, their rights and obligations

Classification of types of financial control

23. Economic essence and functions of taxes. Classification of taxes. Tax principles

24. Tax policy of the state. Russian tax system

25. Economic content, formation methodology, procedure for calculating and paying basic taxes

29. Goals, objectives and levels of management. General characteristics of types of management

30. Characteristics of general management functions: planning, organization, coordination, motivation and control

31. Communications between the organization and its environment. Interlevel information communications in an organization

32. General characteristics of management methods. Content, focus and organizational forms of management methods

34. The essence of management decisions and their role in the management system. Model of the process of preparing and making management decisions

35. General characteristics and features of the main methods for developing management decisions

36. Marketing environment of the organization. Micro- and macroenvironmental factors

37. Segmentation of product markets and its criteria

38. Positioning of the product on the market and its criteria

39. Concept and types of competitive advantages of goods and organizations

40. Competitiveness of the organization and its factors. Competitive potential of the enterprise

41. Classification of goods in marketing. Technical, economic and consumer characteristics of the product

42. Product life cycle and its main stages. Product competitiveness assessment

43. The concept of a trademark, trademark. Brand strategies and features of their application in the activities of modern Russian enterprises

44. Product policy of the enterprise and its elements

45. Pricing methods and strategies

46. ​​Communication policy of the organization and promotion of goods on the market

47. Sales policy of the enterprise and its directions

48. Sales promotion complex and characteristics of its elements

49. Distribution channels, their levels and characteristics

Distribution channel levels

1. Zero level channel - a distribution channel consisting of a producer and a consumer. Moreover, the manufacturer sells the product directly to consumers.

2. Single-level channel - a distribution channel that includes one intermediary. In consumer markets, this intermediary is the retailer.

50. The process of product distribution and its elements

50. Capital and financial resources of the enterprise. Financial mechanism of enterprise management

55. Methods of profit planning. The influence of taxes on the formation of profits remaining at the disposal of enterprises

58. Organization of settlements with suppliers, buyers, enterprise employees, budget, extra-budgetary funds, banks

59. Features of finance of enterprises of various organizational and legal forms

60. Essence, goals and functions of the personnel management system in the organization

61. Principles and methods of building a personnel management system in an organization

62. Basic concepts of personnel management: economic, organizational, social, humanistic

63. The main functions and activities of the personnel management service in the organization

64. Features of building personnel management systems in organizations of various organizational and legal forms

65. The role of professional potential in the development of an organization. Types of vocational training: training and retraining of personnel, advanced training

66. Methods of personnel assessment in the selection, training, promotion, dismissal of employees and their characteristics

67. Personnel evaluation criteria. Organization of the procedure for selecting candidates and selecting personnel

68. The concept of external and internal regulation of employee behavior

69. Motivation as internal regulation of behavior. Modern theories of motivation

Kurt Lewin's (1890-1947) expectancy theory explains how employee motivation and expectations are related to each other. There are 2 groups of expectations:

- Expectations linking the result obtained and the reward – i.e. The achieved result of work may or may not be appreciated by the manager.

Theory of justice p. Adams

71. The system of local self-government, its principles, functions and tasks

72. The concept of municipal economy, its structure. Types of municipal farms

73. The concept of municipal government. Variety of approaches to determining the essence of municipal government, its relationship with local self-government

74. Territorial principles of local self-government. Principles for determining the optimal territory of a municipality

75. Main types of municipalities in Russia. Classification of municipalities

76. The concept and essence of the city as a municipal entity. Legal basis for the formation of the city.

77. Administrative-territorial division of the city, problems of city management

78. System of legal acts governing and regulating local self-government

79. Classification of local governments. Horizontal and vertical schemes of interaction between local governments

80. Concept, composition and legislative basis of municipal finance. The role of local finance in the development of a municipality, their functions

81. Local budget: concept, formation, approval, execution and control over its execution

82. Income and expenses of the local (city) budget. Municipal order and municipal loan

83. The concept of municipal government personnel and their composition. The current state of human resources in municipal government

84. The concept of municipal service and its characteristics. Legal regulation of municipal service

85. The concept of comprehensive socio-economic development of a municipality. Strategic planning in municipalities

86. Municipal target programs. Program for comprehensive socio-economic development of the municipality

87. Concept, composition and structure of urban economy

89. Concentration of production in the urban economy, its types and indicators

90. Housing and communal complex of urban services, composition, structure and features of functioning

91. Features of material, labor and financial resources of the housing and communal services complex of the urban economy and indicators of the efficiency of their functioning

92.Urban passenger transport, its classification and characteristics

93. Organization of transport services for the population, quantitative and qualitative indicators, assessment of the efficiency of urban passenger transport

94. Educational enterprises (institutions) in the urban economy system, features of the formation and use of their resources

95. Healthcare enterprises in the urban economic system, features of the formation and use of their resources

96. Social sphere of the city, its goals and objectives, role in ensuring the livelihoods of the urban population

97. Trade as a branch of the urban economy, its goals and objectives. Types of trade enterprises in the city and areas of their activity

98. Public catering as a branch of the urban economy, its goals and objectives. Classification of public catering enterprises and areas of their activity

99. City service enterprises, their classification and areas of activity

100. City construction and reconstruction enterprises, their classification and role in the creation and development of the city’s material and technical base

101. System for ensuring employment of the urban population, directions of urban policy in the field of creating an effective labor market

102. Organizations of the city’s law enforcement system, goals, objectives and directions of their activities

103. The concept of engineering and technology of urban management. Specifics of the activities of enterprises that are part of the municipal sectors

104. Classification of buildings and structures of the city. Sanitary and hygienic requirements for industrial premises and residential buildings

105. Characteristics of the housing stock, its structure. Physical and moral deterioration of housing stock

106. Energy supply of cities. Characteristics of energy resources. Basics of choosing a city energy supply system

107. Classification and characteristics of urban heat supply systems. Consumer heat supply technologies

110. Gas supply systems to consumers. The need and ways to level out uneven gas consumption in cities

111. Classification and characteristics of city water supply systems. Water supply schemes for municipal, industrial and individual consumers

112. Urban improvement, its main tasks. Elements of city streets, basics of street profile design, utilities on city streets

113. Technology of construction and repair of urban roads, production base of urban road facilities

114. Street lighting structures, their operation and lighting standards for city streets

115. Urban sanitary cleaning systems. Composition and properties of municipal waste, technologies for recycling and neutralization of solid household waste

116. Cleaning of urban areas, technologies for summer and winter street cleaning

117. Urban green farming, its significance and composition. Techniques for placing green spaces and agrotechnical measures for caring for them

118. Classification of enterprises located in the city

119. Factors determining the conditions for the formation of urban areas

120. Economic and geographical characteristics of the city

121. Changing the role of cities in the process of historical and economic development of the country

122. Types of cities, their commonalities and differences, main directions of urban development

123. Organization of production in sectors of the municipal economy, its forms, indicators and economic efficiency

124. Main trends and patterns of development of production organization at municipal enterprises

125. Production processes at municipal enterprises, their classification, content and principles of organization

126. Organizational forms of urban management, their characteristics and main stages of development

127. City housing and communal services management (principles, functions, methods, structure)

128. Management of road management and city improvement (principles, functions, methods, structure)

129. City water supply and sanitation management (principles, functions, methods, structure)

130. City sanitation management (principles, functions, methods, structure)

131. Management of municipal energy enterprises in the city (principles, functions, methods, structure)

132. Management of the consumer market and city service sector (principles, functions, methods, structure)

135. Management of the urban education system (principles, functions, methods, structure)

136. Management of the urban healthcare system (principles, functions, methods, structure)

137. City employment management (principles, functions, methods, structure)

138. Management of trade and public catering in the city (principles, methods, functions, structure)

139. Management of the city’s law enforcement system (principles, functions, methods, structure)

140. Features of real estate as an investment object. Forms of investment in real estate. Methods of financing capital investments

141. Real estate market: content of basic concepts. Legislative and regulatory framework for the development of the real estate market

142.The concept of value and price of real estate. Real estate valuation and market value criteria

143.Theory of capitalization. Estimation of real estate operating costs

144. Operation of real estate. Real estate maintenance costs, their composition and structure

145. Formation and composition of municipal property. Management and disposal of municipal property

146. Economics of land use. Urban and agricultural land use. Land use fees

147. Systems and models of mortgage lending. Features of Russian mortgage lending

148. Features of real estate as an investment object. Forms of real estate investment

149. The essence and content of entrepreneurial activity of citizens and legal entities. Goals and objectives of entrepreneurship. Objects and business entities

150. Conditions of business activity. Innovation as a necessary condition for entrepreneurial activity. External and internal environment of entrepreneurship

151. The essence and main areas of small business, intra-company and state entrepreneurship

153. State regulation of business activities and state support for entrepreneurship in the Russian Federation

154. Business planning and assessment of business efficiency

155. Concept, meaning and factors of ensuring product quality. The quality of products (works, services) and its role in increasing the efficiency of urban enterprises

156. Basic requirements for the quality of products (works, services), quality indicators and methods for their assessment

158. Organization of labor at municipal enterprises: content, principles, indicators of labor efficiency in the areas of urban management

159. Scientific organization of work (music), its content and directions

160. Division and cooperation of labor. Modern forms of labor organization at municipal enterprises

161. Classification of enterprise personnel, its professional and qualification composition. Assessing the effectiveness of personnel functioning

162. Labor processes at municipal enterprises, their classification, features and methods of study

163. Classification of workplaces at municipal enterprises, their features and maintenance. Organization of favorable working conditions in the workplace

164. Labor cost standards, their types, functions and methods of determination

165. Labor standards for certain categories of personnel. Normative materials on labor used in rationing labor at municipal enterprises

170. Protection of labor rights of workers, labor disputes and the procedure for their resolution. Occupational safety

156. Basic requirements for the quality of products (works, services), quality indicators and methods for their assessment

In modern conditions, quality management is largely based on standardization. Standardization is a normative way of managing quality. Its impact on the object is carried out by establishing norms and rules, formalized in the form of a regulatory document and having legal force.

A standard is a regulatory and technical document that establishes the basic requirements for product quality. The product quality management system is based on comprehensive standardization. Standards define the procedure and methods for planning product quality at all stages of the life cycle, establish requirements for means and methods for monitoring and assessing product quality. Currently, the Federal Law “On Technical Regulation” is in force in the Russian Federation.

Product quality indicator is a quantitative characteristic of one or more properties of a product that make up its quality, considered in relation to certain conditions of its creation, operation and consumption. Classification of product quality indicators

Signs of classification	Quality indicator groups
1. By the number of characterized properties	Single Complex Integral
2. By characterized properties	Appointments Reliability Economical Ergonomic Aesthetic Manufacturability Standardization and unification Patent legal Environmental Security Transportability
3. By way of expression	In natural units (kg, mm, etc.) In value terms
4. By stages of determining the values ​​of indicators	Forecast Design Production Exploitative

Based on the number of characterized properties, quality indicators are divided into: single, complex and integral.

Single indicators characterizing one of the properties of a product can relate to both a unit of product and a set of units of homogeneous products, for example: time between failures of a product (hours), specific fuel consumption (g/hp), power (hp). s.), maximum speed (km/h).

Methods for measuring quality indicators.

Qualimetry is the science of measuring the quality of goods and services.

Quantitative assessment of product quality indicators is carried out with the aim of:

choosing the best product option;

increasing the requirements for product quality in the design specifications;

assessment of achieved quality indicators during design and production;

determination and control of quality indicators after production and in operation;

determining compliance of achieved quality indicators with the requirements of regulatory documentation, etc.

There are the following methods for determining quality indicators.

1. Instrumental (measuring) methods are based on physical effects and the use of special equipment.

2. The calculation method is based on the use of information obtained using theoretical or experimental dependencies (for example, such a value is the power or engine volume of a car).

3. The statistical method is used in cases where the use of a measurement or calculation method is impossible. It is based on the collection of statistical information about individual phenomena or product parameters (for example, about the time of failure or time between failures, operating time of products, etc.) and its processing by methods of mathematical statistics and probability theory.

4. Expert methods are used where the physical phenomenon is not open and is not very difficult to use. A variation of the expert method is the organoleptic method, based on the use of human senses. The expert method is based on determining product quality indicators from a relatively small group of expert specialists (usually up to 11-13 people). Using the expert method, the values ​​of such quality indicators are determined that currently cannot be determined by other, more objective methods, for example, the color or shade of the color of the indicator, smell, etc.

5. The sociological method is based on determining product quality indicators by its actual or potential consumers using questionnaires. The accuracy of the sociological method increases due to the expansion of the circle of consumers surveyed, but unlike the expert method, this method does not require special training of experts.

6. Comparison methods. When making comparisons, you can use three scales or methods: a level scale, an interval scale, and a ratio scale.

When using a level scale with the accepted value of the quality level Q, all other values ​​of Qj are compared.

When measuring on an interval scale, the result of the measurement is a decision, for example, in the form of a ranked series of comparison objects:

Q1< Q2 < Q3 < Q4 < Q5 < Q6

The series is the result of expert assessments.

When measuring on a ratio scale, which is usually used to measure physical quantities, such as mass, length, power, quantities are compared according to the principle:

where Qj is the measured value, Q is the reference value.

157. Quality management systems at municipal enterprises. Standardization and certification of products. International standards ISO 9000, Russian quality management standards, their contents

Quality management refers to the influence on the production process in order to ensure the required product quality.

Modern quality management assumes that quality management activities cannot be effective after the product has been manufactured; this activity must be carried out during the production of the product.

An important element in quality management is certification and standardization. The main task of standardization is to create a system of normative and technical documentation.

Object of standardization: products, processes, services.

The purpose of standardization is to identify the most economically feasible solution.

Standardization is an activity aimed at achieving the maximum degree of order in a certain area by establishing provisions for general and repeated use in relation to actual and potential tasks.

The result of standardization is a normative document containing rules, general principles or characteristics relating to various types of activities or their results: standard or technical specifications.

Standard is a normative document on standardization, establishing rules, general principles, characteristics, requirements and methods relating to various types of activities for universal and repeated use; aimed at achieving an optimal degree of ordering in a certain area.

The main body for standardization in Russia: Committee of the Russian Federation for Standardization, Metrology and Certification (Gosstandart of Russia). The basis of the State Standardization System is a fund of normative documents, consisting of four levels:

1. Legislative acts of the state, laws in the field of standardization, technical legislative acts on product groups;

2. State and interstate standards;

3. Industry standards, standards of scientific, technical and engineering societies;

4. Enterprise standards and technical conditions.

The legal basis of the State Standardization System is economic legislation, which includes the Laws of the Russian Federation on the protection of consumer rights, standardization, metrology and certification. The most important structural elements of the GSS are:

Standardization bodies and services;

A set of standards and technical conditions;

System for monitoring the implementation and compliance with standards and technical specifications.

The following categories of standards are used in Russia: interstate (GOST) - approved by international standardization organizations; State (GOST R) - approved by Gosstandart;

GOST and GOST R include:

Mandatory requirements for product quality and safety for humans and the environment;

Mandatory requirements for compatibility and interchangeability;

Mandatory methods of product quality control;

Parametric series and standard designs;

Basic consumer properties, packaging, labeling;

Generally accepted terms and norms.

Industry standards (OST);

Standards of scientific, technical and engineering societies (STO);

Enterprise standards (STP).

For some types of goods, technical specifications (TS) are developed, approved by the manufacturer in agreement with the customer. Specifications apply to a narrow group of goods.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), uniting 90 countries, has been operating since 1946. The main task of international standardization: harmonization of the country's system of standards and bringing it to the international one, improving the quality of the country's products, cooperation with other countries, participation in the international division of labor. International standards establish requirements for product safety and compatibility. The main emphasis is on establishing uniform product testing methods, labeling and terminology, because this is necessary to ensure mutual understanding between the manufacturer and the consumer, regardless of their country of residence.

The ISO 9000 series of international standards includes:

ISO 9000: General quality management and quality assurance standards. Guidelines for selection and use;

ISO 9001: quality system. Model for quality assurance in design and development, production, installation and maintenance;

ISO 9002: quality system. Model for quality assurance during production and installation;

ISO 9003: quality system. Model for quality assurance during final inspection and testing;

ISO 9004. General quality management and elements of a quality system. Guidelines.

Features of ISO 9000 standards:

1. Are the management of the enterprise “in the field of quality policy”;

2. The quality system is developed taking into account the specific activities of the enterprise;

3. Establishes the product life cycle in the form of a “quality loop” - a schematic model of interdependent activities that affect product quality at different stages - from identifying needs to satisfying them;

4. Strict focus on consumer requirements;

5. Great importance is attached to the quality of material and technical supplies of production;

6. Accounting and assessment of quality costs is provided (not yet done in Russia).

International standards ISO 9000 series can be used as methodological material for developing and improving a quality system, and are also mandatory for use if an organization certifies its quality system in order to reach the international level. It should be noted that the ISO 9000 series of standards are advisory in nature and establish requirements for a quality system in the form of “what needs to be done”, but do not specifically indicate “how to do it”. This means that the standards are focused on the high cumulative intelligence of the organization's managers, specialists and workers.

Certification is a set of actions as a result of which, through a special document - a certificate or a mark of conformity, product compliance with the requirements of international or national standards is confirmed. It is an important measure to increase competitiveness.

Voluntary certification is carried out at the initiative of the enterprise itself - the manufacturer of the product in order to increase the competitiveness of the product or at the request of the seller, as well as the consumer.

Mandatory certification is the prerogative of the state and is aimed at ensuring the quality and safety of products. Since 2010, mandatory certification for basic food products (except for children's assortment) and perfumery and cosmetic products has been abolished.

Basic requirements for the quality of products (works, services), quality indicators and methods for their assessment

In modern conditions, quality management is largely based on standardization. Standardization is a normative way of managing quality. Its impact on the object is carried out by establishing norms and rules, formalized in the form of a regulatory document and having legal force.

A standard is a regulatory and technical document that establishes the basic requirements for product quality. The product quality management system is based on comprehensive standardization. Standards define the procedure and methods for planning product quality at all stages of the life cycle, establish requirements for means and methods of monitoring and assessing product quality. Today the Federal Law “On Technical Regulation” is in force in the Russian Federation.

Product quality indicator is a quantitative characteristic of one or more properties of a product that make up its quality, considered in relation to certain conditions of its creation, operation and consumption. Classification of product quality indicators

Based on the number of characterized properties, quality indicators are divided into: single, complex and integral.

Single indicators characterizing one of the properties of a product can relate to both a unit of product and a set of units of homogeneous products, for example: time between failures of a product (hours), specific fuel consumption (g/hp), power (l . s.), maximum speed (km/h).

Methods for measuring quality indicators.

Qualimetry is the science of measuring the quality of goods and services.

Quantitative assessment of product quality indicators is carried out with the aim of:

Selecting the best product option;

Increasing requirements for product quality in the design specifications;

Assessment of achieved quality indicators during design and production;

Determination and control of quality indicators after manufacturing and in operation;

Determining the compliance of the achieved quality indicators with the requirements of regulatory documentation, etc.

There are the following methods for determining quality indicators.

1. Instrumental (measuring) methods are based on physical effects and the use of special equipment.

2. The calculation method is based on the use of information obtained using theoretical or experimental dependencies (for example, such a value is the power or displacement of a car engine).

3. The statistical method is used in cases where the use of a measurement or calculation method is impossible. It is based on the collection of statistical information about individual phenomena or product parameters (for example, about the time of failure or time between failures, operating time of products, etc.) and its processing by methods of mathematical statistics and probability theory.

4. Expert methods are used where the physical phenomenon is not open and is not very difficult to use. A variation of the expert method is the organoleptic method, based on the use of human senses. The expert method is based on determining product quality indicators of a relatively small group of expert specialists (usually up to 11-13 people). Using the expert method, the values ​​of such quality indicators are determined that currently cannot be determined by other, more objective methods, for example, the color or shade of the color of the indicator, smell, etc.

5. The sociological method is based on determining product quality indicators by its actual or potential consumers using questionnaires. The accuracy of the sociological method increases due to the expansion of the circle of consumers surveyed, but unlike the expert method, this method does not require special training of experts.

6. Comparison methods. When making comparisons, you can use three scales or methods: a level scale, an interval scale, and a ratio scale.

When using a level scale with the accepted value of the quality level Q, all other values ​​of Qj are compared.

When measuring on an interval scale, the result of the measurement is a decision, for example, in the form of a ranked series of comparison objects:

Q1< Q2 < Q3 < Q4 < Q5 < Q6

The series is the result of expert assessments.

When measuring on a ratio scale, which is usually used to measure physical quantities, such as mass, length, power, quantities are compared according to the principle:

where Qj is the measured value, Q is the reference value.

Quality management systems at municipal enterprises. Standardization and certification of products. International standards ISO 9000, Russian quality management standards, their contents

Quality management refers to the influence on the production process in order to ensure the required product quality.

Modern quality management is based on the premise that quality management activities do not need to be effective after the product has been manufactured; this activity must be carried out during the production of the product.

An important element in quality management is certification and standardization. The main task of standardization is to create a system of normative and technical documentation.

Object of standardization: products, processes, services.

The purpose of standardization is to identify the most economically feasible solution.

Standardization is an activity aimed at achieving the maximum degree of order in a certain area by establishing provisions for general and repeated use in relation to actual and potential tasks.

The result of standardization is a normative document containing rules, general principles or characteristics relating to various types of activities or their results: standard or technical specifications.

Standard is a normative document on standardization, establishing rules, general principles, characteristics, requirements and methods relating to various types of activities for general and repeated use; aimed at achieving an optimal degree of ordering in a certain area.

The main body for standardization in Russia: Committee of the Russian Federation for Standardization, Metrology and Certification (Gosstandart of Russia). The basis of the State Standardization System is a fund of normative documents, consisting of four levels:

1. Legislative acts of the state, laws in the field of standardization, technical legislative acts on product groups;

2. State and interstate standards;

3. Industry standards, standards of scientific, technical and engineering societies;

4. Enterprise standards and technical conditions.

The legal basis of the State Standardization System is economic legislation, which includes the Laws of the Russian Federation on the protection of consumer rights, standardization, metrology and certification. The most important structural elements of the GSS are:

Standardization bodies and services;

A set of standards and technical conditions;

System for monitoring the implementation and compliance with standards and technical specifications.

The following categories of standards are used in Russia: interstate (GOST) - approved by international standardization organizations; State (GOST R) - approved by Gosstandart;

GOST and GOST R include:

Mandatory requirements for product quality and safety for humans and the environment;

Mandatory requirements for compatibility and interchangeability;

Mandatory methods of product quality control;

Parametric series and standard designs;

Basic consumer properties, packaging, labeling;

Generally accepted terms and norms.

Industry standards (OST);

Standards of scientific, technical and engineering societies (STO);

Enterprise standards (STP).

For some types of goods, technical specifications (TS) are developed, approved by the manufacturer in agreement with the customer. Specifications apply to a narrow group of goods.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), uniting 90 countries, has been operating since 1946. The main task of international standardization: harmonization of the country's system of standards and bringing it to the international one, improving the quality of the country's products, cooperation with other countries, participation in the international division of labor. International standards establish requirements for product safety and compatibility. The main emphasis is on establishing uniform product testing methods, labeling and terminology, because this is extremely important to ensure mutual understanding between the manufacturer and the consumer, regardless of their country of residence.

The ISO 9000 series of international standards includes:

ISO 9000: General quality management and quality assurance standards. Guidelines for selection and use;

ISO 9001: quality system. Model for quality assurance in design and development, production, installation and maintenance;

ISO 9002: quality system. Model for quality assurance during production and installation;

ISO 9003: quality system. Model for quality assurance during final inspection and testing;

ISO 9004. General quality management and elements of a quality system. Guidelines.

Features of ISO 9000 standards:

1. Are the management of the enterprise “in the field of quality policy”;

2. The quality system is developed taking into account the specific activities of the enterprise;

3. Establishes the product life cycle in the form of a “quality loop” - a schematic model of interdependent activities that affect product quality at different stages - from identifying needs to satisfying them;

4. Strict focus on consumer requirements;

5. Great importance is attached to the quality of material and technical supplies of production;

6. Accounting and assessment of quality costs is provided (not yet done in Russia).

International standards ISO 9000 series can be used as methodological material for the development and improvement of a quality system, and are also mandatory for use if an organization certifies its quality system in order to reach the international level. It should be noted that the ISO 9000 series of standards are advisory in nature and establish requirements for a quality system in the form of “what needs to be done,” but do not specifically indicate “how to do it.” This means that the standards are focused on the high cumulative intelligence of the organization's managers, specialists and workers.

Certification is a set of actions as a result of which, through a special document - a certificate or a mark of conformity, product compliance with the requirements of international or national standards is confirmed. It is an important measure to increase competitiveness.

Voluntary certification is carried out at the initiative of the enterprise itself - the manufacturer of the product in order to increase the competitiveness of the product or at the request of the seller, as well as the consumer.

Mandatory certification is the prerogative of the state and is aimed at ensuring the quality and safety of products. Since 2010 ᴦ. Mandatory certification for basic food products (except for children's assortment) and perfumery and cosmetic products has been abolished.

Basic requirements for the quality of products (works, services), quality indicators and methods for their assessment - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Basic requirements for the quality of products (works, services), quality indicators and methods for their assessment” 2017, 2018.

What are the requirements for the quality of goods?

Requirements for the quality of a product are most often understood as a list of characteristics (properties) that ensure the possibility of using it for its intended purpose without negative consequences for the consumer and the environment.

• Safety of manufactured products - this requirement is established in accordance with the provisions of the Law “On Technical Regulation”. It implies such components as the safety of operation of goods, their production, storage, and disposal.
• Environmental friendliness is a requirement that, one way or another, has something in common with safety. The requirement is that the product must not cause any harm to the environment.
• Interchangeability - in the absence or impossibility of producing a given type of product, conditions must be created for similar goods.
• Compatibility – the use of one product should not exclude the possibility of using another.

Where are the requirements for the quality of goods?

The list of requirements for the quality of goods is contained in a number of regulations. First of all, they are determined by state standards. The conditions contained in these standards make it possible to obtain information about what characteristics must be inherent in the product.

In addition, the conditions that the product must meet are also contained in the Civil Code. Additional requirements may be established by contract. This means that when signing the relevant agreement, one of the parties (or each of them) may propose to introduce additional conditions that relate to the quality of the goods.

Consequences of non-compliance with product quality requirements

If the goods transferred under the purchase and sale agreement do not meet the established quality parameters, then immediately after identifying the defects, the consumer has the right to demand restoration of his legitimate interests. This can be done in one of the following ways:

Free legal advice:

1. Demand that existing deficiencies be eliminated (in most cases, the manufacturer can do this).
2. Demand that the subject of the contract be replaced with a similar product of adequate quality.
3. Unilaterally terminate the contract, return the defective product and, accordingly, demand a refund.

If the legitimate claims of the infringed consumer are not satisfied, then the violated interests should be restored in court. In order for the issue to be resolved in your favor, you should contact a professional lawyer who will competently help you draw up a claim, and, if necessary, a statement of claim, or simply give the right advice.

And if you are not sure of a favorable outcome of the case, then a specialist can represent your interests in court, which significantly increases the chances of a successful outcome.

Copyright © 2014, www.zzpp.info

LLC "Legal Protection of Consumers"

All rights reserved.

Free legal advice:

When copying materials, an active backlink is required!

Article 4. Quality of goods (work, services)

1. The seller (performer) is obliged to transfer to the consumer a product (perform work, provide a service), the quality of which corresponds to the contract.

2. If there are no conditions in the contract regarding the quality of the goods (work, service), the seller (performer) is obliged to transfer to the consumer a product (perform work, provide a service) that meets the usually required requirements and is suitable for the purposes for which the product (work, service) of this kind commonly used.

3. If the seller (performer) at the conclusion of the contract was informed by the consumer about the specific purposes of purchasing the goods (performing work, providing services), the seller (performer) is obliged to transfer to the consumer the goods (perform work, provide services) suitable for use in accordance with these goals.

Free legal advice:

4. When selling a product based on a sample and (or) description, the seller is obliged to transfer to the consumer a product that matches the sample and (or) description.

5. If laws or the procedure established by them provide for mandatory requirements for a product (work, service), the seller (performer) is obliged to transfer to the consumer a product (perform work, provide a service) that meets these requirements.

Commentary to Art. 4 ZPP RF

1. Most contracts concluded with consumers, primarily sales contracts, are concluded orally, since they are executed either at the time of conclusion of the transaction or within a short period of time after the conclusion of the contract, which also allows us to say that they are executed when they are completed (this, in accordance with paragraph 2 of Article 159 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, allows these transactions to be concluded orally). It is difficult to talk about agreeing on the terms of a contract regarding the quality of a product or service (work) in this case, since the process of proving this fact is difficult. Therefore, the legislator has established that, in addition to the contract, custom can also serve as a source for determining the quality requirements for a product or service (work) (clause 2 of the commented article).

At the same time, a significant part of contracts with consumers is concluded either in writing, or through an invitation to make offers or a public offer (Article 437 of the Civil Code).

Getting a contract into writing is almost always done using contract forms prepared by the seller or manufacturer. In accordance with paragraph 1 of Article 428 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, an agreement, the terms of which are determined by one of the parties in forms or other standard forms and could be accepted by the other party only by joining the proposed agreement as a whole, is recognized as an adhesion agreement. In accordance with paragraph 2 of Article 428 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the party that has acceded to the contract has the right to demand termination or modification of the contract if the contract of accession, although not contrary to the law and other legal acts, deprives this party of the rights usually granted under contracts of this type, excludes or limits liability the other party for violation of obligations or contains other conditions that are clearly burdensome for the acceding party, which it, based on its reasonably understood interests, would not accept if it had the opportunity to participate in determining the terms of the contract.

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The terms of the contract on the quality of goods or services (work) are not essential for contracts of sale, contract or paid provision of services, therefore their absence is not an obstacle to the conclusion of such contracts. At the same time, defining quality requirements is essential for proper consumer protection. For this reason, and also due to the fact that, as stated above, a significant part of transactions in the consumer sphere is concluded orally, the legislator introduced additional criteria for determining the requirements for the quality of a product or service (work).

2. It has already been said above that the requirements for the quality of goods are determined either by a contract or by custom, while the contract is clearly recognized as having priority. This means that in cases where the goods are usually intended for one purpose, but the contract states otherwise, the terms of the contract are subject to application (Clause 2 of Article 4 of the Law). However, as mentioned above, the consumer has the right to demand a change or termination of the contract if its conditions differ to the worse for the consumer from those that are usual for such transactions. The concept of “the purposes for which a product (work, service) of this kind is usually used” is not deciphered, so in some cases there may be a different understanding of the purposes for which the product is usually used. Of course, no one will demand that an iron broadcast TV programs, but with regard to complex goods that combine properties inherent in different types of goods (for example, mobile phones, pocket computers), conflicts of positions are possible. In such cases, it is necessary to involve an expert who can give an opinion on whether a particular function is common for a particular product.

3. The norm of paragraph 3 of Article 4 of the Law equates the unilateral actions of the buyer to part of the contract, even if notification of the purpose of the acquisition was not made in the form in which the contract was concluded. In this case, the fact of notification has greater force than the terms of the contract. The main problem in this case will be the consumer proving the fact that he provided the seller or contractor with information about the purpose of purchasing a product or service (work), since most often such messages are made orally and except by testimony (the reliability of which, unfortunately, is limited). often leaves much to be desired) cannot be confirmed.

In addition, it should be borne in mind that by the concept of seller, the law means an organization or an individual entrepreneur who often uses hired labor, that is, the consumer deals with an employee who performs certain functions. Since the communication of information entails the emergence of civil rights and obligations, actions related to this (communication of information) are a transaction. In order to complete a transaction on behalf of the seller, his employee must have the appropriate authority. The easiest way is if the employee’s powers are formalized in the form of issuing a power of attorney presented to the counterparties of the person who issued it. But in retail trade, powers of attorney are extremely rarely issued to salespeople, managers, cashiers and other persons who interact with consumers.

In accordance with paragraph 1 of Article 182 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, “the authority may also be evident from the situation in which the representative operates (retail salesperson, cashier, etc.).” This means that the seller (in the usual sense of the word - a hired employee who carries out the actions necessary to conclude a retail purchase and sale agreement) has the authority to communicate with the consumer, provide him with information about the product, receive some information from the consumer, etc. p. The cashier has the authority to accept funds and issue a cash receipt, but nothing more. From all this it follows that the consumer must inform the person who performs the functions of a seller or manager for accepting orders, that is, has the authority to receive such information, about the purpose of purchasing a product or service (work).

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The communication of such information to the cashier, merchandiser, cleaner or other employee of the store or organization providing services or performing work, who clearly does not have the authority to communicate with the consumer on issues related to selection of goods or services. In self-service stores, providing information about the purpose of purchasing a product is possible only if there is a consultant or employee dispensing a particular product.

4. In accordance with Article 497 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, a retail purchase and sale agreement can be concluded on the basis of familiarization of the buyer with a sample of the goods offered by the seller and displayed at the place of sale of goods (sale of goods by samples), or on the basis of familiarization of the buyer with the description of the goods offered by the seller through catalogues, prospectuses, booklets, photographs, means of communication (television, postal, radio and others) or other means that exclude the possibility of direct familiarization of the consumer with the product or a sample of the product when concluding such an agreement (remote method of selling the product).

In the event that the description of the product does not make it possible to determine in relation to which product the seller and the consumer intended to enter into a purchase and sale agreement (name of the product), such an agreement cannot be considered concluded, since in accordance with paragraph 3 of Art. 455 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the terms of the purchase and sale agreement regarding the goods are considered agreed upon if the agreement makes it possible to determine the name and quantity of the goods. In this case, the money paid by the consumer to the seller for the goods must be returned to the consumer as unjust enrichment (Article 1102 of the Civil Code). The same applies to the product if it has been received by the consumer.

Particular mention should be made of agreeing on the name of the product in the event of concluding a contract based on familiarization with a sample of the product. Most often, such contracts are concluded when the goods are not transferred at the moment when the transaction is concluded, that is, a retail purchase and sale contract is concluded with the condition that the buyer accepts the goods within the period specified in the contract (Article 496 of the Civil Code). Such transactions (with the exception of those concluded between individuals for an amount not exceeding ten times the minimum wage) must be made in writing, since they are not executed at the time of completion (clause 2 of Article 159 and subclause 1 of clause 1 of Article 161 Civil Code), in contrast to transactions when the goods are in stock and ownership of it passes to the buyer immediately after payment. Most often in such cases, the buyer and the seller's representative sign an agreement, the form of which was prepared by the seller. This agreement usually specifies the name of the product, its quantity, the timing of its transfer to the buyer, and other conditions.

If the first two conditions in the contract are agreed upon and specified correctly, from a legal point of view, all the requirements for the purchase and sale agreement are met, the contract is concluded in the proper (written) form. However, as often happens, the contract may indicate only the general characteristics of the product, but not its name, which makes it possible to determine the product to be transferred to the buyer, and not its generic characteristics (for example, “table” or “book”). When a regular sales contract is concluded, without using a sample or description, and if there is no name of the product in the document signed by the parties, such an agreement can be considered not concluded, since the parties to the transaction did not agree on an essential condition of the contract - the name of the product. However, in the case when the seller informs or demonstrates to the buyer information about the product (description) sufficient to identify this product, or the product itself, we can say that the contract was concluded orally or through implied actions.

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According to paragraph 1 of Article 162 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, failure to comply with the simple written form of a transaction deprives the parties of the right in the event of a dispute to refer to witness testimony to confirm the transaction and its terms, but does not deprive them of the right to provide written and other evidence. However, in this case, some lawyers see a conflict of norms of the Civil Code, since in accordance with Article 493 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the buyer’s absence of a cash or sales receipt or other document confirming payment for the goods does not deprive him of the opportunity to refer to witness testimony in confirmation of the conclusion of the contract and its terms .

As can be seen, both norms are mandatory and do not provide for exceptions to the rules they establish, and they may appear to contradict each other in certain situations. However, if you analyze Article 493 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation as a whole, it will become clear that there is no contradiction here. The first sentence of this article reads: “Unless otherwise provided by law or the retail purchase and sale agreement, including the terms of the forms or other standard forms to which the buyer joins (Article 428), the retail purchase and sale agreement is considered concluded in proper form from the moment issuance by the seller to the buyer of a cash receipt or sales receipt or other document confirming payment for the goods.” Obviously, this rule is intended to establish the moment of concluding a transaction for those cases where it can be problematic to establish it, since most retail sales contracts are concluded orally or by performing implied actions. At the same time, the issuance of a sales receipt or a document similar to it does not indicate that the contract was concluded in writing - it (the check) does not contain any information about the buyer, nor the terms of the contract, nor the name of the goods and its quantity (most often), it does not signed by authorized representatives of the parties. The main function of this document is to confirm the fact that the buyer has transferred a certain amount of money to the seller. That is why the legislator indicated that the contract is considered to be concluded not in writing, but in the proper form, that is, in the one that must be observed when concluding a specific transaction.

At the same time, the legislator provided the consumer with additional opportunities to protect their rights in the event that the consumer loses the document confirming the conclusion of the transaction as such. However, Article 493 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation does not establish any additional rules regarding the consequences of non-compliance with the simple written form of the transaction; it simply does not regulate these relations. This article simply establishes that the loss of a cash receipt in itself does not deprive the consumer of the opportunity to use testimony. But in order to use testimony, you must have the right to do so. If the proper form of the transaction is observed (for example, when the goods are purchased at the time of payment and the transaction is concluded orally), this right exists and the loss of the check does not affect it. If the form of the transaction is not observed (with the condition that the buyer accepts the goods within the period specified in the contract and also verbally), the buyer does not have the right to use witness testimony and the presence or absence of a check does not affect this in any way.

Clause 5 of Article 4 of the Law determines that if laws or the procedure established by them provide for mandatory requirements for a product (work, service), the seller (performer) is obliged to transfer to the consumer the product (perform work, provide a service) that meets these requirements.

5. In accordance with paragraph 3 of Article 7 of the Federal Law of December 27, 2002 N 184-FZ “On Technical Regulation”, the mandatory requirements contained in technical regulations for products or for related design processes (including surveys), production, construction, installation, commissioning, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, rules and forms of conformity assessment, identification rules, requirements for terminology, packaging, marking or labels and rules for their application have direct effect throughout the Russian Federation and can only be changed by introducing changes and additions to the relevant technical regulations. Requirements for products or related processes of design (including surveys), production, construction, installation, commissioning, operation, storage, transportation, sales and disposal, rules and forms for conformity assessment, identification rules, terminology requirements not included in technical regulations , packaging, markings or labels and the rules for their application cannot be binding.

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In accordance with paragraph 1 of Article 46 of the Law “On Technical Regulation”, from the date of entry into force of this Law until the entry into force of the relevant technical regulations, requirements for products or related processes of design (including surveys), production, construction, installation, adjustment , operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, established by regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation and regulatory documents of federal executive authorities, are subject to mandatory execution only to the extent that corresponds to the purposes:

protecting the life or health of citizens, property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property;

protection of the environment, life or health of animals and plants;

prevention of actions that mislead purchasers.

From the above standards it follows that all GOSTs, SNiPs and other similar regulations are binding only in cases where their content relates to the above areas. It should be taken into account that it is not always so easy to determine which of the norms of GOST or a similar document relates to the protection of the life or health of citizens, and which was adopted, for example, in Soviet times as part of the regulation of a planned economy.

It is likely that in order to find an answer to the question whether or not a particular product meets the mandatory requirements contained in GOSTs and SNiPs, an expert opinion will be required.

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In accordance with paragraph 2 of Article 46 of the Law “On Technical Regulation”, from the date of entry into force of this Law, mandatory confirmation of conformity is carried out only in relation to products released into circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation. Before the date of entry into force of the relevant technical regulations, mandatory conformity assessment, including confirmation of conformity and state control (supervision), as well as marking of products with a conformity mark, are carried out in accordance with the rules and procedures established by the regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation and regulatory documents of federal executive bodies authorities adopted before the entry into force of the Law “On Technical Regulation”.

In addition, in accordance with paragraph 5 of Article 46 of the Law “On Technical Regulation”, before the adoption of the relevant technical regulations, technical regulation in the field of application of veterinary, sanitary and phytosanitary measures is carried out in accordance with the Federal Law “On Plant Quarantine” and the Law of the Russian Federation “On Veterinary Medicine” "

However, despite the fact that, in accordance with paragraph 7 of Article 46 of the Law “On Technical Regulation”, technical regulations must be adopted within seven years from the date of entry into force of this Law (that is, from July 1, 2003), during all this time there were Only three technical regulations have been adopted. The last two are quite recent: on June 12, 2008, Federal Law No. 88-FZ of June 12, 2008 “Technical Regulations for Milk and Dairy Products” was adopted, and on June 24, 2008 Federal Law No. 90-FZ “Technical Regulations on oil and fat products."

Product quality

Quality is one of the fundamental characteristics of a product, which has a decisive influence on the creation of consumer preferences and the formation of competitiveness.

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Quality- a set of properties of a product that determine its ability to satisfy certain needs in accordance with its purpose.

In order to protect the interests of consumers and the state regarding the quality of products and services, ensuring their safety for human life and health, and the preservation of the environment, standards are being developed.

The following types of regulatory documentation are in force in the Russian Federation: interstate standards (GOST), state standards of the Russian Federation (GOST R), industry standards (OST), enterprise standards (STP), technical specifications.

State standards of the Russian Federation (GOST R) are a new type of national standard, approved by the State Standard of Russia and valid throughout the Russian Federation.

Interstate standards (GOST) are standards adopted by states that have signed the Agreement on a Coordinated Policy in the Field of Standardization, Metrology and Certification.

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GOSTs and GOST R include: requirements for product quality, ensuring its safety for human life and health and for the environment; basic consumer properties of products, requirements for labeling, packaging, storage, transportation; mandatory methods of product quality control; safety requirements and industrial sanitation, as well as other requirements, norms and rules.

According to Russian legislation, a product’s compliance with a certain level of quality is confirmed by a certificate of conformity.

The object of certification is products intended for sale on the commodity market of the Russian Federation, as well as those supplied for import. In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation “On the Protection of Consumer Rights,” the list of products subject to mandatory certification and the list of quality indicators that ensure the functional use of these products, as well as indicators that ensure their safety, are approved by the Government of the Russian Federation.

Property- an objective feature of a product (or product), manifested during its creation, evaluation, storage), consumption (operation). Product properties can be simple or complex. Water permeability is a simple property of shoes, but reliability of a TV is a complex property.

Quality Score- quantitative and qualitative expression of the properties of products (goods).

unit- intended to express simple properties of the product;

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complex- designed to express complex properties of goods. Thus, the wear resistance of shoes is a complex indicator, characterized through a number of individual indicators: the strength of the attachment of the upper to the sole, deformation of the shoe, flexibility, etc.;

basic- indicators taken as a basis;

defining- indicators that are decisive in assessing the quality of a product.

If a product does not pose a health hazard, the most important requirement for its quality is reliable information about its properties. The consumer, using such information, makes an informed choice based on their preferences and dietary needs. Thus, this chapter will primarily focus on labeling.

We will also look at some meat and vegetable standards that will help you understand the technical requirements for products, such as sizing, quality classes, defect tolerances, packaging, etc.

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From previous chapters we already know about a wide variety of documents that define the requirements for microbiological, toxicological, and radiation safety of products. Having become acquainted with two EU Directives, we learn that some countries impose mandatory requirements for other quality characteristics of food products - place of origin, technical parameters.

And if there are some mandatory requirements, there must be procedures for confirming compliance with these requirements - official inspections, inspections, expert reports.

Definition of quality

Quality is one of the most difficult subjects in international trade negotiations.

Quality is a complex term, and different people mean different things when they talk about it. It will be useful to provide some definition.

The buyer may define food quality as the combination of those characteristics that distinguish an individual product and define it as acceptable. In a broad sense, the concept of “quality” refers to the technological, physical, chemical, microbiological, nutritional and sensory parameters that make food products healthy. These factors depend on certain characteristics: organoleptic properties based on aroma, color, taste, structure; quantitative properties - sugar, protein, fiber content; hidden characteristics - the content of peroxides, free fatty acids, enzymes, etc. Qualitative characteristics also include shelf life and are focused on the type of consumer.

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There are two basic concepts of quality:

The first refers to the characteristics that make an object something that suits the final purpose of use. This concept was defined quite broadly in the ISO 9000:2000 standard: “. the entire set of features and characteristics of a product, process or service that is based on its ability to satisfy stated or anticipated needs”;

The second concept is related to “superiority” - this is something that distinguishes an object among similar objects, justifying the demand for it.

In both cases, there is no indication of who should determine the content of the concept of quality in the relationship between supplier and consumer. There is no indication of how quality characteristics are formulated or defined. Can we rely on market mechanisms, direct contacts of interested participants, or should it be government regulations that allow us to measure the needs that must be satisfied?

An essential characteristic of the quality of food products intended for human consumption is safety. Everyone has the right to ensure that the risks associated with microorganisms, toxins, hazardous chemical residues, etc. are minimized. Thus, quality and safety are inseparable, and we will mention this again here, but a more detailed discussion of this essential characteristic of quality was carried out in previous chapters.

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Thus, there cannot be quality without safety, but quality is more than safety. There is the nutrition aspect, the concept of “healthy” food, and product characteristics such as taste, integrity and even authenticity.

The concept of quality may include ethical factors when customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction is not related to the characteristics of the product, but to the way in which it was produced. For example, if a production process harms the environment, uses child labor, or violates basic animal welfare practices, some consumers may view it as “poor quality” because it offends their personal values.

This broad concept of quality also includes individual attitudes toward specific technologies, such as biotechnology or irradiation, and procedures (kosher or halal products) for cultural and religious reasons.

Does high food quality in its most essential terms really correspond to high quality dietary nutrition? Of course not. Even the safest and best foods can cause unpleasant consequences if consumed in too large quantities or improperly combined with other foods. Creating a healthy diet from healthy foods is a matter of consumer education.

Different gradations of food quality can be defined at two levels:

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Generic quality level: Absence of defects, fraud and adulteration and presence of expected properties.

Freedom from defects, fraud and tampering is a historical understanding of quality and is probably the area that is best covered by public and private standards and guidelines (from both a quality and safety perspective). Thanks to regional and international organizations, a high level of harmonization and consensus has developed in this area.

The presence of expected properties refers to organoleptic (e.g. taste) and nutritional characteristics or benefits associated with them. Operators are expected to take into account the legitimate interests of consumers and their actions will be appropriate. This area has been an area of ​​increased interest in recent years for the public sector to protect the interests of citizens.

Specific quality level: Presence of desirable characteristics.

Clearly, these characteristics justify the added value. Examples include the form of production (organic farming), respect for the environment, animal welfare, areas of production (indication of area of ​​origin, mountainous region) and associated traditions. This area is of interest as many operators seek to differentiate their product from similar products, attracting consumer attention and winning their preference.

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Quality is one of the fundamental characteristics of a product, which has a decisive influence on consumer demand and its competitiveness.

Quality is a set of properties of a product that determine its ability to satisfy certain needs in accordance with its purpose.

The main properties of food products that are able to satisfy human nutritional needs, are safe for his health, and are reliable during storage are: nutritional value, physical and taste properties, and shelf life.

Nutritional value is a complex property that consists of energy, biological, physiological value, good quality and digestibility of food products.

Energy value is characterized by the energy that the body receives during the metabolic process. To build tissues and metabolic processes, all the components of foods are needed, and the energy requirement is satisfied mainly by proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

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The energy value of products is expressed in kilojoules (kJ) or kilocalories (kcal) per 100 g.

Research has established that when 1 g of protein is oxidized in the human body, 4.1 kcal (16.7 kJ) is released; 1 g of fat - 2.3 kcal (37.7 kJ); carbohydrates - 3.75 kcal (15.7 kJ).

The human body receives the greatest amount of energy from the oxidation of alcohol and organic acids.

The energy value can be calculated by knowing the chemical composition of the products.

The information about the calorie content of the product included in the product labeling is intended to help the buyer make calculations for a balanced diet.

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Biological value is characterized by protein composition and content of vitamins and minerals. The energy consumption of a modern person is small and amounts to approximately 2500 kcal, therefore the biological value of food is of particular importance.

Physiological value is the ability of products to have an active effect on the digestive, nervous and cardiovascular systems of a person, on the body’s resistance to infectious diseases. For example, lactic acid and antibiotics secreted by the microflora of lactic acid products prevent the development of putrefactive bacteria that contribute to the aging of the body. Fiber and pectin are regulators of intestinal motor function.

Organoleptic value is characterized by such quality indicators as appearance, taste, smell, consistency. Fresh, less-stored products contain more biologically active substances. Products that have an irregular shape, dull color, rough or too soft consistency are less digestible and may even contain substances harmful to the human body.

Digestibility is one of the important properties of the nutritional value of products; it depends on their appearance, taste, activity and composition of enzymes. The digestibility of foods is influenced by a person’s well-being, age, nutritional conditions and many other factors.

The digestibility of proteins in a mixed diet is 84.5%, carbohydrates - 94.5, fats - 94%.

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Only food absorbed by the body is used to restore energy. Some foods have low energy value, but are indispensable in nutrition, as they supply vitamins and microelements important for the body.

Flavoring products (spices, seasonings) do not have high energy value, but improve taste and smell, thereby facilitating absorption.

The good quality of food products is characterized by organoleptic and chemical indicators. Food products must be harmless and safe. Food products must not contain harmful compounds (lead, mercury), toxic (poisonous) substances, pathogenic microbes, foreign impurities, glass, etc.

Storability of food products is the ability to maintain quality without significant losses for a certain period of time established by the standard or other regulatory documents.

The preservation of food products is closely related to safety, especially perishable ones (milk, fish, meat).

Based on quality, food products are divided into classes:

Products suitable for their intended use. These are standard products that can be sold without restrictions;

Goods conditionally suitable for their intended use. Conditionally suitable goods can be sold at reduced prices, sent for industrial processing or for livestock feed;

The goods are dangerous and unsuitable for their intended use. This is illiquid waste that cannot be sold and cannot be sent for industrial processing or for livestock feed. Subject to certain rules, they can be destroyed or disposed of.

Wholesale and retail trade sells goods suitable for their intended use.

When assessing the quality of food products, various deviations from specified or expected requirements (defects) can be identified.

Defects in goods may be minor, major or critical.

Minor ones do not significantly affect the consumer properties, safety, or shelf life of products; these may be deviations in the size and shape of vegetables and fruits. Significant defects impair the appearance and affect the intended use of the product. For example, cracks, tears in the crust of bread; such bread is not allowed for sale, but can be used for other purposes. Products with critical defects are not allowed to be sold (bombing of canned food).

Defects can be obvious or hidden. For hidden defects, there are no rules, methods and means of detection or their use is impractical.

Defects in goods may be removable or irreparable. Removable defects are defects, after elimination of which the product can be used for its intended purpose (cleaning up the yellowed edge of butter).

Fatal defects cannot be eliminated (moldy smell of bread).

Quality gradation is a consistent division of goods into classes, varieties, categories, etc. in accordance with established quality requirements.

Tasting method is an assessment of quality indicators obtained as a result of testing food products and perfumes.

A single quality indicator characterizes one of the properties that make up product quality.

Product quality is a set of product characteristics that determine the degree of its ability to satisfy established and expected needs;

The set of consumer properties of a product (GOST R).

Quality management is the coordinated activity of directing and managing an organization in relation to quality.

Methods for determining product quality indicators are methods by which the quantitative values ​​of product quality indicators are determined.

Defect - non-compliance of goods with mandatory requirements established by law or in the manner prescribed by law, or the terms of contracts, or the purposes for which goods of this kind are usually used, or the purposes of which the seller was informed by the consumer when concluding the contract, or a sample and (or ) description when selling goods according to a sample and (or) according to the description.

Quality assurance is a part of quality management aimed at creating confidence that quality requirements will be met.

Organoleptic method is based on the use of information obtained from the analysis of sensations and perceptions using the human senses - sight, smell, hearing, touch, taste.

Quality planning is a part of quality management aimed at establishing quality goals and identifying the necessary operational processes of the product life cycle and the corresponding resources to achieve quality goals.

A product quality indicator is a quantitative characteristic of one or more properties of a product, considered in accordance with certain conditions of its operation or consumption.

Quality Policy - The overall intentions and direction of an organization's quality activities, formally articulated by senior management.

A consumer indicator of product quality is a quantitative characteristic of one or more consumer properties of a product, considered in accordance with the conditions of its consumption.

Sensory analysis - used to assess the quality of food products when determining the color, taste, smell, consistency of food products.

Product grade is a gradation of a product of a certain type according to quality indicators and (or) the presence of defects established in regulatory documents.

A significant defect of a product is an irreparable defect or defect that cannot be eliminated without disproportionate costs or time, or is identified repeatedly, or appears again after its elimination, or other similar defects.

Requirements for the quality of a product - the expression of certain requirements in the form of quantitatively or qualitatively established standards for individual characteristics of a product, which creates the opportunity to check the quality of the product when used for its intended purpose.

Quality management is a part of quality management aimed at meeting quality requirements.

The quality level of a product is a relative characteristic of the quality of a product, obtained by comparing the values ​​of the quality indicators of the product being evaluated with the corresponding indicators of the base sample (base values).

Deterioration in the quality of a product is a decrease in at least one of the indicators characterizing the quality of a product caused by defects in raw materials, defects in material or product, damage, as well as violation of production technology, storage conditions, transportation and operation rules.

Formation of product quality - establishing, ensuring and maintaining the required level of product quality at all stages of its life cycle: production, delivery, storage and consumption.

Expert method - determination of quality indicators based on taking into account the opinions of qualified specialists - experts. They are used in cases where quality indicators cannot be determined by other methods due to insufficient information, the need to develop special technical means, etc.

Express method - determination of quality indicators and other characteristics of goods using simple, accelerated methods in a shorter time than with conventional methods.