Today, before a specific enterprise begins to conduct its activities, it is mandatory to create the appropriate constituent documentation.
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It should affect the accounting policy chosen by the enterprise or individual entrepreneur. In each case it is purely individual.
But it must be remembered that this procedure is regulated by special legislation. It is important to know about the many nuances associated with management accounting.
If any violations are detected, a certain administrative penalty or fine is imposed on the enterprise or individual entrepreneur.
What you need to know
The development of documentation related to accounting policies is carried out by the founders, as well as the chief accountant and lawyer - if there is one.
It should be remembered that the procedure for drawing up documentation of this type has a very large number of different nuances and features.
Therefore, it is necessary to first understand the regulatory documents in force in this regard. This way you can avoid problems - when carrying out the Federal Tax Service.
It is also worth understanding the following important questions in advance:
- basic concepts;
- what is the role of the document;
- principles applied;
- regulatory regulation.
Basic Concepts
A prerequisite for the absence of all kinds of problems is a close study of the legislation in force on this matter.
It contains many different instructions and recommendations. Compliance with most of them is not mandatory, but desirable.
This way you can organize your documentation. This will significantly simplify the document flow procedure and scheduling. Federal legislation deserves no less close attention.
If possible, it is worth considering judicial practice related to the imposition of various types of fines and other administrative penalties.
This will allow you to draw up an action plan in case the Federal Tax Service discovers any errors in the company’s activities or in the preparation of accounting policies.
Accounting policies of the organization for management accounting purposes
The accounting policy of an organization for the purposes of management accounting must first of all comply with the law and the principle of rationality.
Controlling authorities will pay attention not only to the correctness of documentation. But first of all, attention will be paid to the laws of making any specific decisions.
Before proceeding with the formation of accounting policies for management accounting, responsible persons will need to consider the following issues:
- the essence of management accounting;
- order of formation;
- options for accounting for the valuation of fixed assets and intangible assets;
- example of drafting in an LLC.
The essence of management accounting
The term “management accounting” means a certain system for implementing the following actions with documentation at an enterprise:
- measurements;
- registration;
- interpretations;
- identification;
- preparation and generalization.
Based on all the data obtained through the application of the above system, it will be possible to assess the financial activities of the enterprise.
Also, a properly formed management accounting policy allows you to simultaneously implement the following main tasks:
- prevent unprofitable actions in the process of conducting commercial activities;
- ensure the availability of an on-farm reserve;
- control the feasibility of conducting certain business operations.
In this case, operations of the type indicated above are usually carried out by the founders of the enterprise, its managers, as well as direct owners.
Formation order
The procedure for generating reports of this type includes the following main steps:
| A standard work plan is drawn up for various types of accounts | Synthetic and standard |
| All necessary forms are generated | For drawing up documents |
| An algorithm for monitoring is being developed | For all business transactions carried out |
| Selecting an asset valuation method | — |
| Liabilities as well as assets are assessed | All data is entered into special accounting documents |
| Any other solutions | Techniques that allow you to properly generate financial statements, as well as optimize them |
Options for accounting and valuation of fixed assets and intangible assets There are the following main methods of accounting for fixed assets:
- valuation at historical cost;
- valuation at restored value;
- valuation at restored value taking into account depreciation;
- liquidation cost;
- market valuation of assets and liabilities;
- fair value of the asset.
The choice of a specific option for assessing fixed assets and intangible assets must be carried out taking into account various important factors.
The greatest influence on the choice is exerted by the type of activity being conducted, as well as the type of a particular asset.
Example of drafting in an LLC
If, for some reason, the persons who will need to carry out the procedure for developing accounting policies do not have sufficient experience in this type of matter, it is worth familiarizing yourself with the sample.
07.03.2013
The accounting policy is the main document defining the principles of accounting in the organization.
Several years ago, organizations maintained mainly only financial accounting; nowadays, most companies began to pay special attention to management accounting, and along with this, the need for management accounting policies arose.
But perhaps management accounting policies are nothing more than accounting policies?
To answer this question, you need to understand that there is financial accounting (accounting) and management accounting (management accounting).
This issue is discussed in detail in the article "The connection and differences between management accounting and accounting", now we will highlight the main points to understand the essence.
- Responsibility for keeping records. Maintaining accounting records is provided for by law, maintaining management accounting is a personal choice of each organization (not regulated).
- Purposes of accounting. Accounting – reporting preparation, management accounting – planning, forecasting, management decision making.
- Users of reporting. Accounting – external users, management accounting – internal users (company management).
- Accounting methods. Accounting must use accounts and double entry; accounting is based on this. Management accounting can use accounts, or can be built on other accounting registers, supplemented by settlement and other data.
- Accounting currency. Accounting is kept in national currency; management accounting can be kept in any currency convenient for the organization.
- Groups and cost objects. Accounting groups costs by main types of costs, and the object of its accounting is a legal entity. Management accounting groups costs according to their carriers, and the object of accounting is responsibility centers.
Summarizing all of the above, we can conclude that although these two types of accounting consider the same business transactions, the approach to their accounting is quite different. Consequently, accounting policies for accounting purposes are not consistent with the objectives of management accounting policies, although they may be highly interrelated and complementary.
Management accounting policies are the methods adopted by the company for maintaining records, calculating the cost of products (works, services) and drawing up internal organization.
Factors influencing the choice of management accounting policies are consonant with those that influence the accounting policies (organizational and legal form, industry specifics, type of activity, company structure, accounting structure, company strategy, level of automation in the company (including management accounting) , level of qualifications of employees conducting management accounting).
As mentioned earlier, accounting is regulated, and management accounting is based solely on internal company standards. This difference significantly affects the scope and requirements for accounting and management accounting policies.
The main purpose of the accounting policy is to document the method of accounting chosen by the company within the framework of Russian accounting regulations.
Management accounting policies are much broader.
It may not be limited to Russian accounting standards when choosing management accounting methods.
When developing management accounting policies, you can use the experience of company specialists involved in management accounting, as well as the best world experience reflected in international financial reporting standards, the main principle of which is “the predominance of substance over form”, which is very suitable for the purposes of management accounting.
For example, when choosing valuation methods, in management accounting an assessment at fair value can be used, when the real market value of a resource (fixed asset, intangible assets, inventories, liabilities) is taken into account, and not its book value.
Or the correlation of costs with their carrier, and not with the period of their occurrence.
Thus, in accounting, costs relate to the period of their occurrence, and in management accounting, we can directly attribute costs to the source of their occurrence - either to the center of financial responsibility, or to a specific transaction.
This option for attributing costs will allow us to give an objective assessment of economic activity, because will eliminate “distortions” in the profit and costs of a transaction if these two transactions occurred in different periods.
The practice of management accounting is quite new for Russia. Unlike accounting, which is maintained from the moment the company is formed, management accounting, as a rule, is implemented in companies that have reached a certain level of development, with an already established organizational structure, business processes, etc.
Another of the most important distinguishing points is that in the holding structure the management accounting policy is uniform for the entire holding. It determines the procedure and principles of accounting for all segments and types of activities of the holding, taking into account their characteristics, and is mandatory for all enterprises of the holding.
The accounting policy is focused on a specific legal entity.
Management accounting policies make it possible to apply various options for assessing business events depending on time, division, business direction and even the economic meaning of a separate business transaction, while accounting is strictly tied to a legal entity and is the same for all operations of a given enterprise.
Taking into account all the existing differences, one may form the opinion that it is simpler and more economically feasible to conduct management accounting in parallel with accounting (standalone).
But when choosing this option, one should not forget that both of them work with the same financial and economic operations, they just look at them from a different angle.
Maintaining two records in parallel will increase the complexity of the process (it is necessary to technically organize the transfer of primary documents from one database to another, or enter them twice, carry out regular reconciliations, etc.).
Properly written accounting and management accounting policies will help to optimally organize accounting and save the company’s material and labor resources.
The ultimate goal of developing an accounting policy is to create a set of interrelated documents that should ensure the unity of methodology for organizing and maintaining accounting, tax and management accounting in an organization, improve the quality and reliability of all types of reporting, provide complete and timely information to the management and top management of the enterprise for the adoption of competent management decisions. The accounting policy, along with other components, is the basis for creating a unified automated accounting system and its methodological basis.
Management accounting policy is a set of regulatory intra-company procedures for information exchange aimed at making management decisions to achieve the goals of the organization. Management accounting policy includes organizational, technical and methodological aspects. The organizational part reflects the ways of organizing the technological process of functioning of the accounting and analytical service, the methodological part reflects the methods of generating information for the purpose of drawing up a management balance sheet and profit and loss statement, as well as preparing information for groups of management decisions. The technical part is recognized to answer the question of what technical means are necessary for the functioning of the management accounting system.
According to Professor V.F. Palia, an effectively operating management accounting system should include:
A justified structure of intra-company management by financial reporting centers, business processes, and activity segments;
Estimates and budgets for the entire management structure with instructions to performers on their preparation and implementation;
Chart of accounts for management accounting, adapted to the structure of intra-company management;
Guidelines for maintaining management accounting accounts in accordance with the agreed chart of accounts;
Forms of internal reporting and guidelines for their preparation, presentation and analysis;
Methods for cost regulation, accounting and analysis of deviations from norms with the necessary instructions to performers;
Calculation methods for direct and full costs with the distribution of expenses by function and performer;
Transfer pricing methods, instructions to contractors;
document flow plan.
All of the above elements must be reflected in management accounting policies. In our opinion, the organizational section of the accounting policy should define: the financial structure of the organization and its projection onto the organizational structure; powers and structure of the service that will deal with management accounting and control; document flow standards. In the technical section - options for using accounting automation (a single program for financial and management accounting, but with a different chart of accounts, or different software products). Methodologically - options for using the chart of accounts (stand-alone or integrated systems), methods for assessing property and liabilities, methods for calculating product costs and pricing, formats for budgets and on-farm reporting, a system of accounting and analytical indicators for strategic, tactical and operational management, procedures for conducting management control .
Thus, the process of forming an accounting policy ends with a final document containing a number of accounting standards, normative and methodological justification for the methods and techniques of conducting management accounting in all areas of work, in all structural divisions.
A well-developed and competently presented methodology for collecting and processing information that is best suited for a given organization, provides management with prompt and reliable information for making informed management decisions, is the intellectual property of the organization and provides undoubted concrete advantages.
Let us present the main elements of accounting policy for the purposes of management accounting and the features of choosing an accounting option (19 elements were studied) (see Table 3.1). It should be noted that there are more elements of accounting policies shown in Table 3.1 in practical activities, which is associated with factors such as the type of activity, the organizational structure of the organization and the budgeting system itself.
Table 3.1 Elements of accounting policies for management accounting purposes
|
Accounting policy element |
Options allowed by law or developed by the organization independently |
Peculiarities |
|
|
1. Organizational and technical section |
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|
The procedure for reflecting accounting |
Simple recording (principle of “income and expense”) |
The principle of “income and expense” for assessing the financial condition, the requirement of rationality |
|
|
Double entry |
The complexity of work when using the double entry method is compensated by the possibility of using the Russian Chart of Accounts |
||
|
Development of an accounting plan |
Based on the Russian Chart of Accounts |
Does not take into account the specifics of the organization’s activities |
|
|
Using international standards |
Convenient format of only international standards |
||
|
Based on a plan independently developed by the organization |
Labor-intensive process |
||
|
Choosing a Cost Accounting Method |
Direct Costing cost) |
The choice of cost accounting method is due to the centralization of Standard Costing |
|
|
Determining the date of reflection of a business transaction in management accounting |
On the day of the operation |
The date of reflection depends on the general document flow schedule, the structure of the organization and the planning period |
|
|
The day after implementation |
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|
No later than the second day from the date of implementation, etc. |
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|
Determining the period |
Five days, decade, month |
The period depends on the budgeting system |
|
|
Documentary reflections in management accounting |
Accounting source documents |
It is advisable to work on this point for each group of operations |
|
|
Management primary documents |
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|
II. Methodological section |
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|
Determining the date of receipt of income |
Accrual method |
In the budget of income and expenses, the use of this method allows you to determine with reliable accuracy the effectiveness of management of the organization |
|
|
Cash method |
It is advisable if the organization’s activities are associated with risks of non-receipt of income in the form of cash receipts |
||
|
Procedure for determining materials |
1. Actual cost according to the previous or reporting period 4. Negotiated prices |
It is advisable to use planned and calculated prices |
|
|
The procedure for assessing products (works, services) used in production |
1. At the cost of a unit of inventory 5. At the cost of the purchase batch |
It is advisable to use FIFO, since the information contained in the reporting will more accurately reflect the cost of material assets |
|
|
Transfer prices |
1. At market prices by the organization |
Prices for inventory items supplied by the parent organization |
|
|
Determining the cost limit for accounting as part of the inventory |
All objects of labor equipment with a long period of use should be taken into account as part of fixed assets |
Classifying all objects of labor tools with a long term prevents theft |
|
|
All labor equipment with a long period of use and a cost of no more than 20,000 rubles. be taken into account as part of the inventory |
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|
Deadline for writing off the cost of fixed assets |
Use of the Classification of fixed assets approved by the Government of the Russian Federation dated January 1, 2002 No. 1 |
The period is determined depending on the specifics of the organization’s work, i.e. on the intensity of operation, operation, etc. |
|
|
Using an independently developed criterion (economic justification) |
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|
Depreciation method |
1. Linear method - geometrically degressive |
The choice of depreciation method should be determined by the fact that depreciation charges should not fall entirely on expenses of one type, but should be distributed among different groups of expenses |
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|
Option for accounting for the cost of finished products (works, services) |
1. According to the actual higher organization |
The choice of method for accounting for the cost of finished products (works, services) is determined by the tasks of sales forecasting |
|
|
Composition of expenses (costs) |
Cost posting methods |
The more direct costs there are, the more accurately the cost of products (works, services) is determined. If indirect costs cannot be made direct, then it is advisable to use resources. On the other hand, the question arises of the relationship between the usefulness of information and the cost of obtaining it. |
|
|
Criterion (works, services) |
Square. Volume of output of products (works, services) resources |
Any base can be used depending on the calculation method and cost management goals |
|
|
Procedure for WIP balances |
Attribute in full to Distribute to WIP balances according to the established criterion |
||
|
Accounting for accounts receivable |
By the degree of reliability By the nature of the relationship |
This element is closely related to the cash flow budget; a reliability criterion is used |
|
|
Financial indicators of budgets |
Calculation of indicators on the basis of which the values of individual cost items are formed |
They are developed depending on the system of standards and restrictions. These indicators are important because they are the stuff of budgets. |
Thus, based on the results of the analysis, an organizational and methodological model of management accounting for the accounting policy of the organization is created. In general, this model includes three components:
1. methodological;
2. organizational;
3. technical.
The methodological component determines “what” (that is, what objects) and “how” (that is, on the basis of what principles) it is supposed to be managed.
The organizational component determines “who” will manage, that is, it forms a list of management subjects and determines their role in the management accounting system.
The technical component is designed to answer the question: what technical means are necessary for the functioning of the management accounting system.
In practice, of course, the components considered do not always exist in their pure form, and the solution to various issues during the reorganization of management accounting involves their combination.
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Introduction
The transition of the Russian economy from an administrative management system to a market one has significantly changed the conditions for the activities of organizations. Their competitiveness at the present stage is largely determined by a well-functioning information support system for managing the activities of an economic entity, within which, as a rule, three types of accounting function: financial, tax and management. The goals, principles and rules for maintaining them are different, so primary accounting information must be processed using three specific algorithms. The fundamental basis for building an accounting system is the accounting policy of the organization, which largely determines the economic efficiency of the organization. The choice of accounting policy depends on many factors. Financial and tax types of accounting are maintained in accordance with accepted accounting policies, the formation of which is regulated by law, and their theoretical and methodological foundations have been sufficiently studied. The issues of creating accounting policies for management accounting purposes are practically not considered in modern studies. The very concept of “accounting policy in the management accounting system” (hereinafter referred to as UAPU) is debatable. There are no scientific studies that reveal the objectives and place of accounting policies in the management accounting system, as well as methodological recommendations for its preparation.
The creation and application of the UPUU will allow the formation and transformation of primary information into a form that best suits the set goals of intra-company management (pricing, analysis of the profitability of certain types of products, assortment structure, etc.) and contributes to the adoption of optimal management decisions.
The insufficient development of issues to justify the need for the UPUU, the classification and content of its sections, the lack of a methodology for compiling the UPUU determined the choice of the topic of the course work, its purpose, objectives and content.
The purpose of the course work is to substantiate the feasibility of using accounting policies in the management accounting system, as well as to develop a methodology for its formation. To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set in the dissertation:
· clarify the place of management accounting in the information support for managing the activities of business entities and identify its relationship with other accounting subsystems;
· reveal the essence of the concept of “accounting policy for the purposes of management accounting” and provide justification for the need for its use for establishing management accounting in business entities;
· justify the main provisions of the methodology for creating the UPUU and the stages of its formation;
· develop an accounting policy for the purposes of management accounting at a public catering enterprise;
· identify the specifics and practical advantages of information prepared in accordance with the UPUU for making management decisions.
1. The essence of management accounting, its tasks and main differences from financial accounting
accounting management decision
The concept of “management accounting” does not appear in Russian regulatory documents on accounting. Nevertheless, the courses “Accounting (Financial) Accounting” and “Accounting (Management) Accounting” are officially recommended by the new educational standards for students of economic universities and faculties. The study of management accounting is also included in the training and certification program for professional accountants.
In the absence of clear definitions of financial accounting and accounting management accounting in Russian regulatory documents, taking into account the fact that in all countries the state regulates financial accounting to one degree or another, we can conclude that all definitions, basic principles, rules of assessment and accounting all assets and Management accounting, its tasks and the main differences from financial accounting of liabilities, set out in the Federal Law “On Accounting” and accounting regulations, relate specifically to financial accounting. In the current conditions, there is a need to determine the essence of management accounting and its main differences from financial accounting.
Management accounting is a system established by an organization for collecting, registering, summarizing and providing information about the economic activities of the organization and its structural divisions for accounting, planning, control and management of these activities.
The main goal of management accounting is for managers to provide specialists of the organization and its structural divisions with planned, actual and forecast information about the activities of the organization and its external environment to ensure the possibility of making informed management decisions. The process for preparing such information may differ significantly from that in financial accounting.
The main users of management accounting information are the top management of the organization, heads of structural divisions and specialists.
Top management, forming the strategic goals of managing the organization, receives:
· integrated management reports on the results of production, financial and investment activities of the organization and its main structural divisions for the past reporting period and for a specific period of time;
· materials for analyzing the influence of internal and external factors on the results of the organization and its main structural divisions;
· planned and forecast indicators for the coming period.
Heads of structural divisions form an operational strategy for implementing the long-term development goals of the organization. They receive management reports on the activities of departments at a specific point in time, the results of their analytical processing, planned and forecast information about the department, as well as information about related departments and contractors.
Specialists receive information, within their competence, about the activities of the organization and its structural divisions, as well as forecasts of internal and external factors that influence the results of economic activities.
The main tasks of management accounting:
· accounting for the availability and movement of material, financial and labor resources and providing information on them to managers;
· accounting for costs and income and deviations therefrom from established norms, standards and estimates for the organization as a whole, its structural divisions, responsibility centers, product groups, technological solutions and other positions;
· calculation of various indicators of the actual cost of products (works, services) and deviations from standard and planned indicators (full production cost, incomplete production cost, full cost of products sold, cost of products sold by sales zones, etc.);
· determination of the financial results of the activities of individual structural divisions, by centers of responsibility, new technological solutions, products sold, work performed, services provided, etc.;
· control and analysis of the financial and economic activities of the organization, its structural divisions and other centers of responsibility;
· planning the financial and economic activities of the organization as a whole, its structural divisions and other centers of responsibility;
· forecasting and forecast assessment (providing a conclusion about the impact of expected future events based on the analysis of past events and their quantitative assessment for planning purposes);
· preparation of management reporting and its presentation to management personnel and specialists for production management and decision-making for the future.
In general, the main differences between financial and management accounting are presented in Table. 1.
It should be noted that the main body regulating financial accounting is the Russian Ministry of Finance, and management accounting (at the level of recommendations) is the Russian Ministry of Economic Development.
By order of the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia dated March 11, 2002 No. 63, an Expert Advisory Council on management accounting issues was created under the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia. Ensuring the activities of this council, as well as coordinating the work of the departments of the Ministry in the field of development of management accounting, is entrusted to the Department for Regulation of Business Activities and Development of Corporate Governance.
Along with the above differences, financial and management types of accounting have many similarities.
1. The bulk of primary accounting data is used in both financial and management accounting. The only difference is that financial accounting uses records of all documented business transactions, and management accounting uses the bulk of these transactions. At the same time, regulatory, planned and other indicators are widely used in management accounting.
2. Cost accounting and calculation of product costs are carried out both in financial and management accounting. (In Russia, the final financial result of an organization’s production activity is determined only by comparing the cost of products and the proceeds from its sale.) At the same time, financial accounting determines the cost of all production products and their main types for the organization as a whole. In management accounting, various cost indicators are calculated (for individual production, types, technological solutions, sales zones, etc.).
3. The methods and techniques that together constitute the accounting method (documentation and inventory, valuation and calculation, accounts and double entry, balance sheet and reporting) are used in both financial and management accounting. The difference lies in the degree of their application (in management accounting they are optional), and also in the fact that quantitative methods are widely used in management accounting.
A comparison of the components of financial, management and tax accounting is shown in Fig. 1.
1.1 The concept of accounting policy for management accounting purposes and its formation
In relation to management accounting, the accounting policy of an organization is the set of methods adopted by it for maintaining records, calculating the cost of products (works, services) and drawing up internal reporting for the purpose of monitoring and managing the activities of the organization.
The choice and justification of accounting policies for management accounting are decisively influenced by the same factors as the accounting policies for the purposes of financial accounting (organizational and legal form of the organization, industry affiliation, type of activity, scale of activity, management structure of the organization and structure of financial and accounting departments). management accounting, financial strategy of the organization, material resources, degree of development of the information system in the organization, including management accounting, level of qualifications of employees involved in management accounting).
In addition, they take into account the tasks that are defined for management accounting, the level of its development in the organization, the presence of reasonable norms and standards for the use of resources, existing and planned systems for monitoring the use of resources, systems of material incentives for employees for the final results of their activities, and others. features of the organization's activities.
The accounting policy of the organization is formed by the employee who is responsible for organizing and maintaining management accounting, and is approved by the head of the organization.
In this case it is affirmed:
· options for accounting and evaluation of accounting objects;
· working chart of accounts for management accounting;
· form of primary documents and accounting registers used in management accounting;
· report forms for cost centers and responsibility centers;
· list of cost centers and responsibility centers;
· methods for calculating product costs for the relevant cost centers and responsibility centers;
· transfer prices;
· document flow rules and technology for processing accounting information;
· procedure for control of business operations;
· other solutions necessary for organizing management accounting.
The adopted accounting policy is subject to registration with the relevant organizational and administrative documentation (orders, instructions, etc.) of the organization.
The management accounting methods chosen by the organization when developing its accounting policies are applied from January 1 of the year following the year of approval of the relevant organizational and administrative document. Moreover, they are applied by all branches, representative offices and other divisions of the organization (including those allocated to a separate balance sheet) regardless of their location.
1. 2 Selection of technology, form and organization of management accounting
Development of a working chart of accounts. The chart of accounts provides for the possibility of generating expenses for ordinary activities in the following accounts:
For management accounting purposes, organizations can enter new synthetic accounts using free account codes.
Based on the system of subaccounts provided for by the approved chart of accounts, organizations determine the list of subaccounts used, if necessary, combining, excluding or adding new subaccounts, as well as their codes.
Choosing a form of management accounting. Organizations independently choose or develop a form of management accounting, which is understood as a list of accounting registers used, their construction, sequence and methods of recording in them.
Organization of management accounting. Organizations independently form the structure of the service involved in management accounting.
In medium and large organizations, the following groups (departments, bureaus, sectors) can be included in the management accounting service: planning, material, labor accounting and payment, production and costing, product sales accounting, analytical.
The general diagram of the structure of the management accounting service of medium and large organizations is presented in Fig. 2.
The planning group draws up the main budget, covering the main activities of the organization, the budgets of the structural divisions of the organization and other private budgets (sales, purchasing, production budgets, etc.), the operating budget, which is detailed through private budgets, items of income and expenses and is presented in the form of a forecast profits and losses, a financial budget that forecasts the organization’s cash flows for the planned period, special budgets for certain types of activities or programs (social development, research, etc.).
The material group performs the following functions:
Selects suppliers of material resources, controls their receipt, storage and use;
Develops standards for the consumption of raw materials and supplies for production activities, standards for the availability of raw materials and materials in warehouses;
Participates in the selection and development of forms of primary documents and accounting registers to record the receipt, availability and release of all types of raw materials and supplies;
Develops report forms on the consumption of raw materials and supplies;
Selects prices for the posting and consumption of raw materials and supplies.
The group for accounting for labor costs and their payment deals with labor standardization, determines prices for labor remuneration, keeps records of labor costs for established accounting objects, controls the use of the wage fund, takes part in the development of forms of primary documents, accounting registers and reports on labor and wages.
The production and costing group determines a list of cost centers and responsibility centers, establishes cost items for each cost center, develops forms of accounting registers and reports on costs and output, calculates the cost of products by cost centers and the organization as a whole and monitors the effective use of production resources.
The product sales accounting group determines the procedure for accounting for the production and sale of products, the composition of buyers, calculates the actual costs of product sales, the cost of products sold by type, sales zones, develops reporting forms for product sales, identifies profits and profitability on the sale of certain types of products, structural departments and the organization as a whole.
The analytical group analyzes the efficiency of each cost center, structural unit and the organization as a whole, identifies reserves for increasing the efficiency of using all types of resources across all divisions of the organization and the organization as a whole, and takes part in the development of the organization's budgets (together with the planning group).
System of in-production accounting, reporting and control. Organizations independently develop a system within production accounting, reporting and control based on the operating features and requirements for managing production and sales of products.
The main purpose of management reporting is to provide the necessary information to management employees at all levels.
To achieve this goal, internal reporting must meet the following requirements:
Understandability;
Efficiency;
Objectivity;
Comparability;
Efficiency.
The requirement of clarity is ensured by the reflection in the reporting of data that is really necessary for a manager at the appropriate level without unnecessary detail and complex calculations.
The requirement for efficiency necessitates the submission of reports to the manager as quickly as possible in order to promptly influence business processes. Depending on the characteristics of business processes, reporting can be compiled for a shift, day, week, half a month, month. The duration of the period covered determines the timing of reporting - the next day, two days later, three days later, a week.
The usefulness of information reflected in internal reports largely depends on its objectivity. Internal reports should not contain subjective opinions, biased assessments, errors, or significant inaccuracies.
The requirement of comparability determines the need to reflect in reporting data comparable with standard and planned indicators, with data from previous periods, and with indicators of other structural divisions.
The effectiveness of internal reporting is manifested in the effectiveness of management decisions made on its basis. In any case, the costs of compiling and presenting internal reports should be less than the income received from the use of internal reporting.
Depending on the purpose and content of the information reflected in internal reporting, it can be presented in tabular, graphical and text form.
The tabular form is one of the most common. If necessary, a note with appropriate explanations is attached to it.
The graphical form of presenting information is clear. Typically, appropriate explanations are attached to the graphs.
The text form of information presentation as an independent form is used to characterize fairly complex relationships.
This form is widely used as a supplement to reports compiled in tabular and graphical form, especially when preparing analytical calculations.
Depending on the volume of information reflected, there are reports of individual structural units and internal reports of the organization as a whole.
2. The place of management accounting in the organization’s information system, its connection with other sources of management information
Information support for the management of business entities, the basis of which is the accounting system, has gone through certain stages of evolution. In a planned economy with an exclusively state form of ownership, accounting focused on providing reporting to the state represented by ministries and departments as its main consumer. Thus, the state performed the functions of a regulator, property owner and management body for the economic activities of enterprises, determining their policies in all areas, including methodological principles for constructing an accounting and reporting system. As a result, the role of accounting in shaping the internal economic policy of enterprises turned out to be significantly limited.
The transition to market relations led to the emergence of several parties interested in information about the activities of an economic entity. Among the consumers of accounting information, a group of internal users emerged, for whom management accounting became the main information base. Thus, if the interests of external users are based on a specific type of accounting data provided by financial and tax types of accounting, then the management of the organization for effective management also uses specific information, prepared mainly in the management accounting system. The peculiarities of this information are due to the fact that, on the one hand, the requirements for it are more liberal: greater freedom in its formation is allowed, the use of non-quantitative, undocumented, non-accounting information, approximate forecast estimates, etc. On the other hand, the requirements are higher in terms of efficiency, quality, detail and depth of management information provided.
In modern economic literature there is no unambiguous interpretation of the concept of information used in management accounting, which, as a rule, is considered generally, in relation to accounting as a whole. In this study, “management accounting information” is defined as a set of information, data, and observation results about the business entity being studied and the external environment influencing it for making timely and optimal management decisions.
In the process of managing an organization, a large amount of information is used, generated in financial, tax types of accounting, in reporting prepared in accordance with IFRS, as well as in management accounting. To ensure the management process of the necessary information, it must have a systematized form. In this regard, the content of the term “information support system for managing the activities of an economic entity” is considered, which is understood as a set of processes for collecting, storing, processing, and transmitting all types of information (both financial and non-financial) within the accounting complex of an enterprise. The relationship between individual elements of the information support system is shown in Fig. 1.
Rice. 1. Information support system for managing the activities of an economic entity
It should be noted that management accounting should provide not only more detailed, but also qualitatively different information about the activities of an economic entity in comparison with other providers of management data.
The result of determining the place of management accounting in the information system of a business entity was its formation as an information base for an internal tactical and strategic management system with the ability to consider information flows of financial and tax accounting, as well as the use of IFRS principles. Thus, management accounting acts as an information system that can use data from all other types of accounting, but at the same time has its own characteristics and specific purpose.
Each of the accounting subsystems operating in the information field of the organization is designed to fully and timely satisfy the relevant information needs of certain users pursuing specific goals. Financial accounting - timely provide users with external financial reporting that allows them to assess the financial condition of the organization; tax accounting - correctly and in accordance with established deadlines to pay the budget and extra-budgetary funds, while reducing the tax burden of the organization; management accounting - provide information support to the organization's managers.
The principles and rules for maintaining these types of accounting are different. Unlike financial and tax accounting, management accounting is not regulated by law and can be carried out based on the principles of Russian and international standards of financial accounting and reporting, as well as the internal rules of a particular organization in accordance with the information requests of its managers. Management accounting provides company management with qualitatively different information that is necessary for the processes of planning, accounting, control and evaluation of activities both for the organization as a whole and for its structural divisions. Currently, in most cases, decisions made by management are intuitive and are not supported by appropriate calculations based on management accounting information. The effective operation of an economic entity is guaranteed by management that influences the object by choosing the optimal one from a variety of possible solutions based on the information available for this.
Primary information about the activities of an economic entity, used in financial, tax and management accounting systems, is uniform. Management accounting, in addition, needs additional specific information. To solve the problems at hand, the source data must be processed using three different algorithms, which provide principles, rules and methods for maintaining each of these types of accounting. A tool such as the organization’s accounting policy is intended to regulate and, thereby, systematize this process.
The role and place of accounting policy in the formation of an organization's information support system is presented in Fig. 2, from which it follows that management accounting should be regulated by a UAPU specially created for these purposes. The dissertation proposes to understand the accounting policy in the management accounting system as a set of methods for maintaining management accounting that ensure its continuity and continuity and contribute to the realization of the capabilities of its elements (budgeting, accounting and reporting itself, internal control and management analysis) in the interests of intra-company management of an economic entity. UPUU should become the most important link between the management and accounting of the organization. Its use will make it possible to generate and transform primary information into a form that best meets the information needs of managers and owners of the organization, thereby facilitating their adoption of adequate management decisions.
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Rice. 2. The role and place of accounting policies for the purposes of financial, tax and management types of accounting in the information support system for managing an organization
The delimitation of issues raised in various accounting policies carried out during the study and the determination of the scope of their coverage by management accounting policies allowed us to draw the following conclusions. A number of provisions considered in accounting policies drawn up for the purposes of financial and tax accounting are at the same time the prerogative of management accounting (choice of accounting currency, methods for assessing current and non-current assets, the procedure for writing them off, methods for accruing and writing off reserves). However, a number of issues are peculiar only to management accounting, and therefore they should be reflected only in the UAPU. These include, in particular:
List and classification of responsibility centers;
Internal reporting forms that help manage costs, sales, accounts receivable and others;
Identification of controlled and uncontrolled reporting items of responsibility centers, preparation of internal reporting documents;
Establishment of financial and non-financial criteria for assessing the activities of responsibility centers;
Determination of costing items, selection of cost accounting methods and costing for individual financial responsibility centers;
The procedure for distributing indirect costs between individual types of products (works, services);
Choosing a method for grouping and writing off production costs;
Selecting a calculation method;
Formation of transfer pricing, etc.
Let us also note that the management system must ensure the preparation of not only more detailed information (by places of origin of costs and income, centers of responsibility, etc.), but also non-financial data (for example, level of qualifications of personnel, etc.).
Methodology for forming the UPUU
In the course of the study, a methodology for creating a management information system was developed, providing an integrated and systematic approach to the preparation of management information. The formation of the UPUU is a multi-stage process (Fig. 3). Each of these stages has its own characteristics. In particular, at the initial stage, the factors influencing the formation of the UPUU are analyzed. They are conventionally divided into internal and external. In educational literature and scientific publications, the main attention is paid to internal factors, the influence of external ones is considered only in certain sources. The analysis carried out in the dissertation made it possible to formulate their general classification. Legal, political, social and a number of others are considered as external factors. Internal include organizational, personnel, as well as technical and technological features of production.
Rice. 3. Stages of formation of accounting policies in the management accounting system
The combination of factors is individual for each organization, and the importance and specific weight of each of them also varies. To verify the conclusions drawn on the basis of specific practical data, within the framework of the proposed classification, factors influencing the formation of the organization’s UPUU were identified. It has been established that the most important of them for the work of any organization is a high level of competition.
When forming the UPUU, which has individual characteristics for each organization, it is necessary to proceed from the specifics of the management decisions made in it, therefore, in the work, special attention is paid to the issues of their content and classification. Definitions of the concept “managerial decision” proposed in modern literature do not always fully reveal its content. For the purposes of this study, “management decision” is proposed to be understood as the choice of an economically justified option, carried out by the manager within the framework of his official powers, which serves as the basis for the implementation of specific actions of the organization to optimally achieve the goal.
The study of existing points of view made it possible to derive a generalized classification of management decisions, grouped according to such classification criteria as the scale of impact, the nature of the goal, the duration of the action, the number of goals, decision-making participants, etc.
Management decisions are distinguished by a variety of options, most of which (about 80%) are made using management accounting data. For example, management accounting may become the main supplier of information for such types of decisions as verbal ones. Local, tactical, traditional and a number of other types of decisions can be based on data from both management and financial and tax types of accounting.
One of the most important stages in the formation of the management accounting policy is the identification of elements of management accounting, the implementation of which should be facilitated by management accounting policies. In modern literature, there are different views on the set of elements of management accounting. It determines that the elements of the management accounting system that predetermine the construction of the management accounting system should include: planning (strategic, tactical, operational); actual accounting; management reporting; management control and analysis. The practical implementation of the listed elements is possible with appropriate organizational and technical support.
As a result of the study, the most common position was recognized as optimal, which involves highlighting the following aspects of accounting policy: methodological, technical, organizational (Fig. 4). The methodological aspect of management accounting policy, first of all, should be devoted to:
Areas in which management accounting uses approaches different from financial and tax accounting (for example, when assessing inventories written off for production, in financial and tax accounting, unlike management, methods such as FIFO are not provided) ;
Methods for calculating the cost of products sold (works, services), planning costs and monitoring the use of funds;
Development and accounting of non-financial performance indicators of structural divisions.
Within the framework of the technical aspect of the management accounting system, it is proposed to consider the set of tools and techniques used by the organization in maintaining management accounting. The organizational aspect of the Management Accounting Service should include issues related to the construction of the management accounting service, its interaction with other departments and other organizational issues of creating an environment for the preparation of information for the purpose of making internal management decisions and monitoring their implementation.
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Advantages of information support for an organization through accounting policies in the management accounting system
One of the main advantages received by business entities from the use of accounting policies for the purposes of management accounting is the increase in their competitiveness due to the organization of intra-company management on the basis of specially prepared, operational information, as the management capabilities of enterprise management are expanded as a result of the use of UAPU.
With the correct development of the UPUU, the following management tasks can be solved:
§ What quantities of products need to be produced for profitability from production and sales of products, cost management, production risk management;
§ How to optimize pricing;
§ how to maximize cash flows and reduce the risk of overdue accounts receivable;
§ what measures to take to reduce business costs;
§ analyze the competitiveness of products;
§ analyze the competitive environment for strategic planning purposes.
The main advantage of the information prepared according to the UPUU when solving management problems is the ability to evaluate effectiveness.
At the same time, the information prepared according to the UAL makes it possible to evaluate and compare non-financial indicators, which is not feasible in the financial and tax types of accounting.
Thus, the conducted research allowed us to conclude: the introduction of accounting policies for the purposes of management accounting, even in the scope of its individual elements, is intended to become an effective tool for creating conditions for business entities to occupy leading positions in the market as a result of increasing their competitiveness.
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In the previous article Setting up management accounting - first steps, we looked at the roadmap for creating a management accounting system. Today we will focus on one of its components - accounting policy.
Accounting policy- is a set of rules for reflecting the movement of property, income, expenses and other operations related to accounting, which the organization constantly and without fail follows.
A clearly formalized and approved accounting policy will help to avoid many problems and controversial situations between management at various levels and the financial service. After all, for example, one manager may understand sales revenue based on the fact of shipment from the warehouse, another – based on the date of delivery to the client, and a third – at the time of receipt of funds. And if we add to this the ambiguity of the moment of reflection of costs, then we understand that the financial result of the reporting period will be different in each case. Therefore, it is necessary to “agree on the shore”, and in as much detail as possible.
The main sections that the accounting policy should include are the following:
General provisions - description of the start and end dates of the financial year, currency of accounting and reporting, method of accounting, deadlines for reporting;
The organizational section contains an indication of those responsible for maintaining records and preparing reports, the procedure for interaction and responsibility of the units involved in the preparation of management reporting, as well as a description of internal document flow;
Methodological section - principles of accounting for business transactions according to the main items in the reporting: revenue, cost, overhead and management expenses, accounting for non-current assets, cash, inventory, accounts receivable and payable, etc.
Main output forms - samples of internal reporting forms: balance sheet, income and expense statement, cash flow statement;
Chart of accounts for management accounting.
Let us dwell in more detail on the most important points of the methodological section of the accounting policy.
First you need to decide on the basic principles of management accounting, such as:
- the accrual principle, which implies recording business transactions as they occur, and not as funds are paid or received;
- the principle of timely reflection of expenses means the use of the method of “uninvoiced” expenses, which, if the accounting specialist has information about the occurrence of facts of economic activity and the absence of primary documents, can be reflected in accounting on the basis of planned values or expert estimates. When the company receives primary documents, the estimated indicators reflected in the system are replaced by actual data;
- the principle of conservatism, according to which losses from losses are reflected immediately subject to confirmation of the facts (for example, deterioration in the quality of commodity and raw material balances, damage or theft of property, writing off accounts receivable, subject to the impossibility of collecting them)
- the principle of matching income and expenses, according to which expenses are attributed to the financial result of the reporting period in which the corresponding income will be received.
- the principle of accounting without VAT, according to which purchased goods, materials, fixed assets and intangible assets, works and services are taken into account in the amount of actual costs excluding VAT, and VAT amounts are accounted for in a special account. Revenue from the sale of goods (work, services) in the Profit and Loss Statement is also shown excluding VAT.
We have highlighted accounting here without VAT, because... Many companies are trying to “simplify” their lives and keep VAT records, thereby distorting their financial results.
Revenue
It is necessary to establish the moment of recognition of revenue from the sale of goods, performance of work, provision of services, and also provide analytics for each sale in the accounting system in such a way as to generate the reports necessary for management (by business lines, product groups, product range, etc.). When recognizing revenue, it is recommended to be guided by the principles of IFRS and recognize it at the moment when the main economic risks and rewards associated with the goods are transferred to the buyer, and the supplier no longer controls the goods sold. Since companies often use standard sales contracts, for each of them it is necessary to determine a document - the basis for recording revenue in management accounting.
Cost
It is necessary to generate the cost of goods sold, commercial and administrative expenses.
The cost of purchased goods sold is determined either by the weighted average cost method or by the FIFO method (writing off occurs starting from the first purchases). The previously used LIFO method is currently not applicable either according to the rules of Russian accounting or IFRS, therefore we do not recommend using it in management accounting.
The cost of finished products sold is determined in a more complex way. First, the cost of manufactured finished products is formed as the difference in production costs for the period and the cost of work in progress. And then the cost of sold finished products is determined using the chosen method - either the weighted average cost method or the FIFO method (writing off occurs starting from the first time the finished product arrives at the warehouse).
To correctly formulate the cost, it is necessary to develop an economically sound methodology for allocating costs, identifying types of costs, creating appropriate directories (by items, products, divisions, distribution into fixed, variable, direct, indirect), and selecting a reasonable basis for the distribution of each type of indirect costs.
Cash
For the purposes of management accounting, cash flows are divided into the following types of activities: operating, investment and financial, within which items are distinguished. Each payment in the company must be assigned to one item or another and provided with other analytics, on the basis of which the Cash Flow Statement and other management reports will be subsequently generated. Thus, in the accounting policy it is necessary to develop a directory of cash flow items by type of activity.
Accounts receivable
Receivables for goods sold are recognized simultaneously with revenue recognition. The accounting policy must indicate what is considered overdue receivables, namely debts that have expired according to the terms of the contract.
For the purposes of management accounting, receivables are divided into current (not overdue) and overdue - reflected on the balance sheet accounts, and uncollectible - off-balance sheet, reflected in the register of off-balance sheet assets and liabilities.
In order to control overdue debt, it should be divided into groups according to the timing of overdue payment based on the specifics of the business, for example, like this:
Up to 15 days;
16-30 days;
31-45 days;
Over 45 days.
For debts overdue beyond a certain period, it is recommended to accrue reserves for doubtful accounts receivable from profits. For example, if the delay is up to 45 days, the reserve is not accrued
More than 45 days – 20% of the amount of receivables from customers
More than 90 days – 50%
More than 180 days – 75%
More than 270 days – 100%
In the balance sheet, accounts receivable are reflected minus accrued reserves.
Inventory
Assets are accounted for as part of goods and materials at the actual cost of acquisition, taking into account acquisition overhead costs. Goods and materials are recognized when the principal economic risks and rewards associated with the goods pass to the company and the supplier no longer controls the goods sold. Those. we see that the principle here is “mirror” to the principle of revenue recognition.
The accounting policy must provide for an option when the moment of recognition has arrived, but there are no documents from the supplier (which happens often). In this case, it is recommended to account for assets at the established accounting price, with subsequent adjustment of the cost after receiving documents from the supplier.
When writing off goods or materials to cost, selling expenses or AUR, their cost is determined, as we said above, either by the weighted average cost method or by the FIFO method (write-off occurs starting from the first purchases).
Non-current assets
Non-current assets include fixed assets and intangible assets. First of all, it is necessary to determine which objects belong to fixed assets. These are objects that will be used for more than 12 months, their resale is not expected and the cost of the object is more than, for example, 40,000 rubles per unit (you can set a different amount criterion). For fixed assets, it is necessary to determine what is included in their initial cost, at which they will be accounted for on the balance sheet, and to determine in which cases the initial cost may increase (for example, during reconstruction).
Intangible assets include objects that do not have a tangible form, but are intended for use in the production process for more than 12 months and are documented with legal documents (patents, certificates).
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OS object name |
Service life |
Depreciation rate, % |
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Buildings, structures and transmission devices |
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Machinery and equipment |
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Vehicles |
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Office equipment and other fixed assets. |
Intangible assets can be amortized using the straight-line method over their useful life, which is determined based on the term of the rights to the asset or the expected life of the asset.
Accounts payable
Accounts payable are the company's debt to other organizations and individuals. This includes advances received by the company from buyers and customers, the company's debt to suppliers for goods and materials received, accepted services or work before payment, debt to personnel for wages, debt to the budget and extra-budgetary funds.
Accounts payable are accepted for accounting in an amount equal to the amount of funds received in the form of an advance (prepayment), or the cost of goods and materials received, services received or work performed as assessed according to the terms of the contract.
Loans
Information on debt on loans and borrowings received by the company is reflected in the statements, taking into account interest accrued as of the reporting date. A very common mistake is when interest is accrued on the payment day (for example, on the 15th day of the month) and the debt on it is not formed at the end of the month (in our example, for the period from the 15th to the 31st). In reporting, debt on loans and borrowings is divided into short-term (up to 1 year) and long-term (more than 1 year). At the reporting date, you should analyze how much time is left until the loan repayment date and convert long-term debt on credits and loans into short-term debt if there are less than 12 months left until the loan repayment date. Often, having once reflected a loan as long-term, companies do not reclassify it as short-term until the moment of repayment, thereby misleading users.
Equity
Own capital means the authorized and reserve capital of the company, as well as additional capital and retained earnings, formed in accordance with the constituent documents. The source of additional capital is the revaluation of fixed assets and the difference between the sale and par value of shares obtained in the process of forming the authorized capital (initial placement or subsequent ones). Retained earnings or uncovered loss is the accumulated financial result for the period of operation of the company, reduced by dividends paid to shareholders (participants).
