GBOU SPO "Volgograd Technological College"

Tutorial on

discipline "Fundamentals of Philosophy"

Volgograd

Introduction: Philosophy as a way of life

Part I History of Philosophy

Chapter 1. Philosophy of the Ancient East

Chapter 2. Philosophy of Antiquity

Chapter 3. Philosophy of the Middle Ages

Chapter 4. Philosophy of the Renaissance and Modern Times

Chapter 5. German classical philosophy

Chapter 6. Russian philosophy

Chapter 7. Non-classical philosophy

Chapter 8. Modern philosophy

Part II Man and Society

Chapter 1. Philosophy about the origin and essence of man

Chapter 2. Society as a structure

Chapter 3. Culture and civilization

Chapter 4. Man in the face of global problems

Chapter 5. Being and consciousness and cognition

Introduction.

Philosophy as a way of life.

Worldview and its types. Specificity of philosophical knowledge. Subject of philosophy. The structure of philosophical knowledge. Basic methods of philosophy. Basic questions of philosophy. The place and role of philosophy in culture. Functions of philosophy.

Each person has certain ideas about the world around him. This is necessary in order to navigate reality in a certain way and engage in any activity, that is, live, work, study, and so on. The totality of a person’s views on the world as a whole is called a worldview.

The worldview is very unstable. A person's ideas about the world can change over time or under the influence of certain circumstances. To preserve knowledge about the world and transmit (transmit) it to other generations, elements of the worldview are crystallized in various social institutions: norms of law and morality, traditions and customs, folklore, values, ideals, images and symbols of art, religious beliefs and knowledge of science.

The views of all humanity on the world also change over time. This is expressed in the formation of new types of worldviews. Creating a new system of ideas about reality is a long and difficult process. In total, four types of worldviews were created: myth, religion, philosophy and science.

Myth or mythology is the historical first type of worldview. Mythological ideas about the world were inherent in primitive man for tens of thousands of years. The main features of myth are imagery and reliance on visual clarity. This is explained by the extremely weak development of abstract thinking in primitive man. Myth always tells about a specific, individual thing. Therefore, general ideas about the world are expressed within the framework of mythology in a number of stories about gods and heroes.

Another feature of the myth is the deification of nature, that is, the desire to attribute anthropomorphic (human) traits to natural phenomena. Mythological man assumed that everything around him had a soul and consciousness, and, therefore, there was an opportunity to enter into dialogue with the world around him. This dialogue was carried out through various kinds of rituals and sacrifices.

Another form of worldview is religion. The main distinguishing feature of religion is the belief in the presence of certain supernatural forces that influence human life and the world around him. Reliance on faith indicates the sensual, figurative-emotional (rather than rational) nature of knowledge of the world within the framework of a religious worldview.

Religion involves the creation of a coherent system of ideas about the world. The three most common religions in the world are: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. There are also a number of national religions (Judaism, Hinduism, Shintoism, etc.).

Somewhat later than religion and myth, a philosophical worldview is formed. Philosophy is a special type of worldview based on the logic of inferences and conceptual understanding of the world.

The modern form of worldview is science. Unlike philosophy, science relies on knowledge obtained through the generalization of empirical (that is, based on sensory experience) data. However, what philosophy and science have in common is that they involve a logical description of the world using concepts.

Despite the fact that the worldview of modern man is characterized as scientific, this does not mean that other types of worldview have completely disappeared. We can say that each subsequent type seemed to be “layered” on the previous ones. Modern man, with a general acceptance of the truths of science, retains elements of three other forms of worldview: there are superstitions - remnants of mythological ideas, many people share religious beliefs, philosophical theories and concepts are used in scientific knowledge.

The specificity of a philosophical worldview is determined by its theoreticality and rationality. The theoretical nature of philosophy lies in the extremely general nature of philosophical knowledge. Philosophy operates with categories – extremely general concepts such as “quantity”, “quality”, “time”, “action”, “state”.

The concept of “rationality” comes from the Latin “reason”. Rationality presupposes:

Firstly, the reflection of the objective world in concepts that reveal the most essential, generalized features of phenomena and objects.

Secondly, logical thinking, i.e. its compliance with the laws of logic.

Thirdly, discursivity, that is, the validity of certain statements.

The subject of knowledge of philosophy is the most general and fundamental questions of the origin and functioning of nature, society and thinking. It is worth noting that philosophy strives to capture and describe the world in its integrity, to identify the universal patterns underlying it.

The questions that make up the subject of philosophy underlie the structure of philosophical knowledge. Basic philosophical disciplines:

1. Ontology is the doctrine of being. This discipline is designed to consider the origin and structure of the world as such.

2. Epistemology – the study of knowledge. Considers the question of truth, as well as methods of knowing it.

3. Social philosophy is the doctrine of society, its structure, as well as the general laws of its functioning.

4. Philosophical anthropology is the doctrine of man, the meaning of human life, his place in the world around him, the essence of human existence.

5. Ethics is the doctrine of morality and ethics.

6. Aesthetics – the study of beauty, problems of creativity and expression.

7. Logic is the study of forms and methods of thinking.

8. History of philosophy is a discipline that studies the origin and development of philosophical teachings.

There are several basic methods of philosophical knowledge. A method in the most general sense is a set of steps or actions necessary to achieve a goal. In philosophy, method is a way of looking at the world in one way or another, emphasizing and examining in more detail certain of its qualities.

The two main methods of philosophical thinking are metaphysics and dialectics.

Metaphysics is a philosophical method that involves consideration of the supersensible (that is, not accessible to sensory knowledge - vision, touch, smell, etc.) rationally comprehended foundations of our world. The main task of metaphysics is to find the principle underlying the existence of the world, establishing the order of its existence. Such a principle in various philosophical teachings using the metaphysical method becomes: Substance, God, World Mind, Absolute Idea, and so on. The main feature of metaphysics is the consideration of the world in statics, that is, as motionless. This helps the thinker to grasp the structure of the world, but does not allow him to describe the processes of its movement and development.

Dialectics is a method of philosophical research in which things and phenomena are considered as constantly moving, changing, developing as a result of the struggle of opposites contained in them.

As can be seen from the definitions, both methods complement each other. In addition to the two main ones, the following methods are also distinguished:

Dogmatism- perception of reality with the help of dogma, that is, a set of provisions that are unprovable, but also not subject to doubt, that is, given from above as the absolute truth.

Eclecticism- a method based on the combination of various facts, concepts, theories, ideas that do not have a single basis, resulting in superficial conclusions that have only the appearance of plausibility.

Hermeneutics is a method of reflection based on the process of interpreting a text. New ideas, in this case, are born from attempts to interpret a text, feel into it, and comprehend its hidden meaning. Often the object of hermeneutics is the sacred texts of a particular religion (Koran, Bible, Vedas, etc.)

Sophistry– a method of thinking that involves the use of errors in formal logic, the characteristics of the listener’s psychology, and false premises to obtain the required conclusions. Sophistry is used not to achieve truth, but to win an argument, discussion, and therefore can only formally be called a philosophical method.

In the history of philosophy, many different versions of what can be called the basic question of philosophy have been proposed. Thus, the first thinkers of antiquity believed that the main question of philosophy was the question of the origin of the world. Socrates, in turn, considered the main question of man’s knowledge of himself. In the Middle Ages, the main question became the knowledge of God.

In modern philosophy, the main question of philosophy is the question of the relationship between Being and Consciousness. This question was clearly posed in the philosophy of Marxism, where two sides were distinguished.

The ontological side of this question consists in posing and solving the problem: what comes first, consciousness or matter?

Depending on the solution to this problem, all philosophical teachings are divided into two large groups:

Idealism- a direction of philosophy whose supporters consider consciousness to be primary and matter to be secondary. An example of this kind of teaching is the idealism of Plato, who argued that at the heart of our world lies the World of Ideas, containing the ideas of all things.

In turn, idealism has two varieties: objective and subjective idealism. Supporters objective idealism They believe that the basis of the world is a certain objective idea (mind, consciousness, God, the absolute), which exists independently of the consciousness of a person cognizing the world.

Supporters subjective idealism We are confident that the whole world exists only in the consciousness of the cognizing subject (human).

Materialism- a direction of philosophy, whose supporters claim that matter is primary, and consciousness and thinking are only the results of its self-development. An example of such a teaching is the dialectical materialism of Karl Marx.

In addition to materialism and idealism, there are two more “compromise” movements:

Dualism- a direction in philosophy, whose representatives believe that there are two substances independent of each other: material, which has the property of extension, and ideal, which has the property of thinking. An example of such a position is the philosophy of Rene Descartes.

Deism- a philosophical movement whose supporters recognized the existence of God, but believed that after the creation of the world he withdrew from the world and no longer influences the lives and actions of people. Deists considered matter to be spiritual and did not oppose Consciousness and Being.

The epistemological side of the same issue concerns the possibility of man’s knowledge of the world around him, that is, the relationship between his consciousness and existence. In accordance with how this issue is resolved in a particular teaching, they distinguish:

Epistemological optimism- a direction of philosophy, whose representatives believe that the world is knowable, and the possibilities of knowing it are unlimited.

Agnosticism- a direction of philosophy whose representatives are confident that the world is either unknowable or can be partially known, since the capabilities of the human mind are limited.

There are also different points of view on the question of ways of understanding the world:

Empiricism, a philosophical movement whose founder is considered to be F. Bacon, assumes that knowledge is based only on experience and sensory sensations.

Rationalism is a philosophical trend, the founder of which is R. Descartes; representatives of this trend are confident that reliable knowledge can only be derived from the human mind and does not depend on experience.

The opposite of rationalism is irrationalism, the main position of which is the thesis that the world lacks a logical structure. The world is chaotic, unpredictable, and therefore unknowable.

In modern philosophy, it is believed that the main question of philosophy has not been resolved either in its ontological or epistemological aspects and belongs to the category of so-called “eternal” problems. However, this situation is very common in philosophy and reflects its essence. The fact is that philosophy, as a form of knowledge of the world, places emphasis not on the search for final answers to questions, but on the process of reflection itself. This is reflected in the very term “philosophy,” which translated means “love of wisdom.” This word was introduced into use by the outstanding ancient Greek scientist and thinker Pythagoras (580–500 BC), suggesting that the philosopher does not possess wisdom (which only gods can possess in the full sense of the word), but strives for it and loves it . In this regard, the main task of philosophy is not to find answers, but to correctly pose questions, which is impossible without understanding the incompleteness of one’s knowledge. This is exactly what one of the classics of philosophy, Aristotle (384-322 BC), spoke about when he stated: “Philosophy begins with wonder.”

The importance of philosophical knowledge for a person is difficult to overestimate. The main functions performed by philosophy in modern society are divided into two groups: ideological and methodological.

Worldview functions of philosophy as a source of information:

1. Humanistic – is that philosophy helps a person to comprehend his life, the world around him and strengthen his spirit. Attempts to comprehend one’s life and search for the global purpose of one’s life are familiar to every person. The main assistant of a person in this activity is philosophy.

2. Axiological function - is to evaluate things, phenomena of the surrounding world from the point of view of various values ​​- moral, ethical, social, ideological, etc.

3. Cultural-educational - consists in the fact that philosophy contributes to the formation in a person of important qualities of a cultural personality, such as self-criticism, criticism, doubt.

4. The explanatory and informational function is to develop a worldview that corresponds to the modern level of science, historical practice and the intellectual requirements of a person.

Methodological functions of philosophy as a source of methods:

1. The heuristic function is to promote the growth of scientific knowledge, including the creation of prerequisites for scientific discoveries.

2. The coordinating function consists of coordinating methods in the process of scientific research.

3. The integrating function lies in the fact that philosophy acts as a factor in the integration of scientific knowledge. The term “integration” (from the Latin integratio - restoration, replenishment) means the unification of any parts into a whole. The fact is that modern scientific disciplines, separated from the once unified science during the process of differentiation, are now isolated from each other. Philosophical knowledge can help overcome isolation and find connections between them.

4. Logical-epistemological consists in the development of the philosophical method itself, its normative principles, as well as in the logical-epistemological justification of certain conceptual and theoretical structures of scientific knowledge.

Questions for self-control:

1. What types of worldviews do you know? 2. What is the object of such a philosophical discipline as ontology? 3. What are the main methods of philosophical research? 4. What is the humanistic function of philosophy?

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Axiology(Greek axia - value and logos - teaching) - a branch of philosophy that studies values.

History of philosophy- a philosophical discipline, the subject of which is the process of emergence and development of philosophical knowledge.

Metaphysics– the doctrine of the supersensible (transcendent) foundations and principles of existence.

Methodology– the doctrine of methods of organizing and constructing human activity.

Moral philosophy– moral practical philosophy, ethics.

Natural philosophy- philosophy of nature, a speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its integrity.

Ontology– the doctrine of being; branch of philosophy that describes the world.

Practical philosophy – a traditionally distinguished branch of philosophy, including ethics and politics.

Social philosophy– a section of philosophy that describes the qualitative uniqueness of human society, its structure and development.

Teleology– the doctrine of expediency as a characteristic of individual objects or processes and existence as a whole.

Theoretical philosophy– a traditionally distinguished section of philosophy, including logic and metaphysics.

Phenomenology – a branch of philosophy that studies the appearance of the world in experience.

Philosophy of history– a concept as part of philosophical knowledge, aimed at understanding the historical process as a whole and analyzing the methodological problems of historical knowledge.

Philosophy of culture – a branch of philosophy that studies the essence and meaning of culture. Great importance is attached to the struggle for culture.

Philosophy of science– philosophical discipline , exploring the structure of scientific knowledge, means and methods of scientific knowledge, methods of substantiation and development of knowledge.

Philosophy of education– a research area of ​​philosophy that analyzes the foundations of pedagogical activity and education, its goals and ideals, the methodology of pedagogical knowledge, methods of designing and creating new educational institutions and systems.

Philosophy of politics– a research area of ​​philosophy that analyzes the most general foundations, boundaries and possibilities of policy , about the relationship in it between the objective and the subjective, the natural and the accidental, the existing and the proper, the rational and the extra-rational.

Philosophy of law– philosophical discipline , exploring the value of law, the relationship between law and justice, law and law, law and force, as well as philosophical problems of legal sciences.

Philosophy of religion– rather heterogeneous, but remaining within the limits of rational discourse, judgments regarding religion, including a meaningful consideration of solutions to ontotheological, ethical-anthropological and soteriological problems proposed by certain religions.

Philosophy of technology– a field of philosophical research aimed at understanding the nature of technology and assessing its impact on society, culture and people.

Philosophy of language – a research area of ​​philosophy in which the relationship between thinking and language is analyzed, the constitutive role of language, words and speech in various forms of discourse, in cognition and in the structures of consciousness and knowledge is revealed

Philosophical anthropology- a branch of philosophy that studies man.

Philosophical comparative studies – the area of ​​historical and philosophical research, the subject of which is the comparison of various levels of the hierarchy (concepts, doctrines, systems) of the philosophical heritage of the East and West.

Epistemology– a philosophical and methodological discipline that studies knowledge as such, its structure, structure, functioning and development.

Aesthetics– a philosophical discipline that studies art and the aesthetic attitude to reality (beautiful and ugly, etc.)

Personalities

Augustine Blessed Aurelius(354-430) – a representative of mature patristics. The most significant works: “Confession” (400) and “On the City of God” (413-426).

Anaxagoras(500-428 BC) - student of Anaximenes, founder of the Athenian school of philosophy. He described the world as a countless number of “seeds of things” (“similar to homeomerisms”), which are ordered by the world “mind” (“nus”), put forward the idea of ​​“everything is in everything,” i.e. argued that “everything contains a part of everything.”

Anaximander(610-540 BC) - Ionian (from Miletus) philosopher, student and follower of Thales. Considered the beginning apeiron– something qualitatively indefinite and infinite.

Anaximenes(585-525 BC) - Ionian (from Miletus) philosopher, student of Anaximander. As the beginning considered air, the most unqualified of all elements: “just as air in the form of our soul holds us together, so breath and air cover the entire Earth.”

Aristotle(384–322 BC) – student of Plato and mentor of Alexander the Great. In 335 BC founded his own school, called the Peripatetic, or Lyceum. The subject of “first philosophy” was considered existence in the aspect of its four causes: form, matter, the beginning of movement (motive cause) and purpose.

Berkeley George(1685-1753) - English philosopher, representative of solipsism, in which the main position is “to exist is to be perceived” (esse est percipi). A seaside city in the USA, where the University of California is located, is named after B.

Boethius Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus(480-524, executed) - Roman philosopher, one of the founders of medieval scholasticism. He was imprisoned on charges of high treason, where, while awaiting execution, he wrote the artistic and philosophical essay “The Consolation of Philosophy.”

Bacon Francis(1561-1626) - Attorney General, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain. The founder of empiricism, who proposed in his work “The New Organon or True Guidelines for the Interpretation of Nature” (1620) to use experiment and systematic induction. In 1627 Bacon published the utopia “New Atlantis”.

Wittgenstein Ludwig(1889-1952) - Austrian philosopher, one of the founders of analytical philosophy. The main idea of ​​his “Logical-Philosophical Treatise” (1921) is that philosophy is an activity to clarify language and eliminate inaccuracies in the expression of thoughts.

Voltaire(1694-1778) - French philosopher, leader of the French Enlightenment of the 18th century. and mentor to King Frederick II of Prussia.

Gadamer Hans-Georg(1900-2002) – German philosopher, student of M. Heidegger, founder of philosophical hermeneutics. According to Gadamer, understanding is an open historical process in which every interpreter and everything interpreted is already included in a certain tradition of understanding.

Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich(1770-1830) - German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the school of German classical philosophy. The most famous works: “Phenomenologies of Spirit” and “Science of Logic”.

Heraclitus(c. 540 - c. 480 BC) - Ionian philosopher from Ephesus. He was nicknamed the “dark” (for his thoughtfulness) and the “crying” (for his tragic seriousness) thinker. He considered fire to be the origin of everything – the essence of “logos”.

Holbach Paul Henri (1723-1789) - French materialist philosopher. The most famous work is “The System of Nature, or On the Laws of the Physical and Spiritual Worlds” (1770).

Husserl Edmund(1859-1938) – German philosopher, founder of phenomenology.

Descartes Rene(1596-1650) - French rationalist philosopher, famous for the basic maxim “I think, therefore I am” (“cogito ergo sum”). The most famous work is “Discourse on Method” (1637).

Democritus of Abdera(c. 460 - c. 370 BC) - ancient Greek atomist philosopher.

Zeno of Elea(c. 490 - c. 430 BC) - representative of the Eleatic school, student and adopted son of Parmenides. Formulated aporia directed against the possibility of movement: “Dichotomy”, “Achilles”, “Arrow”, “Stages”.

Kant Immanuel(1724-1804) – founder of German classical philosophy. The three fundamental works of the “critical period” - “Critique of Pure Reason”, “Critique of Practical Reason”, “Critique of Judgment” - are based on the requirement that any philosophical research must be based on a critique of human cognitive abilities and the boundaries to which knowledge itself.

Comte Auguste(1798-1857) - French positivist philosopher, author of the six-volume “Course of Positive Philosophy” (1830-1842). The entire history of mankind, according to Comte, is subject to the “law of three stages”: theological (fictitious), metaphysical (abstract) and scientific (positive).

Confucius(552-479 BC) - ancient Chinese philosopher. Confucius considers the “noble man” to be the standard of a person following the path of Tao.

Kierkegaard Soren(1813-1855) Danish philosopher, founder of existentialism.

Lao Tzu(V century BC) ancient Chinese philosopher who lived in, the legendary founder of Taoism and the author of “Tao Te Ching” - “Book of the Path and Good Power.”

Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm(1646-1716) - German philosopher. He considered the world in completeness and continuity, as a collection of monads in pre-established harmony.

Locke John(1632-1704) - English philosopher. He developed the doctrine of “primary” and “secondary” qualities. He believed that the soul is a “blank slate”, and only experience writes some content on it.

Marx Karl(1818-1883) - German philosopher, together with F. Engels, created a philosophical doctrine called dialectical and historical materialism.

Nietzsche Friedrich(1844-1900) – German philosopher, representative of the “philosophy of life”. The doctrine of the superman is known, set forth in the work “Thus Spoke Zarathustra...” (1883),

Parmenides(late 6th - early 5th century BC) - founder of the Eleatic school. He formulated the principle of the identity of being and thinking: “to think and to be are one and the same,” according to which only that which is thinkable is real, and that which is unthinkable does not exist.

Pyrrho(c. 360-280 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher from Elis (Peloponnese); High Priest of Elis. One of the founders of ancient skepticism. He recommended refraining from judgment, since “this is no more than that.”

Pythagoras Samian (c. 570 - c. 500 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, student of Anaximander. Insisted that everything is a number.

Plato(427-348 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates. In his teaching, the existence of the world of things depends on the world of ideas (prototypes of things)

Protagoras(c. 480-340 BC) - the most famous of the sophists; close to Pericles. The main position of Protagoras’ philosophy: “Man is the measure of all things - those that exist in their being and those that exist in their non-existence.”

Seven wise men– a group of historical figures of the 7th–6th centuries. BC, whose life wisdom became known throughout Hellas. The most famous aphorisms: “For everything there is a time” (Pittacus), “Know yourself” (Thales), “Nothing in excess” (Solon, Chilo), “The greatest wealth is to desire nothing,” etc.

Socrates(470-399 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher. He saw the task of philosophy in the self-knowledge of man, which is expressed in his call “Know yourself.”

Soloviev Vladimir Sergeevich(1853-1900) – Russian philosopher. Based on the principle of all-unity, he built a system of “integral knowledge”, which declared the synthesis of science, philosophy and religion to be the highest task and the final result of the spiritual development of mankind.

Spinoza Benedict(1632-1677) - Dutch philosopher. For Spinoza, mind (thought) and extension (material bodies) are only attributes of a single substance, which is the cause of itself (causa sui).

Thales(640-562 BC) - founder of the Milesian school, one of the “seven wise men”. He believed that the fundamental principle of the world is water.

Fichte Johann Gottlieb(1762-1814) – representative of the school of German classical philosophy. In his “scientific teaching” he chooses the Self as the initial principle, representing the world as a non-Self.

Thomas Aquinas(1225-1274) – systematizer of scholasticism. In 1879, by papal decree, his teaching, Thomism, was legitimized as the official philosophical teaching in all Catholic educational institutions.

Heidegger Martin(1889-1976) – German existentialist philosopher; student of E. Husserl.

Schopenhauer Arthur(1788-1860) – German philosopher. He identified the Kantian concept of “thing-in-itself” with will - the true, albeit hidden, reality of the world

Spengler Oswald(1880-1936) – German philosopher and cultural scientist, representative of the “philosophy of life”. The most famous work is “The Decline of Europe”.

Epictetus(Greek Epictetus is not a proper name, but a colloquial nickname for a slave - “acquired”) (50-125) - Greek Stoic philosopher. The existing order of things, he taught, does not depend on us and we are not able to change it.

Epicurus(341-270 BC) - ancient Greek atomist philosopher. He believed that the possibility of random deflection of atoms determines the presence of free will in humans. The main value of life, according to Epicurus, lies in pleasure, which is freedom from bodily suffering and mental anxieties.

Erasmus of Rotterdam(1469-1536) - Dutch humanist, author of the bestseller “In Praise of Folly” (1509).

Hume David(1711-1776) - English agnostic philosopher. Hume called the awareness of the real nature of causal connections faith: “Reason can never convince us that the existence of one object always includes the existence of another; therefore, when we pass from the impression of one object to the idea of ​​another, or to the belief in this other, it is not reason that prompts us to do so, but habit, or the principle of association.”

The teaching and learning complex is a set of educational and methodological materials necessary for information and methodological support of the educational process and the effective development of educational material by students.

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The given introductory fragment of the book Philosophy. Educational and methodological complex (team of authors, 2013) provided by our book partner - the company liters.

LECTURE NOTES ON THE DISCIPLINE "PHILOSOPHY"

Topic 1. Philosophy: origin, its subject, structure and functions. Historical types of philosophizing and directions in philosophy(lecture 2 hours)

The concept of worldview. Basic forms of worldviews. Subject of philosophy.

Cultural, historical and spiritual prerequisites for the emergence of philosophy.

Philosophy and art, philosophy and science, philosophy and ideology.

Specificity of philosophical problems. Functions of philosophy.

Historical types of philosophizing. Holistic approach or synthesis concept. Dialectics and metaphysics.

Main directions and trends in philosophy.

« Philosophy"(philia - love, sophia - wisdom - Greek) literally means love of wisdom, love of wisdom. The term was first used by Pythagoras in the 6th century. BC The spread of the term is associated with the name of Plato - 5th century. BC Plato calls philosophy the highest of the arts (the art of dying to everyday life and striving into the world of true being, the world of ideas, through reason and thinking). Kant calls philosophy “the science of the relation of all knowledge and all application of reason to the ultimate goal of human reason, to which, as the highest, all other goals are subordinated and in which they must form a unity.”

The place of philosophy in the system of knowledge. There are levels of knowledge: everyday, specific scientific, worldview.

Worldview– a generalized system of views of a person (society) on the world as a whole, on his place in it, a person’s understanding and assessment of the meaning of his life and activities, the destinies of humanity; a set of generalized scientific, philosophical, socio-political, legal, moral, religious, aesthetic value orientations, beliefs, convictions and ideals of people.

The main forms of worldview: mythological, religious, philosophical. Myth (in translation from Greek - tradition, legend; logos - word, teaching) is the earliest form of consciousness of ancient society, spiritual culture, which combines the rudiments of knowledge, elements of beliefs, political views, types of art and philosophy.

Religion (in translation from Latin - piety, holiness) is a form of worldview, which is based on belief in supernatural forces that play a decisive role in the world around a person and the fate of a person. Myth and religion are interconnected. Religion shapes the spiritual world of a person. The religious worldview is intertwined with the philosophical, especially in religious and idealistic philosophy.

The difference between a religious worldview and a philosophical one is that a religious worldview is based on faith, and philosophy reflects the world in a theoretical, rational-conceptual form. The principles of philosophy are logically deduced and proven. Philosophy – reflective type of worldview; its important feature is reflections on one’s place in this world; An important principle of philosophy is freedom of thought.

The emergence of philosophy dates back to 1 thousand BC. Spiritual processes that began 1 thousand years BC allowed Karl Jaspers (German philosopher of the 20th century) to identify them and call this time axial era (800 - 200 BC) - many events take place in different parts of the world. The thinkers Confucius and Lao Tzu lived in China; The Upanishads appear in India, Buddha lived; in Iran Zarathustra; in Greece - the time of Homer, Parmenides, Heraclitus, Plato, etc. In philosophy, all possible views on comprehending reality were considered. What is new comes down to the fact that a person begins to realize being as a whole, himself, his boundaries; a person comprehends the world and himself as a problem, and poses radical questions. Categories that we use to this day were developed, and the foundations of religion were laid.

Philosophy and art. The basis of art - artistic forms of expression of reality - is always one or another philosophical worldview. Knowing it helps to better understand works of art, and with the help of art, life. Philosophy and science. Those who do not consider philosophy to be a science give the following arguments: unlike scientific ones, philosophical judgments do not require mandatory confirmation by experiments and observations; the statements of philosophy are empirically irrefutable (for example, Hegel’s “Spirit”); There have never been positions in philosophy that are recognized by all philosophers. There is a pluralism of views in philosophy. Common features of philosophy with the sciences: consistency, rational conceptual form, logical evidence, axiomatic provisions. Philosophy and ideology. An important principle of philosophy - free thinking - does not always coincide with the ideology of society, which is the ideology of the ruling elite.

Functions of philosophy: ideological, cognitive, methodological, critical, prognostic, social-axiological, cultural-educational, emotional-volitional, etc.

Philosophical reflection. Philosophical judgments are characterized by evidence, logic and consistency. The language of philosophy. Philosophy is characterized not by the language of images and pictures, but by the language of concepts and categories.

Specificity of philosophical problems. Philosophical questions are not about objects, but about their relationship to man and man to them. In philosophy, the world is not considered in itself, but as the abode of human life. Philosophical questions about the fate and purpose of man. I. Kant: What can I know? What should I do? What can I hope for? You shouldn't count on a definitive answer, but you can decide on the direction of your life.

There are various classifications of problems in philosophy. In accordance with them there are sections of philosophy and philosophical disciplines: ontology, epistemology, axiology, social philosophy, anthropology, philosophy of history, logic, ethics, aesthetics.

Historical types of philosophizing: cosmocentrism, theocentrism, anthropocentrism, sociocentrism.

Holistic approach or synthesis concept. In the original Russian philosophical thought, which was formed in Russia in specific historical conditions (Eastern Christianity - Orthodoxy, the tradition of communal living, the specifics of culture), a holistic tradition of worldview was gaining strength. Solovyov's concept of unity. Holistic knowledge: the unity of knowledge of positive science, religion and philosophy, according to V. Solovyov and other Russian religious philosophers, is the unity of knowledge, goodness and beauty. This tradition manifested itself in the second half. XIX - early XX centuries in the form of Russian cosmism.

A holistic system of views, a philosophy of unity, essentially relates to the cosmic level of thinking. This concept is consonant with the ideas of Plato. In the 20-30s of the 20th century, it found expression in a more expanded systemic form in the synthesis of science, religious and moral ideas and art in the Teaching of Living Ethics, in which the features of the relationships of all existing things are considered structurally not only at the level of earthly relations, but also cosmic with the identification of the hierarchical structure of existence, the laws of the Cosmos, the meaning of Existence, its goals, cosmic tasks and criteria.

Dialectics and metaphysics. Dialectics is the concept of a universal connection between movement and development, universal laws, the movement of the external and internal world, nature, society and thinking.

In the history of philosophy, the term “metaphysics” was often used as a synonym for philosophy. The concept of “metaphysics” is closely related to the category of being in religious philosophy and classical German philosophy of the 19th century.

Under metaphysics ( meta(Greek) - above, above) a special supersensible reality was understood beyond the limits of experience, experiment, observation, both direct and indirect. But an extremely small portion of existence is still accessible to experiment, observation, and experience of man and humanity. Everything “else” is in the realm beyond human sensuality. Thinking about this is metaphysics. The subject of metaphysics is reasoning about the absolute cosmic whole, inaccessible to sense, as well as about free will, God, immortality, eternity and infinity.

Main directions and trends in philosophy: materialism, idealism, rationalism, irrationalism. At the core materialism lies the idea of ​​matter as the fundamental principle, the substance of the world, the surrounding reality. Materialism is diverse: mechanical materialism, vulgar materialism, dialectical materialism, spontaneous materialism.

At the core idealism lies the idea of ​​the primacy of the spiritual principle (spirit, idea, God, Absolute). There is objective and subjective idealism.

An important direction in philosophy is rationalism(rationality - reason, reason), according to which, the basis of the world is Reason, therefore the world is rationally structured and knowable with the help of reason. It is opposed by a philosophical trend empiricism(experience), recognizing sensory experience. Another direction opposing rationalism is irrationalism. In it, preference is given not to reason, but to contemplation, intuition, faith, will, i.e. to some irrational principle.

Synthesis concept finds its most mature expression in the philosophy of cosmic thinking.

Security questions:

What is the subject of philosophy?

Note the specifics of philosophical problems.

Describe the relationship of philosophy with other forms of knowledge.

Specificity of philosophical problems.

Basic types of philosophizing.

Main directions in philosophy.

List the functions of philosophy in the modern world.

Literature: L1.1, L2.1-23, L3-4.1, L5.1 L5.4

Topic 2. Features of the Eastern tradition of worldview. The main historical stages and directions of Western philosophy and Russian philosophy(lecture 4 hours)

Lecture 2.1. Features of the Eastern tradition of worldview. Historical stages in the development of philosophical thought in Europe, their characteristics

Features of the Eastern tradition of worldview.

Stages of development of Western philosophical thought, their characteristics: ancient (6th century BC - 5th century AD); medieval (5th – 15th centuries); Renaissance (late 14th – early 17th centuries); New time. Age of Enlightenment (17th-18th centuries); 19th century philosophy – German classical philosophy and postclassics; XX – XXI centuries - modern philosophy.

Main Features ancient Indian and ancient Chinese philosophy. Ancient Indian religious and philosophical teachings. Philosophical schools of ancient China.

Ancient philosophy or the philosophy of the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans is the beginning of European philosophical thought of almost all of its subsequent philosophical schools, ideas, concepts, categories, problems. It is typical for her to pay main attention to the world, nature, and space, which defines this type of philosophizing as cosmocentrism (fusis - Greek - nature) - natural philosophy. The first Greek natural philosophers were concerned with the question of the essence of the world and nature, the problem of the origin of the world - arche. The world seemed to them as being in the process of becoming. Pre-Socratics (6th century - early 5th century BC): Anaximander - apeiron. Thales named water as the first principle, Anaximenes - air, Heraclitus - fire. Leucippus and Democritus - atoms; classical (5th century BC): Socrates - the essence of man, sophists; high classics (5th - 4th centuries BC): Plato, Aristotle and their schools - solved the problems of synthesis of philosophical knowledge; Hellenistic (late 4th – 2nd centuries BC) – decline of ancient philosophy and death; Roman - 1st century BC – 5th century AD pay attention to problems of ethics and people; skepticism, stoicism, neoplatonism (Plotinus, Porphyry, Proclus). Questions of the structure of the cosmos, its fate and man, the relationship between God and man.

Basic features of philosophy Middle Ages. The style of thinking of the Middle Ages was theocentric, philosophical thought was permeated with problems of religion. “Philosophy is the handmaiden of theology” was said in the enlightened circles of medieval Europe. Scientists are representatives of the clergy, and churches and monasteries are centers of culture and science. Questions of philosophy: was the world created by God or exists on its own? How are human free will and divine necessity combined? This convergence of philosophy and religion - sacralization (sacral (lat.) - sacred) - was of a moralizing nature and educated a person. Main directions: patristics ( from 1st to 6th century. AD): V. the Great, A. the Blessed, G. Nyssa, Tertullian, Origen - the influence of Plato can be traced on the development of this direction; And scholasticism(11th–15th centuries): Eriugena, A. the Great, F. Aquinas - at this stage there is a systematic development of Christian philosophy, based on the philosophical heritage of Aristotle.

Renaissance (Renaissance)(late 14th century – early 17th century) – anthropocentrism(anthropos - man), the emergence of new art, the first steps of modern natural science, new political and social concepts, socialist utopias. The era laid the foundations of a philosophy free from religious and ideological prerequisites – secularization. N. Cusansky, L. da Vinci, Michelangelo, E. Rotterdamsky, T. More, M. de Montaigne, etc. This is the time of the formation of experimental sciences that provide true knowledge about nature. Thus, Copernicus discovered that the Earth is not the center of the universe, but is a minor planet of the solar system. A telescope, microscope, barometer, and compass were created.

Philosophy New times. The problem of method is knowledge. Empiricism (F. Bacon). Inductive method. The doctrine of idols. Classification of sciences. Rationalism of R. Descartes. Deductive method. The principle of Cartesian doubt. Age of Enlightenment - 18th century. The progress of society is a process of knowledge; the fight against religious views, as well as the metaphysical teachings of Descartes and Leibniz, who tried to reconcile reasonable statements with the foundation of religious faith; deism- God created the world, and then does not interfere during the process - Toland, T. Jefferson, B. Franklin, etc. French materialists actively fought against religious views: J. de Alembert, J. La Mettrie, C. Helvetius, P. Holbach , D. Diderot. They are the creators of an atheistic and anti-metaphysical worldview.

19th century. General characteristics of German philosophy. I. Kant's theory of knowledge. The question of the possibility of the existence of philosophy as a science. Philosophy G.V. Hegel is the pinnacle of German classical philosophy. Philosophy of Marxism. The social nature of the philosophy of K. Marx and F. Engels. Western philosophy of the second half of the 19th century. Irrationalism (S. Kierkegaard, A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche). Philosophy of life (V. Dilthey). Intuitionism (A. Bergson). F. Nietzsche. Criticism of Christian morality.

Main directions and schools of philosophy XX century. Main Features– scientism, anthropocentrism and a return to the basics of religious philosophy. Scientism and anti-scientism. Psychoanalysis (S. Freud, Adler, Jung), logical positivism, analytical philosophy (Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein), existentialism (Sartre, Heidegger), hermeneutics (Gadamer), phenomenology (Husserl), etc.

Security questions:

Describe the main stages in the development of European philosophy:

– antique;

– medieval;

– Renaissance (Renaissance);

– New time, age of Enlightenment;

– philosophy of the 19th century;

Literature: L1.1, L2.1-23, L3.1-2, L5.4

Lecture 2.2. The emergence and development of philosophical thought in Russia, its characteristic features

Periods of formation of Russian philosophy:

IX – XII centuries – the time of the prehistory of philosophy;

XIV – XVII centuries – the time of its formation, the emergence of theoretical thinking, the beginning of the formation of a categorical apparatus;

XVIII century – processes of isolation of philosophy from religion and its establishment as a theoretical science;

XIX century – XXI century – fundamental development of problems of scientific methodology, social transformation, dialectics, classification of sciences; philosophy of unity. Russian cosmism.

The philosophy of Ancient Rus' is based on the traditions of antiquity and folk (national) culture. The development of philosophical thought is in line with religious institutions in particular; Orthodoxy is its basis and foundation. Philosophical ideas were realized in theology itself, in the literature of that time - chronicles, words, prayers, teachings, proverbs and sayings, in works of painting, sculpture, frescoes, architecture. Ancient Russian philosophy did not yet have a strictly developed logical conceptual apparatus. Particular interest was shown in morally focused themes, in close connection with art and literature. There was greater love for the Socratic-Platonic line than for the Aristotelian line.

Among the philosophers: the first teacher, the Slavic saint Constantine-Cyril, who with his brother Methodius and his disciples laid the foundations of Orthodox theology and philosophy; also St. Cyril of Turov (1130 – 1182), called Chrysostom; Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh (1113 – 1125;

Bishop Serapion of Vladimir (d. 1275), Archbishop Vassian, Metropolitan Macarius, St. Gregory Palamas (XIV century), Venerable Nil Sorsky, Maxim the Greek (1470 – 1556), Archpriest Avvakum (1620 – 1682), etc.

Since the 17th century The replacement of the Old Russian type of thinking with the New European one begins. This was facilitated by the reforms of Peter I. Yuri Krizhanich played a significant role here. He is responsible for the development of the classification of systems of sciences. The 18th century becomes the century of enlightenment in Russia. Among its prominent representatives are Lomonosov, Radishchev, Derzhavin and a number of other Russian thinkers. In the 18th century, the first higher educational institutions in Russia were organized. The Age of Enlightenment was largely characterized by apprenticeship and imitation of the West. In the 19th century, their own movements arose - Slavophilism, Pochvenism, Byzantinism. Prominent representatives of the Slavophiles were I.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin and others. They tried to develop a special Russian philosophy based on native Russian traditions. They are in tune with the religious and philosophical views of F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy. Early Westerners usually include P.Ya. Chaadaeva, N.V. Stankevich, V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen. Representatives of Westernism were characterized by a desire for Europe, an orientation toward its institutions and traditions, and a desire to remake Russia according to the Western model.

The dispute about Russia (about the ways of its development), started by Westerners and Slavophiles in the 30-40s of the 19th century, bore fruit. An extensive philosophical literature has appeared in Russia, and among its (original) authors is P.D. Yurkevich, L.N. Tolstoy, N.N. Strakhov, N.Ya. Danilevsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, P.L. Lavrov, N.K. Mikhailovsky and others. A special place in this far from complete list of outstanding names is undoubtedly occupied by V.S. Soloviev (1853 – 1900) is the author of an original philosophical system, in which the main features of Russian philosophy are particularly clearly presented. Solovyov laid the foundations of Russian religious philosophy. He tried to create a holistic ideological system that would link together the needs of a person’s religious and social life, i.e. create a synthesis of religion, science and philosophy. Because of the revolution of 1917, the fate of Russian philosophy in the 20th century. turned out to be dramatic and even tragic in many ways. So, in 1922, a large group of Russian intellectuals, among whom were N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, I.A. Ilyin, I.I. Lapshin, S.L. Frank, L.P. Karsavin, N.O. Lossky, was sent abroad. Many philosophers like Father Pavel Florensky, G.G. Shpet died in prison. Died in a foreign land L.I. Shestov. Survived political persecution and persecution by G.V. Plekhanov, V.V. Rozanov, A.F. Losev, E.V. Ilyenkov. And only today their works are firmly included in the treasury of world culture. The philosophers who left Russia were mainly engaged in the development of philosophical and religious issues. As for the philosophers of Soviet Russia, they worked mainly in the Marxist-Leninist tradition or dialectical materialism.

In the philosophy of Russian comedy, an important place is given to the problem of the unity of man with the cosmos, the problem of human life on a cosmic scale. Among the representatives of Russian cosmism are such philosophers, scientists, thinkers as N. Fedorov, N.A. Umov, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, V.I. Vernadsky, P.A. Florensky, A.L. Chizhevsky. They are consonant with such thinkers of the Russian religious revival as V.S. Soloviev, S.N. Bulgakov, N.A. Berdyaev and others. Humanism is one of the most striking features of Russian cosmism. A special place and significance in this series belongs to the Teaching of Living Ethics - the philosophy of Cosmic Reality.

Security questions:

Characterize the main stages in the development of Russian philosophy:

– formation and development of philosophical thought in Rus' (XI-XYII centuries);

- Age of Enlightenment; philosophy of the 19th century;

– XX – XXI centuries. - modern philosophy.

Literature: L1.1, L2.1-3, L2.6-23, L5.4

Topic 3. The doctrine of being. The concept of substance. Movement, space and time(lecture 2 hours)

Development of philosophical ideas about existence. Being as a problem of philosophy.

The problem of substance in philosophy. Philosophical monism, dualism, pluralism.

Basic concepts of time and space.

Determinism and indeterminism. The concept of a system. Category of law.

Development of philosophical ideas about spirit. The problem of consciousness in the history of philosophy.

Being- a reality that lies beyond the possibility of human experience. Humanity is always faced with a choice: either admit that being, i.e. the truly existing did not arise, and therefore is eternal and indestructible, and take this circumstance into account in your life, or declare your existence self-sufficient, autonomous, not requiring existence as the basis and guarantor of the existence of the world and man. Depending on which option was taken as a basis, philosophy in historical development appeared either as philosophy of existence, or how philosophy of freedom.

The philosophy of existence, justifying the dependence of human existence on a single, eternal, unchanging Absolute (God, Reason), gave reason to hope that this something, located behind the world of sensory things that exceed human existence, can guarantee order in the world, make it predictable, and give hope for support and protection from unforeseen circumstances.

The philosophy of freedom convinced that man is free from being as a being, one for everything and does not need it. This approach gave rise to a nihilistic worldview and skepticism. Indeed, if there is no existential support, and therefore no hope, then “nothing matters.”

Thus, in the course of a consistent understanding of the problem of being, considered by Parmenides, Plato, Aristotle, F. Aquinas, R. Descartes, G.V. Leibniz and other philosophers, we can highlight main forms of being: the existence of nature as a whole; the existence of things, processes; human existence (both in the natural world and in the artificial one created by him); existence of the spiritual (ideal): individualized and objectified; social existence: individual (person in society) and the existence of society.

Many philosophical systems strive to view the world as a certain integrity. To express the unity of being there is a special category - substance, which expresses the internal unity for the entire diversity of things, phenomena, processes - the uncreated, unthinkable fundamental principle, the cause of itself - causa sui, as Spinoza expressed it. In some teachings, one substance is isolated - they are called monistic (monism), in others, although this is already an inconsistency in judgments, two substances are distinguished, then we are talking about dualism. Pluralism in a philosophical sense - the recognition of a plurality of substances (Leibniz's monads - spiritual primary elements).

Basic concepts of time and space. Continuing the ontological problematics, one cannot help but touch upon the question of essence of space and time. It has been discussed since ancient times. And the fundamentally important question here is the relationship between space, time and matter. There are two points of view on this issue in the history of philosophy. The first is usually called substantial concept: space and time were interpreted as independent entities, existing along with matter and independently of it (Democritus, Epicurus, Newton). Accordingly, the relationship between space, time and matter was presented as a relationship between two independent substances. This led to the conclusion that the properties of space and time are independent of the nature of the ongoing material processes. Space here is pure extension, an empty container of things and events, and time is pure duration, it is the same throughout the Universe, and this flow does not depend on anything.

The second concept is called relational(relatio – relationship). Its supporters (Aristotle, Leibniz, Hegel) understood space and time not as independent entities, but as a system of relations formed by interacting material objects. Nowadays, the relational concept has a natural scientific basis in the form of the theory of relativity created at the beginning of the 20th century. A. Einstein himself, answering a question about the essence of his theory, said: “They used to think that if by some miracle all material things suddenly disappeared, then space and time would remain. According to the theory of relativity, space and time would disappear along with things.” The idea of ​​qualitative diversity of space-time structures follows from the relational concept of space and time.

In the 17th-18th centuries. using the category " matter“the only truly existing existence of the natural world of sensory things, existing outside and independently of man, began to be established, i.e. objectively. Moreover, if in philosophy before the New Age the idea of ​​transcendental being was used to justify the existence of the sensory world, now this sensory world was declared autonomous and self-sufficient, the last ontological foundation that does not need its justification. This was expressed in the statement about the eternity and indestructibility of matter. Materialistic philosophy refuses to discuss the question of where matter comes from, postulating its eternity and uncreateability. Matter is viewed as being associated with space. Representatives of this philosophical trend see the unity of the world not in God, but in the materiality of the world, i.e. in his objective existence.

The material world develops through the interaction of things and processes.

Modern ideas about matter are systemic, scientifically formulated, in which three structural levels are distinguished: megaworld - the world of space (planets, stars, galaxies, metagalaxies); the macroworld is the world of stable forms and quantities commensurate with humans, which can include the molecular level, organisms and communities of organisms; microworld – the world of atoms and elementary particles, i.e. such levels of reality that can be in principle unobservable (for example, quarks, gluons, superstrings) and have completely different properties than the world we are familiar with. At different structural levels of matter, we are faced with special manifestations of space-time relations by various types of movement.

Microworld described by laws quantum mechanics. IN macrocosm laws apply classical mechanics. Megaworld related to laws theory of relativity and relativistic cosmology. At different structural levels of matter, we are faced with special manifestations of space-time relations, different types of movement.

The most common types of material systems are: 1) inorganic, 2) organic, 3) social. The problem of life, its finitude and infinity, uniqueness and multiplicity in the Universe. The concept of the universe.

Determinism(from Lat. I define) - a system of philosophical views on the world as having objective, natural connections and a universal conditionality of all phenomena of the surrounding world, as a causally determined world. This belief system is opposed indeterminism.

Modern determinism includes two opposing objectively existing types of interdependent phenomena. First type– causal determination, all its forms are based on causality, i.e. research, taking into account the cause-and-effect relationships of certain phenomena, when one phenomenon gives rise to another - is the cause. Second type– relationships between interrelated phenomena that do not have a directly causal nature, because here there is no moment of generation of one event (process, phenomenon, etc.) by another. The main forms of non-causal conditioning are: functional connections and dependencies between phenomena, connections between states (for example, aggregate states of water, probable relationships, structural systemic and other relationships).

As already mentioned, determinism is opposed indeterminism(from Latin - not to determine) is a philosophical concept that rejects the universal nature of the universal interconnection of phenomena or understands it in a one-sided, limited way. Indeterminism most sharply opposes determinism on the issue of the place and role of causality, which is either completely ignored or its universality and objectivity are denied.

System- this is an integral set of elements in which all the elements are so closely related to each other that they act in relation to the surrounding conditions and other systems of the same level as a single whole. An element is a minimal unit within a given whole that performs a specific function in it. Systems can be simple or complex. A complex system is one whose elements are themselves considered as systems.

Law– a necessary, essential, stable, repeating relationship between systems, phenomena, processes of nature. The law expresses the nature of the connection between objects, the constituent elements of a given object, between the properties of things, etc. Based on knowledge of the law, a reliable prediction of the course of the process is possible. Laws also vary in their degree of generality and scope. All phenomena in the world obey certain laws, i.e. everything is determined, conditioned by objective laws. There are various forms and laws of determination. If the previous states of the system unambiguously predetermine its subsequent states, then the change in such a system is subject to dynamic laws, unambiguous determination. If in a complex system the previous states determine the subsequent ones ambiguously, then the change in such a system is subject to probabilistic-statistical laws. Scientific, philosophical and religious pictures and images of the world.

Category of spirit. Specificity of the existence of the spirit. In Ancient Greece, the concept of spirit (nus, pneuma, etc.) was initially thought of as the finest substrate with some signs of matter. For Plato and Aristotle, mind (nos) becomes the most important concept - it is the prime mover of the cosmos and the formative principle. The Christian tradition represents the spirit, first of all, as a personal absolute and personal will (of God), which created the world and man out of nothing. In the philosophy of modern times, a rationalistic understanding of the spirit, primarily as reason and thinking, develops (Descartes, Spinoza, French materialists of the 18th century). German classical philosophy paid serious attention to the problem of spirit. Thus, developing the intellectualistic side of the spirit, Schelling represented all of nature only as a moment of the spirit; Hegel built a philosophy of the world spirit, expressed in its development through a system of logical categories. Within the framework of irrationalist ideas about the spirit (Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, E. Hartmann, etc.), intuitionist (Bergson, Lossky) and existentialist interpretations develop. Thus, in existentialism, spirit is opposed to reason: it is, first of all, will emanating from genuine existence. Neopositivism generally eliminates the problem of the spirit as a metaphysical one, i.e. outside the scope of scientific research. In modern Russian philosophy, a tradition has developed to consider consciousness as the main category of the sphere of spirit.

The problem of consciousness in philosophy. Thinking. In accordance with modern scientific concepts, consciousness can be presented as a part of the human psyche, responsible for reflecting the external world, comprehending the information received, storing it, processing it and forming new information. The process of forming ideas about the world, a particular image, is at the same time the process of a person distinguishing himself from the surrounding world, opposing oneself to this world. The separation of one’s “I” from nature, the opposition of “I” to nature, is consciousness. Having said “I” about himself, a person distinguishes himself not only from nature, but from a community of other people. Hegel wrote that consciousness is the relation of the “I” to the world, but it is a relation that is brought to the point of opposition, of which the “I” knows. This is, as it were, the first stage of conscious activity and we called it consciousness. Go to level self-awareness, means instantly combining your knowledge about an external object and your own knowledge about this knowledge.

Speaking about the problem of consciousness, one cannot fail to mention the problem unconscious. Traditionally, the sphere of the unconscious includes a set of mental phenomena “not represented in a person’s consciousness, lying outside the sphere of his mind, unaccountable and not amenable, at least at the moment, to control by consciousness.” This area may include: 1. Instincts - a reflexive reaction of living organisms to external influences developed in the process of historical development; 2. Intuition is knowledge that arises without awareness of the ways and conditions for its acquisition, due to which the subject has it as a result of direct discretion. Intuition brings scientific knowledge closer to artistic creativity and vice versa; 3. Dreams; 4. Hypnotic states, etc. As studies by Freud and his followers (neo-Freudians) have shown, the unconscious has a strong influence on consciousness, as, however, it is natural to assume the opposite.

Thinking- this is a purposeful, indirect and generalized reflection by a person of the essential properties and relationships of things, processes of the surrounding world, and at the same time the process of creating new ideas. Creative thinking is aimed at obtaining new results in practice, science, and technology. Rules, laws of thinking constitute the content of logic as a science. The degree of perfection of human thinking is determined by the degree of correspondence of its content to the content of objective reality.

Language, along with its function of communication, also contains the function of thinking, i.e. is a tool of thinking. Language is a weapon that can inspire heroism, but can also wound and kill. Thinking and language are closely related to consciousness. Language is the direct activity of thought, consciousness. Through language there is a transition from perceptions and ideas to concepts, and the process of operating with concepts occurs. The quality of a person’s consciousness (moral, aesthetically developed, information-filled, or vice versa) is reflected in thinking and language.

The problem of the ideal. When revealing the essential properties of consciousness, most authors point to its non-material nature. Indeed, neither in the image of an object, nor in the thought of it is there a single particle of the object itself.

In the domestic scientific and philosophical literature on problems of consciousness, mainly three concepts of the ideal are presented.

Thus, the ideal is an objectively or subjectively existing standard that reflects the essence of a certain class of objects. These are the basic ideas about the ideal existing in Russian philosophy of thought.

Security questions:

What ways of understanding existence arose in philosophy?

Define substance. What is meant by philosophical monism, dualism and pluralism?

State the basic concepts of space and time.

What is the essence of the concept of determinism? Tell us about the laws and forms of determination.

How spirit was understood in the history of philosophical thought.

The problem of the essence of consciousness.

Talk about the connection between thinking and language. Literature: L1.1, L2.1-6, L3.1-2, L5.4

Topic 4. The doctrine of knowledge The problem of truth in philosophy and science. Basic Concepts of Truth(lecture 2 hours)

The problem of knowledge in the history of philosophy. Subject and object of knowledge.

Practice, its main forms and functions in the process of cognition.

Cognitive optimism, agnosticism and skepticism.

Sensory cognition. Forms of sensory knowledge. Rational cognition. Forms of thinking. Cosmic synthetic thinking.

The problem of truth in philosophy and science. Basic concepts of truth.

A person’s knowledge of the world around him and himself is a necessary condition for a successful life. The problem of cognition arises in any science, but philosophy deals with a special analysis of the cognitive process.

Epistemology(Greek gnosis - knowledge, cognition) - one of the sections of modern philosophy that studies the nature of human knowledge, forms and methods of transition from superficial to deep knowledge.

Epistemology reveals the laws of cognition by man, the subject of the objective world; explores the question of the very possibility and limits of knowledge of the surrounding reality; strive to explain the purpose and method of human cognition, the conditions for its success (truth, correctness, etc.). The basic principles of epistemology are realized with the help of such categories (or fundamental concepts) as cognition, knowledge, reality or reality, thinking, consciousness, object, subject, truth, etc.

Cognition- the process of comprehension by a person (society) of new, previously unknown facts and phenomena, signs and properties, connections and patterns of reality.

Knowledge– the results of the cognition process, recorded in human memory and in appropriate material media (books, magnetic tapes, floppy disks, etc.)

Reality(reality) is, first of all, the world around a person, including the social world, society as part of reality. This also includes the person himself with his feelings, thoughts, experiences, dreams, which are also reality, although of a different plane.

Cognition is closely related to practice. Materialists have always talked about this. Practice- this is a material, scientific, socially transforming, purposeful activity of people (production and other types of activity, for example, pedagogical, artistic, administrative, etc.) Practice contributes to the formation of the main instrument of human cognition - thinking. Practice also acts as a criterion for the truth of knowledge.

There is ordinary and theoretical knowledge. Ordinary cognition is based on the social experience of human existence. Theoretical-scientific knowledge differs from ordinary knowledge in the depth of reflection of the properties of an object, penetration into the essence of things, identification of the laws of development, and a logical conceptual apparatus. Scientific knowledge is conceptual in nature; its achievement is associated with a special procedure of proof, using methods for testing knowledge. Extra-scientific knowledge (everyday, artistic, religious, ethical). Intuition in cognition. Knowledge and faith.

Subject cognition is the carrier of cognitive activity. It can be an individual, a social group or society as a whole, which are characterized by a certain level of consciousness and will.

Under object Cognition is understood as that fragment of reality or part of natural or social existence to which human cognitive activity is directed. The basis of their interaction is subject-practical activity.

The variety of forms of knowledge and types of rationality. Scientific and non-scientific knowledge (everyday, artistic, religious, ethical). Intuition in cognition. Knowledge and faith.

An important issue in epistemology is the question of the possibilities of knowledge. Depending on how this issue was resolved by different thinkers, the following positions can be distinguished: cognitive optimism; skepticism; agnosticism.

Many philosophers were optimistic about the possibilities of human knowledge. These include, for example, Hegelian (idealistic in nature) and Marxist (materialistic) concepts. Skeptics expressed doubts about the possibility of knowing the causes and essences of things (Pyrrho, Sextus-Empiricus, D. Hume, etc.). Agnosticism, characteristic, in particular, of I. Kant, asserts the impossibility of comprehending the essence of things.

The cognitive process includes sensory and rational (logical) sides. Sensory cognition given to us through the senses. It is characterized by its specific forms, these include: 1) sensations; 2) perception 3) representation. Forms of thinking: 1) concept; 2) judgment; 3) inference. Both of them are necessary and must complement and correct each other to achieve reliability and truth.

In the context of the holistic approach of Russian philosophy, a tradition of synthetic cosmic thinking has been formed, the research methodology of which is based on the principle of the unity of knowledge, goodness and beauty. In accordance with this methodology, the knowledge obtained on its basis must express not only the epistemological aspect of Being, but also the axiological and ontological in unity.

The problem of truth in philosophy and science. Basic concepts of truth. Throughout the history of philosophical thought, various researchers talk about the truth of fact and the truth of reason, about the truths of philosophy and the truths of religion, about absolute truth and relative truth, etc. Is it possible to establish a certain single essence of truth behind this diversity? Thus, Plato considered it necessary to separate true knowledge from opinion. He believed that at the heart of every object lies a supersensible idea, the knowledge of which means the comprehension of the truth about this object. Aristotle formulated his definition of truth, which later became known as classic. It says: Truth is knowledge that corresponds to reality. Today the classical concept of truth is called the correspondence theory or correspondence theory of truth.

IN coherent theory, the main criterion for the truth of any knowledge is its consistency (eng. coherence– coherence) with a more general, encompassing system of knowledge. Typically, supporters of this concept, among whom Hegel can be named, are of the opinion that the world is a single whole, in which all phenomena are somehow interconnected and included in this whole. Therefore, knowledge about an individual thing or phenomenon must correspond and be consistent with the system of knowledge about the world as a whole. That is, as such, there is one truth, and particular truths must be elements of this single and all-encompassing absolute truth.

The third concept of truth is called pragmatic(from Greek pragma - deed, action). From the position of pragmatism, knowledge is recognized as true if it has beneficial consequences for human life and which can be successfully applied in practice. In this understanding, practice is the criterion of truth.

End of introductory fragment.

Dialectical method

The dialectical method is usually contrasted with the formal-logical method that dominates natural scientific knowledge. We can say that the dialectical method is closer to life, the formal-logical method is closer to its knowledge in thought. With the dialectical method, thinking remains at the concrete level, while with the formal-logical method it ascends from the concrete to the abstract.

Both methods must be used. Dialectics, when formal logic is denied, turns into the irrational opposite of knowledge, the denial of the possibility of the world and knowledge of it. Formal logic in its extreme variants appears as tautological reasoning that has little in common with life. There are, as it were, two poles of worldview and worldview. The value of the dialectical method is that it clears metaphysics of unnecessary philosophizing and the dead end into which thought reaches. But dialectics itself is not capable of finding a way out of the contradictions that it deals with, without involving the apparatus of formal logic.

The dialectical method can complement concrete scientific ones. Essentially, it does not refute or deny scientific methods due to its universality (any scientific data is subject to dialectics), but points out the fundamental incompleteness of scientific knowledge and can help in developing the fundamental prerequisites of scientific knowledge.

Dialectics as a method is the consideration of phenomena in their development. Therefore, the dialectical method is opposed to any closed system of views. The dialectical view must deny both the immobility of the Platonic kingdom of ideas and the Hegelian Absolute Idea. The contradiction between method and system is present among all dialecticians - creators of systems.

Having approached the demands of reason, having become a system, dialectics moves away from reality. Using the system you can pre-

say a certain number of phenomena, but the larger it is, the less accurately individual events are reflected. Attempts to find substance, “eternal laws” (including dialectics) are, in essence, a formal-logical desire of the mind for stability. In everything that is definite in philosophy, there is a formal logical structure.

The dialectical method is good for refuting opponents, since it opposes every positive view of things with its negation. Therefore, the dialectical method is widely used as a method of argument. Its negative meaning is perhaps no less than that of skepticism; the positive meaning lies in the orientation towards the hidden potentialities of being.

Dialectics as a method can be interpreted in different ways: either as a teaching about the external struggle, which reaches its extreme aggravation and revolutionary resolution, or as a teaching about the internal struggle that a person wages with himself. In other words, dialectics as a method presents wide possibilities for use.

Dialectics claims to be an epistemological synthesis of the specific and the universal. From the individual through the study of the connection between the individual and the natural to the natural and from it again to the individual - this is a method of research that corresponds to dialectics. A philosopher can start with ordinary things that are understandable to everyone, then move on to conceptual analysis, go into the methodology of science and return to reality again, giving guidance for the future.

Pragmatic method

Among the methods that reflect the specific features of the subject of philosophy, one of the important places is occupied by pragmatic (from the Greek “pragma” - action, practice). He proceeds from the fact that the synthesis of knowledge and transformation is a characteristic feature of philosophizing. “Philosophers have only explained the world in various ways, but the point is to change it” 1. This aspiration of philosophy is brought to the fore by pragmatism.

Pragmatism, according to James, is nothing more than a method. “The pragmatic method... attempts to interpret each opinion by pointing out its practical consequences... if we are unable to find any practical difference, then both opposing opinions mean essentially the same thing” 2. All conclusions are verified by extrapolating them to humans.

1 Marx K., Engels F. Works: In 50 volumes - M., 1995. - T. 2. - P. 4.

2 James W. Pragmatism. - St. Petersburg, 1910. - P. 33.

Structuralism, systems approach, functional analysis, pragmatism, dialectics are research methods that, when they arise, are to some extent immanent to the subject. Then the method, which has achieved success in the sphere of its formation, begins to penetrate into related areas, acting in them as a tool. There is also continuity in methodology, shifts in methods are similar to shifts in problems, and there is a huge field of activity for methodologists.

Method and principle

Essentially, the basic methods of philosophizing are rather principles that are discovered in the world and thinking and then recommended to be applied everywhere. The results of knowledge are themselves to some extent determined by the initial principles. Each harmonious philosophical system has its own principle: Hegel’s has the Absolute Idea. in Nietzsche - the will to power, etc. About the role of principle in philosophy, V.S. Solovyov said this: “When any principle should manifest itself in mental development, then in order for it to be fully expressed and fully developed, it is necessary that the bearers of this principle recognize it as absolute and, therefore, , unconditionally denied the significance of any other principle" 1 .

The personality of the philosopher and the external conditions of his work also matter. Let us emphasize once again that the main thing in philosophy is not the set of knowledge, but the ability to think. Philosophy has its own methods: Socratic mayotics, which developed into dialectics as a method of thinking; a set of rational rules - a universal compass by which being is measured, etc. The use of these methods is necessary, but not sufficient.

An analogy with language is appropriate here. There are phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary that you can know, but not be able to speak a given language. In the same way, you can learn philosophy, but not be able to think. Skill and training are required both to master the ability to speak and to master the ability to think. This is the second level of mastering the discipline. Finally, the highest, third, level is creative, when you manage to say a new word in the literal and figurative sense. So, three levels: knowledge, skill, creativity.

The ability to think is associated with a critical assessment of what is happening, since any independent thought is in conflict with existing stereotypes; with integrity of attitude towards the world, since one thought inevitably leads to another. The person either knows how to speak another language about everything.

1 Soloviev B.S. Criticism of responsible principles // Collection. Op.: In 10 volumes. - St. Petersburg.. 1911-1914.-T. 1.-P.63.

or does not know the language at all. Also, he either has a holistic view of the world, or has not matured into philosophy.

Special philosophical disciplines

In previous chapters we looked primarily at the “trunk” of philosophy. Now let's outline the contours of the entire tree as such. This logic of familiarization with the material determines that the chapters revealing the main content of philosophy come after the historical and philosophical consideration of systematic philosophy.

Many sciences have general and special parts. In philosophy there is systematic philosophy and such disciplines as ethics - art of living, logics- ability to think, ontology- the doctrine of being, epistemology - theory of knowledge, aesthetics- the doctrine of beauty, theology - teaching about God. Systematic philosophy deals with the unity of truth, goodness and beauty, and individual philosophical disciplines deal with truth (theory of knowledge), goodness (ethics), beauty (aesthetics).

Tree of Philosophy

If systematic philosophy is the study of ideas as such, then ethics is the study of moral ideas, aesthetics is the study of the idea of ​​beauty, epistemology is the study of the idea of ​​truth. Hi, different sections of philosophy distribute the load of its main functions differently: ideological, cognitive, systematic, critical.

In the depths of philosophy, logic arose with the Aristotelian laws of identity (A = A), non-contradiction (A ≠ not-A) and the exclusion of the third (possibly A or not-A, there is no third), which was then supplemented by Leibniz and Hegel.

The interactions between philosophy and ethics are especially important. The philosophy of Socrates began with the search for moral values ​​common to all people. The concept of the common good was the impetus for the creation of Plato's world of ideas. With Aristotle, ethics began to diverge from philosophy, although Aristotle wrote the first textbook “Ethics”, which, however, testified to its isolation. Never again did ethics serve as the basis for philosophical systems. Kant's categorical imperative is only a statement of the “golden rule” of ethics. For Hegel, moral problems are not primary.

Ethics has an independent meaning as a discipline about universal human values. Where it is subordinated to class, national and any other interests, its intrinsic value disappears. As soon as historical expediency (according to Hegel and Marx) is placed above absolutes, ethics loses its meaning. The universal human (in Socrates) and even metaphysical (in Plato) meaning of moral principles is a condition for the development of ethics. The laws of ethics include the so-called “golden rule”, coming from ancient philosophy through the Christian “love your neighbor as yourself” to the Kantian categorical imperative.

The development of individual philosophical disciplines was determined by the dominant cultural dominants in society, which represented the sequence: mythology - religion - science.

In a more complete scheme (see p. 159), one can distinguish the inner core of philosophy, or systematic philosophy, the sphere of philosophical disciplines and the sphere of human activity and branches of culture.

Security questions

1. How do the subject and method of research relate?

2. What is the essence of the dialectical method?

II. Main performance indicators of medical institutions

II. Main problems, challenges and risks. SWOT analysis of the Republic of Karelia

III. Requirements for the results of mastering the content of the discipline

III. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE RESULTS OF MASTERING THE CONTENT OF THE DISCIPLINE

ONTOLOGY the doctrine of being as such; a branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental principles of existence, the most general essences and categories of existence. Sometimes ontology is identified with metaphysics, but more often it is considered as its fundamental part, that is, as the metaphysics of being. The term “ontology” first appeared in the “Philosophical Lexicon” of R. Gocklenius (1613) and was enshrined in the philosophical system of X. Wolf.

Ontology emerged from the teachings about the existence of nature as a teaching about being itself back in early Greek philosophy, although it did not have a special terminological designation. Parmenides and other Eleatics declared only the thought of being - a homogeneous, eternal and unchanging unity - to be true knowledge. They emphasized that the thought of being cannot be false, and also that thought and being are one and the same thing. Evidence for the timeless, spaceless, non-multiple, and intelligible nature of existence is considered the first logical argument in the history of Western philosophy. The moving diversity of the world was considered by the Eleatic school as a deceptive phenomenon. This strict distinction was softened by the subsequent ontological theories of the Pre-Socratics, the subject of which was no longer “pure” being, but qualitatively defined principles of being (“roots” of Empedocles, “seeds” of Anaxagoras, “atoms” of Democritus). Such an understanding made it possible to explain the connection between existence and concrete objects, and the intelligible with sensory perception. At the same time, critical opposition arises to the sophists, who reject the conceivability of being and, indirectly, the very meaningfulness of this concept (see the arguments of Gorgias). Socrates avoided ontological topics, so one can only guess about his position, but his thesis about the identity of (objective) knowledge and (subjective) virtue suggests that he was the first to pose the problem of personal existence.

Axiology(from axio - value, logos - word, teaching) - one of the youngest sections of philosophy. Axiology appeared as an independent philosophical science only at the end of the last century. Of course, judgments about various types of value - about goodness, kindness, beauty, holiness, etc. - are found among the classics of ancient philosophy, and among theologians of the Middle Ages, and among Renaissance thinkers, and among philosophers of the New Age, but a generalized idea about value as current and accordingly about the patterns of its manifestation in various specific forms did not exist in philosophy until the middle of the last century.

Noun anthropology comes from the Greek words anyrwpoq (man) and logoq (thought, word) and means a discourse, or treatise, about a person. The adjective philosophical indicates that way of studying man in which an attempt is made to explain through rational thinking the very essence of man, that final reality, because of which we say that this being is a human personality.

True, it is not enough to point out the etymology of words in order to obtain a true and satisfactory definition of philosophical anthropology. The content of this science was and remains very rich, as well as controversial and problematic.

First of all, let us remember that there are different kinds of anthropology. It is necessary to distinguish between them in order to clearly see the proper field of philosophical anthropology.

In the research world, there is physical anthropology, or anthropobiology, the subject of which is paleontological topics, population genetics, and environmental issues. Further, there is psychological anthropology, which studies human behavior from a mental or psychosomatic perspective, both in normal subjects and in subjects with mental disorders. Psychoanalysis, parapsychology, and so on belong to this area. Cultural anthropology, the most developed, studies the ethnology of primitive peoples, their customs, rituals, family ties, language, morality and religion. This kind of anthropology, especially in connection with the development of structuralism, claims to be the only true anthropology. He appears as an alternative to philosophical anthropology, and its gravedigger; speaks of the ethnological death of philosophy and even of the death of the human subject. There is also social anthropology, which studies modern societies and therefore is not always clearly distinguished from sociology. Finally, something must be said about theological anthropology; it examines and explains what God has revealed to people about the reality called “man.” More specifically, it sets out in modern language the teaching that in classical Catholic theology was contained in treatises on original sin, on the elevation of man to a state of grace and his justification before God.

Ethics(Greek ethiká, from ethikós - relating to morality, expressing moral beliefs, ethos - habit, custom, disposition) - philosophical science, the object of study of which is morality, morality as a form of social consciousness, as one of the most important aspects of human life, a specific phenomenon socially -historical life. Ethics clarifies the place of morality in the system of other social relations, analyzes its nature and internal structure, studies the origin and historical development of morality, and theoretically substantiates one or another of its systems.

The term “ethics” was introduced by the ancient philosopher Aristotle. His works were called “Nicomachean Ethics”, “Eudemic Ethics”, “Great Ethics”. Ethics attracted the attention of this thinker mainly from the point of view of the problem of forming a citizen of the state. He saw a connection between politics and ethics, since the state needs citizens endowed with virtues that allow them to be citizens of the state or polis. To denote the science that studies human virtues, Aristotle formed the noun ethice (ethics) from the adjective ethicos (ethical). With this term he designated a special field of study - “practical” philosophy, which was designed to answer the question: what should we do? Ethics had to evaluate any situation from the point of view of the concepts of good and evil, justice, duty, etc.

In the Russian language, the sphere of ethics is most associated with the concepts of “mores” and “morality”. In the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by Vl. Dahl’s concepts of “morality” and “moral person” are associated with the words “good”, “well-behaved”, “good-natured”, “virtuous”. In this case, we are talking about the characteristics of a person who lives according to the laws of truth, justice, who measures his actions with conscience, duty, universal commandments, and heart.

In the modern understanding, ethics is a philosophical science that studies morality as one of the most important aspects of human life and society. If morality is an objectively existing specific phenomenon of social life, then ethics as a science studies morality, its essence, nature and structure, patterns of emergence and development, place in the system of other social relations, and theoretically substantiates a certain moral system.

Historically, the subject of ethics has changed significantly. It began to take shape as a school for educating a person, teaching him virtue, and was and is considered (by religious ideologists) as a call for a person to fulfill divine covenants, ensuring the immortality of the individual; characterized as a doctrine of indisputable duty and methods of its implementation, as a science of the formation of a “new man” - an unselfish builder of an absolutely fair social order, etc.

In domestic publications of the modern period, the prevailing definition of ethics is the science of the essence, laws of the emergence and historical development of morality, the functions of morality, and the moral values ​​of social life.

In ethics, it is customary to separate two types of problems: the actual theoretical problems about the nature and essence of morality and moral ethics - the doctrine of how a person should act, what principles and norms he must be guided by.

In the system of science, there is, in particular, ethical axiology, which studies the problems of good and evil; deontology, which studies the problems of duty and due; destructive ethics, which studies the morality of a particular society in sociological and historical aspects; genealogy of morality, historical ethics, sociology of morality, professional ethics.

Ethics as a science not only studies, generalizes and systematizes the principles and norms of morality operating in society, but also contributes to the development of such moral ideas that best meet historical needs, thereby contributing to the improvement of society and man. Ethics as a science serves the social and economic progress of society, the establishment in it of the principles of humanism and justice.

Aesthetics ( from Greek aisthetikos - feeling, sensual) - philosopher. a discipline that studies the nature of the entire variety of expressive forms of the surrounding world, their structure and modification. Aesthetics is focused on identifying universals in the sensory perception of expressive forms of reality. In a broad sense, these are the universals of the structure of a work of art, the process of artistic creativity and perception, the universals of artistic and design activities outside of art (design, industry, sports, fashion), the universals of the aesthetic perception of nature.
For a long time, the subject of aesthetics in Russian science was defined tautologically - as “the study of the aesthetic properties” of the surrounding world, since any talk about the activity of an artistic form was unacceptable. At the same time, world aesthetics, defending the idea of ​​priority in art and aesthetics not “what” but “how”, was talking specifically about expressive forms that melt essence and phenomenon, sensual and spiritual, objective and symbolic. The process of aesthetic and artistic formation is a powerful cultural factor in structuring the world, realizing through sensory and expressive means the general goals of human cultural activity - transforming chaos into order, amorphous into integrity. In this sense, the concept of artistic form is used in aesthetics as a synonym for a work of art, a sign of its self-determination, expressive and semantic integrity.

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