Of particular interest when studying transcription is the area of borrowings and their designation in dictionaries of different years of publication. These words are noteworthy in that over time, under the influence of the system of phonetic rules of the borrowing language, their phonetic appearance changes, and when comparing dictionary transcriptions, differences can be noticed, even if the same phonetic alphabet is used when writing them. In other words, phonetic assimilation is accompanied by variability in pronunciation.
The object of our research was English borrowings in French and French loanwords in English. We examined about fifty words, among which camping, golfe, supporter, medias, pub, hamburger, week end, shopping, dé jà vu, aide- de- camp, apropos, badinage, beau, beret, bouquet, coup d‘ etat, cul- de- sac, risqué and others.
The theoretical basis of the study was the works of Bloomfield L., Haugen E, Egorova K.L., Gak, V.G., David Crystal, Reformatsky A.A., Ermolovich, D.I., Sazonova E.
The Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary defines borrowings as elements of a foreign language (word, morpheme, syntactic construction, etc.) transferred from one language to another as a result of language contacts, as well as the process of transition of elements of one language to another. . The criterion for selecting our material was the presence in dictionaries of marks that characterize this word as a borrowing.
Basically, words are taken from other languages, less often phraseological and syntactic units, since words are more valent and easier to remember. Borrowings are adapted to the system of the borrowing language and are often assimilated by it so much that native speakers of the given language no longer perceive the foreign origin of such words. In some cases, the borrowing process can only be traced through etymological dictionaries.
Borrowed words can be divided into two groups: fully acquired and partially acquired. Accordingly, in the second group, traces of foreign language origin are preserved in the form of sound, spelling, grammatical or semantic features that are not characteristic of the borrowing language system.
Usually the borrowing process does not present any difficulties in the field of phonetics or phonology. If a word of the source language consists of elements that satisfy the phonetic system of the borrowing language, then it does not undergo any changes at this level. Basically, this situation occurs between related languages, not to mention dialects. If a word has similar characteristics in both languages, it can be borrowed in its initial form, for example, the nominative singular for nouns or the infinitive for a verb, and then used in the borrowing language using its morphological rules. However, in almost all cases of borrowing when moving from one language to another, a word needs at least a slight change in its phonetic shell.
Firstly, you need to take into account how far the form of the borrowed word deviates from the norms of pronunciation has changed under the influence of the new phonetic system, or, conversely, how much it has retained its previous phonetic shell. For example, the French expression dé jà vu has several pronunciation options in English: , , . In the second case, the labialized front vowel [y] is replaced by the more familiar English vowel /u/, expressed as a diphthong. The third case illustrates the process of introducing a semivowel [j] between a consonant and a vowel, thus vu reads like view. Some French borrowings remained with an unchanged phonetic shell, perhaps due to ease of pronunciation: pendant, chalet, bouquet.
Similar processes can be observed in the French language. Yes, according to the dictionary Larousse Dictionnaire de Linguistique et des Sciences de Langue, word week- end, borrowed at the beginning of the 19th century, has two pronunciations: . In this case, there is a process of adaptation of the word to the phonetic system of the borrowing language, as evidenced by the appearance of a nasal sound and the transfer of stress to the last syllable. Approximately from late XIX century to this day, both options are considered equal and are mentioned in dictionaries (Grand Larousse de la Langue Française and Le Petit Robert have been studied), but the possibility cannot be ruled out that over time one option will supplant the other.
Secondly, in addition to the degree of assimilation of the phonetic shell of the word, one must take into account the fact that, in fact, the borrowed phoneme does not have complete equivalents in the borrowing language, therefore we can say that during the borrowing process there are several ways to designate one phoneme. For example, the process of borrowing the English final –ing. There are several pronunciation options: [-in], [-ing], [-iɲ] and [-iƞ]. Most dictionary creators are inclined to the last option (camping, shoppling [ʃopiƞ]), while others, in principle, do not transcribe this borrowed morpheme.
In the English language there are combinations of sounds that do not exist for the French. Yes, in a word roast- beef The French abandoned the diphthong [əʊ], the long and the consonant group – .
It is also important to mention the influence of supersegmental units during the process of phonetic adaptation. Not all languages have the same characteristics, making assimilation difficult. This may result in a shift in stress and a change in the duration of sounds. For example, if English puts up with French stress on the last syllable, preserving its badinage (bədina˙Ʒ), apropos (apropō˙) (Oxford), then in all English borrowings in French the stress is transferred (in dictionary transcriptions this is, naturally, not indicated because in French the stress always falls on the last syllable pronounced).
The borrowing process is clearly reflected in the transcriptions offered by dictionaries. By comparing the transcriptions of dictionaries from different years of publication and of different orientations (for schoolchildren, technical, linguistic-cultural), one can judge the degree of assimilation of a new word. If in older dictionaries English language two variants of pronunciation of the borrowed word are given, where one of them is very close to the norms of the French phonetic system (Oxford (1978): cul-de-sac), then in the new dictionaries only one transcription is proposed, which is far from similar in pronunciation to the French word (Longman (2000): cul-de-sac).
The policy of supporting the French national language is such that the norm of pronunciation of a borrowed word is almost immediately established according to the rules of the French phonetic system and is strictly observed. For example, the English word leader was borrowed at the beginning of the 19th century, but in all dictionaries it retained one single pronunciation option - . Once the pronunciation norm has been established, it no longer changes, so many editors prefer not to indicate the transcription in the dictionary entry, but to provide reading rules in the appendices.
Adaptation of a new word occurs naturally, but explaining this process can sometimes be quite difficult. The process of borrowing and assimilation is reflected in dictionaries more clearly in English and, for the reasons indicated, less noticeably in French. The rapid process of establishing the norm of pronunciation of a French word does not have time to be reflected in French publications, when, as in English, a borrowed word takes longer to assimilate, so English dictionaries have time to record changes in pronunciation by dictionary transcription.
- Bloomfield L. “Language” Chapter XXV “Borrowings”
- Lobanova O. “Borrowings in modern French” http://olga-lobanova.livejournal.com/1249.html
- Haugen E. “The Borrowing Process”
- Yartseva V.N. “Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary” M.: Soviet Encyclopedia 1990
- David Crystal “A Dictionary of Language and Phonetics” 4th edition, Blackwell Publishers Ltd 1997
- “Larousse “Dictionnaire de Linguistique et des Sciences du Langage” Paris 1994
The history of the development of any language shows the futility of the efforts of philologists and public figures to completely clear the native language of foreign borrowings. The term “adaptation” is understood in this context as the assimilation of new borrowed words to the word forms of the borrowing language according to its phonetic laws. At one time, in the French language, it was proposed either to carry out a phonetic “Frenchization” of borrowings, changing the pronunciation or spelling of these words: cleub, smokingue, bildingue, pouloveur, footbolle etc., or find a new term by translating a foreign word into French: speakerine-parleuse (disuse), travel-voyagement. However, not all changes took root both spelling and phonetically, and even in the form of tracing paper. Spelling strives to maintain form native language, especially if the language uses the same alphabet as French. And as the most successful transfer of terms, we can only talk about the word “computer”, which has the form ordinateur, and, for example, instead of the word "Labour" the French language uses a very original word formation « travailliste ».
Unlike the vocabulary of a language, its phonetic system does not react to all the changes that occur so quickly. The stability of the phonemic system of any language, its resistance to various changes and influences is explained by the presence of a historically established strictly defined number of phonemes. The phonemic system is rightly considered one of the most stable in the language in relation to foreign language influences. However, the stability of the phonemic system of the language does not exclude numerous phenomena of phonological interference both in vocalism and consonantism. [Sveshnikova M.I. 2005; 34]
Any borrowings go through an adaptation stage, changing their phonetic appearance and sometimes their morphological structure. If phonetic and morphological changes are significant, the spelling of the borrowing may also change. For the sake of accuracy, it should be noted that in order to preserve the spelling of the source language, the phonetic sound of the word can be transformed.
The phonetic adaptation of Anglicisms in French is based on shifting the stress and reducing the final vowel. In masculine words the stress falls on the last syllable, and in feminine words on the penultimate syllable, so the final “ e" - deaf, unstressed.
To illustrate the phonetic transformation of Anglicisms, below is a table showing transcriptions of borrowed words.
Transformation of borrowings:
|
sale for cash without delivery |
|||
|
casing, shell |
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|
Computer |
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|
Internet |
|||
|
shilling (coin) |
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|
wireless internet |
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|
appearance |
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Thus, we see that from the above examples it follows: English words entering the French language are subject to French reading rules and are adapted phonetically accordingly. But it should be noted that borrowed words, undergoing phonetic adaptation, do not always retain their meaning and spelling.
Morphological adaptation
In addition to phonetic, a borrowed word also undergoes morphological adaptation - borrowed words, being part of a new language, are subject to its grammatical norms. Morphological adaptation of English borrowings in modern French consists of assigning the borrowed lexical unit to the grammatical class of words and endowing it with the corresponding grammatical categories. [Kozhevnikova E.I. 2010; 99-103]
The nature of this adaptation is determined by the extent to which the form of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological features of the borrowing language. If the form of a borrowed word does not find its place in the new language, then it exists in isolation and is perceived as one root, for example, rosbif (roast beef) or jockey (jockey). In the English language there is also no category of gender, therefore words borrowed from English in French are endowed with this grammatical category and acquire gender: le look(look, appearance), le jean(jeans), les stock(stock, assortment), undressing(outfit, clothes), le Net(Internet), un smartphone(smartphone), le sandwich(sandwich), etc.
Semantic adaptation.
Changes also occur in the meaning of the borrowed word. Although morphologically and semantically the same, for example, words in English as to cover, approach, conglomerate moved away from the original French, in our time they have influenced the acquisition of new meanings for these words, such as:
- · hand over full information about the event (Les journalistes couvrent la réunion au sommet);
- · method in science;
- · association of enterprises supplying products of the same
financial group.
Most often, a foreign word is borrowed in one of its meanings, less often in two (very rarely in three) meanings. This is the direct meaning of the word blush in English - a rush of blood to the heart, but the French language borrowed this word only in its figurative meaning - cosmetic product for the face ( Il existe maintenant un nouveau blush, mais sous forme de creme, dans un boitier qui assemble a celui des anciens “fards a joue"), word star in French it has the meaning of a movie star, a celebrity, but is not used in the meaning of a celestial body or a star as a figure.
The process of adaptation of various words in the French language is expressed primarily in their subordination to its grammatical structure.
Usually, in the initial period of functioning in the language, the borrowed word differs in pronunciation from the words of the French language, maintaining an almost exact reproduction of the foreign language original, which is reflected in both spelling and transcription: marketing- [`ma:kiti?; marketti?], round- , scooter-[`sku:t?; scooter], etc. The French language also tends to copy words denoting new concepts that have appeared in the source language, and only if copying is impossible, the French language “accepts” the foreign word meeting, which throughout its existence in the French language has undergone significant changes in spelling - meetingue, and in pronunciation. Over time, the borrowed word becomes more and more adapted into the language and loses its foreign pronunciation.
In borrowed words the final consonants are usually pronounced: tennis, week-end.
It is quite natural that words retain their natural form as long as their meanings do not change. It also happens that, having penetrated the French language, Anglicism does not retain any of its original meanings, but acquires a new one. Let's take, for example, the word footing, which entered the French language relatively recently. "Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary" gives the following definitions of this word:
Footing: 1) the position of your feet when they are safely on the ground or some other surface; 2) the basis on which sth is established or organized; 3) the position or status of sb/sth in relation to others; 4) the relationship between two or more people or groups. That is, according to the English-Russian dictionary, footing means 1) stable placement, position of the leg; 2) basis, base, foundation; 3) a strong, stable position (in society); 4) relationships.
As for the meaning of this word in French, according to “Le Robert Micro” footing - marche rapide pratiquée a titre d"exercise physique, that is, race walking or exercise. From this example it becomes clear that, despite the fact that some words of the French language, being anglicisms, borrow only the form of the word and its pronunciation, and not the meaning.
The policy of supporting the French national language is such that the norm of pronunciation of a borrowed word is almost immediately established according to the rules of the French phonetic system and is strictly observed. For example, the English word leader was borrowed at the beginning of the 19th century, but in all dictionaries it retained one single pronunciation option - [ lidir]. Once the pronunciation norm has been established, it no longer changes, so many editors prefer not to indicate the transcription in the dictionary entry, but to provide reading rules in the appendices.
Despite all the efforts of the French authorities aimed at preserving the national language, Anglicisms stubbornly continue to penetrate French speech. However, foreign words are not acquired mechanically, but change, becoming part of the French language system.
If a word has similar characteristics in both languages, it can be borrowed in its initial form, for example, the nominative singular for nouns or the infinitive for a verb, and then used in the borrowing language using its morphological rules. However, in almost all cases of borrowing when moving from one language to another, a word needs at least a slight change in its phonetic shell. Firstly, you need to take into account how far the form of the borrowed word deviates from the norms of pronunciation has changed under the influence of the new phonetic system, or, conversely, how much it has retained its previous phonetic shell. Thus, according to the Larousse Dictionnaire de Linguistique et des Sciences de Langue, the word week-end, borrowed at the beginning of the 19th century, has two pronunciation options: . In this case, there is a process of adaptation of the word to the phonetic system of the borrowing language, as evidenced by the appearance of a nasal sound and the transfer of stress to the last syllable. From about the end of the 19th century to the present day, both options are considered equal and are mentioned in dictionaries (Grand Larousse de la Langue Française and Le Petit Robert have been studied), but the possibility cannot be ruled out that over time one option will supplant the other.
Secondly, in addition to the degree of assimilation of the phonetic shell of the word, one must take into account the fact that, in fact, the borrowed phoneme does not have complete equivalents in the borrowing language, therefore we can say that during the borrowing process there are several ways to designate one phoneme. For example, the process of borrowing English finite - ing. There are several pronunciation options: [-in], [-ing], [-i?] and [-i?]. Most dictionary creators lean towards the latter option ( camping , shopping[?opi?]), while others, in principle, do not transcribe this borrowed morpheme.
The following lexical units can also serve as examples of phonetic adaptation of borrowings: o.k.. (Fine), l?interview [?Yutervju] (interview), le rugby(rugby).
In the English language there are combinations of sounds that do not exist for the French. Yes, in a word roast beef The French abandoned the diphthong [ ?? ], long [ i:] and consonant groups [ stb] - [rosbif]. In addition, words denoting exclusively English phenomena and things are not assimilated: lady, gentleman, bill, pudding.
There are sounds and combinations of sounds in English that are not found in French. So, in the French language there is no sound [h], therefore, for example, in words hot dog[?td?g] (hot dog), hamburger[гburgњr] (hamburger) h not readable. Thus, borrowed words are adapted and pronounced according to the rules of the French language. However, words denoting exclusively English phenomena and things do not adapt, but retain their appearance until their semantics changes. For example, lady(lady), gentleman(gentleman).
Adaptation of a new word occurs naturally, but it is sometimes quite difficult to explain this process. The process of borrowing and adaptation is little noticeable in French dictionaries. The rapid process of establishing the norm of pronunciation of a French word does not have time to be reflected in French publications. Until now, an important condition for the borrowing process is the presence of contact between two languages. But the main way of borrowing lexical units is written, that is, through various texts, including newspapers. [Guseva Yu.P. 2012]
In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must take hold in a new language, firmly enter its vocabulary - just as many foreign words entered the Russian language, such as bread, mug,umbrella,shop,cat,horse,dog,monkey,tie,compote,tractor,tank,harbor,sail,icon,church,choir,sport,market,bazaar,music,railway station,car,Goal,hut,glass,herring,soup,cucumber,tomato,cutlet,potato,pot,plate,tea,sugar etc., many of which turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign language origin (9).
When borrowing, the word is adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e. sounds missing from it are replaced with the closest ones. This adaptation can occur gradually: sometimes foreign words for some time retain in their pronunciation sounds that are absent in a given language - as, for example, in the German words Chance, Restorant, borrowed from the “prestigious” French language (both words are pronounced “in the French manner” "with a nasal vowel). In the Russian word borrowed from the same French jury a sound that is absent in the Russian language is also pronounced - soft and. In a word resume before the final spelling e a consonant sound is pronounced, intermediate between hard and soft (the so-called 3rd softening). Until recently, a similar sound was pronounced, for example, in the word cafe; now in this word, as in many others that came from French earlier ( pince-nez, muffler etc.), a hard consonant is pronounced. In this way, adaptation to the phonological system of the borrowing language occurs. The next stage of this process of mastering a foreign word is to replace hard consonants before the spelling e to soft ones. With a hard consonant, for example, the words are pronounced neckline,phoneme,timbre,pace etc.; with soft - words more “mastered” in Russian topic,decree,flight,theater,telephone,safe etc. Many words allow fluctuations in pronunciation (i.e. they are “halfway”): computer,dean,mayonnaise,awning etc.
In addition to phonetic, the borrowed word also undergoes grammatical (morphological) adaptation. The nature of this adaptation depends on how well the external appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological models of the borrowing language. Words like sport or railway station, easily entered the Russian language, immediately falling into the morphological class of masculine words of the 2nd declension (which includes the words table, house etc.). But, for example, the word shampoo, having entered the Russian language, did not immediately acquire a stable category of gender, having as a model both words of the masculine gender type horse or fire, and feminine words like rubbish or sagebrush; accordingly, the form of the creative work. case was like shampoo, so shampoo(later the masculine gender was assigned to this word). It is precisely due to the existence of a powerful mechanism of assimilation to existing models that such resistance from the Russian language is met by the notorious masculine gender of the word prescribed by the norm coffee, which is automatically likened to neuter words - such as field or grief(4).
Words of Greek origin -ma- such as problem or system, - in Russian they belong to the feminine gender, since the final -A(which was part of the stem in Greek) is interpreted as an ending inherent in feminine words in Russian. In the German language, where the relationship between the ending of a word and its morphological gender is much weaker and thus there is no pressure from the borrowing language system, all words going back to Greek words on -ma, belong to the neuter gender - like their Greek examples (das Problem, das System, das Thema, etc.); in French and Italian, where there is no neuter gender, such words are classified as masculine (10).
Of the stream of foreign words that floods the language in eras of social upheaval and scientific and technological revolutions, only a certain portion is retained. The process of adaptation of foreign words, controlled, like all linguistic processes, primarily by intralinguistic factors, can to some extent be regulated by extralinguistic forces - at least, the possibility of human and social intervention in this process is greater than in the case when speech is about phonetic and especially grammatical changes. In the linguistic community there are always conservative forces that prevent the penetration of foreign words that “clog” it into the language - as well as all innovations in general (changes in pronunciation, including stress, shifts in meaning, the penetration of jargon, professionalisms, etc. into the literary language. ). Protecting the language from foreign words usually also has a pronounced ideological connotation. However, regardless of the ideological aspirations that brought them to life, such conservative forces objectively perform a very important social function of maintaining the natural balance between the old and the new, necessary for the normal functioning of the language (11).
For example, the authority of A.I. Solzhenitsyn, who is an opponent of the use of foreign words and proposes replacing them with words of Russian origin, may be great enough to have some influence on the fate of certain foreign words. Sometimes the language community even takes administrative measures. Thus, in France, in order to combat, first of all, anglicisms, a list of approximately 3,000 words was recently introduced, limiting the possibility of using foreign words in texts created in French and intended for the media (television, advertising, etc.)
Lexical movements from one language to another are the subject of research by many scientists. Any language is, to a greater or lesser extent, replenished with new words either from its own resources or through borrowing. New words are borrowed constantly throughout human history. Some remain in the language and after several centuries are no longer perceived as borrowed, others disappear or have a narrow sphere of use.
The era of globalization is characterized by a transition to new level relationships between nations, and, consequently, their speaking subjects.
Reasons for borrowing
Borrowing words from one language to another is a natural consequence of linguistic contacts in the fields of science, culture, economics, politics and sports. Many linguists show increased interest in the reasons for the appearance of borrowings.
The factor of brevity as a decisive factor in the choice between a national or a foreign word is pointed out by D. S. Lotte Lotte, D. S. Issues of borrowing and organizing foreign language terms and term elements. M., 1982. - pp. 96-97.: “The main reason for foreign borrowing is rooted in the contradictions between the requirements for the accuracy of the term on the one hand, and the requirements for their practical brevity, on the other.”
Thus, exploring the reasons for borrowing, L.P. Krysin identifies a number of intralinguistic reasons Krysin L.P. Foreign words in modern Russian / L.P. Krysin. - Moscow: Science, 1996. - 208 p.: “1. The need to name a new thing, a new phenomenon, etc.; 2. the need to differentiate between conceptually similar, but still different concepts; 3. the need for specialization of concepts; 4. the tendency that a whole object, not divided into separate components, should be designated “whole”, undivided, and not by a combination of words; 5. socio-psychological reasons and factors of borrowing: the perception by the entire group of speakers or part of it of a foreign language word as more prestigious, “scientific”, “beautiful-sounding”, as well as the communicative relevance of the designated concept.” However, the current stage of development of society allows us to talk not only about intralinguistic, but also extralinguistic reasons for borrowing: this is the intensification of economic, political and cultural ties with other countries, which is reflected in the vocabulary of the language.
Classification of borrowings
Borrowings differ in the degree of their development:
1. words mastered by the language. This group includes words that have been completely “recycled” and firmly entered into everyday life - coat, car, football;
2. international words, common in many languages of the world and formed mainly from Greek and Latin words - millimeter, telephone, philosophy;
3. words denoting objects, phenomena and processes inherent in other countries or peoples - siesta, lunch, selva;
4. inclusions of foreign expressions - set expressions widely used in spoken and written speech (for example, C est la vie (“Such is life!”), happy end (“happy end”)).
Separately, there are tracing words formed on the basis of the grammatical structure of a foreign word, which served as a platform for a new word - for example, the Russian word “skyscraper”.
Borrowed vocabulary of limited use occupies a special place. It consists of words that are heterogeneous in terms of the degree of mastery of their language and in terms of stylistic coloring, which also allows us to identify several groups of borrowed vocabulary of limited use.
1. A significant part of borrowed book vocabulary consists of terms. Terms of foreign language origin for the most part do not have synonyms, which makes them indispensable in the scientific style.
2. Exoticisms are borrowed words that characterize specific national characteristics the lives of different peoples and are used when describing foreign reality. Against the background of other foreign language vocabulary, exoticisms stand out as words that are not fully lexically mastered by the receiving language.
3. Barbarisms, i.e. foreign words transferred into the language, the use of which is individual in nature. Unlike all lexical borrowings, barbarisms are not recorded in dictionaries of foreign words.
Adaptation of borrowings in the language
Borrowing from a foreign language, words undergo a path of adaptation. Borrowed words represent a special structure in terms of phonetic composition, structure, and semantic load, so their correct use causes difficulties. There are several types of adaptation: phonetic, grammatical, semantic, graphic.
Phonetic adaptation is the adaptation of a new foreign unit to the phonetic system of the language. Phonetic adaptation, therefore, consists in adapting borrowings to the phonetic norm of the receiving language, in replacing elements of the sound composition of a foreign language lexeme that are alien to the receiving language with corresponding elements of one’s own phonetic system.
Phonetic adaptation of lexical borrowings can be carried out by replacing the sounds of a foreign language with sounds that are as close as possible to them in sound.
In the process of semantic adaptation, meanings expand, narrow, or shift.
Grammatical adaptation is characterized by assigning to a lexeme new grammatical features inherent in the recipient language. When moving from one language to another, borrowed lexemes, as a rule, begin to exist according to the laws of the receiving language: they are built into its grammatical system, take on the grammatical indicators inherent in the recipient language, begin to change according to inflectional patterns characteristic of the recipient language, that is, they go through the stage morphological (grammatical) adaptation of borrowings. Thus, having entered the Russian language, many words acquire the ability to decline according to cases, numbers, etc.
Graphic adaptation occurs mainly in the course of borrowing words from eastern languages and languages with a different writing system, which is the Japanese language.
Chapter 1 Conclusions
Having considered various definitions of the term “borrowing” and correlating them with the classification of borrowings, an attempt was also made to define and consider various types of adaptation of borrowed words, which helped to draw the following conclusions:
1. Borrowing is an element of a foreign language (word, morpheme, syntactic construction, etc.), transferred from one language to another as a result of language contacts, as well as the very process of transition of elements of one language to another.
2. Borrowings adapt to the system of the borrowing language and are often so absorbed by it that the foreign language origin of such words is not felt by native speakers of this language.
3. There are four types of adaptation of borrowed words: graphic, semantic, phonetic and grammatical.
CHAPTER I. RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM OF ACQUISITION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE VOCABULARY IN DIFFERENT STRUCTURE LANGUAGES
1.1. Theoretical foundations for the study of borrowing.10
1.1.1. Borrowing as a linguistic phenomenon.10
1.1.2. Problems of terminology used in the work.16
1.1.3. Types of borrowing.20
1.1.4. Ways and sources of borrowing in Russian and Chinese languages.38
1.2. Psychological aspects of perception of foreign language vocabulary.52
1.2.1. Perception and memory.52
1.2.3. Perception of foreign language vocabulary.64
Conclusions on chapter 67
CHAPTER II. SYSTEM-STRUCTURAL STUDY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE VOCABULARY ACQUISITION IN THE RUSSIAN AND CHINESE LANGUAGES AT THE PRESENT STAGE
2.1. Methodology for selection and classification of material.71
2.2. Distribution of borrowed units by thematic groups. .89-100 2.2.1. Comparative analysis of the distribution of material into thematic groups in the Russian and Chinese languages.91
2.3. Formal adaptation of foreign language vocabulary in Russian and Chinese.100
2.3.1. Comparative analysis of phonetic systems in English, Russian and Chinese languages.104
2.3.2. Phonetic-graphic development of foreign words in the Russian language system.120
2.3.3. Phonetic-graphic development of foreign words in the Chinese language system.123
Conclusions on chapter 128
CHAPTER III. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF ADAPTATION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE VOCABULARY IN THE RUSSIAN AND CHINESE LANGUAGE SYSTEMS AND ITS PERCEPTION BY NATIVE SPEAKERS
3.1. Methodology for organizing and conducting an experiment.131
3.2. Peculiarities of perception of foreign language innovations by native speakers of Russian.135
3.3. Peculiarities of perception of foreign language innovations by native Chinese speakers.153
3.4. Comparative analysis of the mechanisms of perception of borrowed vocabulary by native speakers of Russian and Chinese languages.169
Conclusions on chapter 171
Introduction of the dissertation (part of the abstract) on the topic "Adaptation of foreign language vocabulary in the language system and the perception of native speakers: based on the vocabulary of Russian and Chinese languages of the late 20th - early 21st centuries."
The expansion of areas of linguistic interpenetration and mutual influence in our days has given particular significance to the study of the processes of borrowing and adaptation of foreign language vocabulary. Research approaches to the study of foreign language vocabulary and its development are very diverse. The processes of borrowing and adaptation as linguistic phenomena were devoted to the work of many domestic and foreign linguists: V. M. Aristova, O. S. Akhmanova, JI. Bloomfield, W. Weinreich, N. S. Valgina, V. V. Vinogradov, E. F. Volodarskaya, Gao Mingkai and Liu Zhentan, V. I. Gorelova, V. V. Ivanov, L. P. Krysina, A. A. Potebnya, A. A. Reformatsky, A. L. Semenas, Khan Shaosyan, E. Haugen, N. M. Shansky, Shi Yuwei, L. V. Shcherba. It is well known that the anthropocentric paradigm has come to the fore in modern linguistics, therefore the boundaries of the analysis of foreign language innovations have expanded in recent years to include the human factor. The works of O.V. are devoted to the problems of studying borrowings in sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic aspects. Vysochina, O.V. Ilina, E.V. Kakoripa, G.V. Pavlenko. Despite the work done by researchers, the mental aspects of perception, mastery, storage and retrieval of borrowed words in the mind of an individual have not been fully revealed. This dissertation research is devoted to the onisapial processes of perception and development of foreign language vocabulary borrowed by the Russian and Chinese languages at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries. The choice of these parameters is determined primarily by extralinguistic reasons. The active development of science and technology, the reorganization of the economic and political spheres, the change in social and cultural guidelines have become a kind of catalysts for the intensification of the process of borrowing and mass use foreign language vocabulary.
The relevance of studying the problems of borrowing foreign language vocabulary and its further adaptation is due to a number of linguistic and linguistic reasons. Intralingual reasons are associated with the massive nature of the use of foreign language innovations and their active participation in many language processes observed in the Russian and Chinese languages. modern stage.
The interest of linguists in the study of this area is based on insufficient knowledge of some aspects of the linguistic phenomenon of “borrowing” and the accompanying processes of adaptation of foreign words. The mobility and dynamism of borrowed vocabulary gives particular significance to the issues of evolution, since their solution is of great importance both for the study of language as a whole and for the understanding of individual language processes. When studying neologisms of foreign language origin, the value is that part of the borrowed material that has passed into usage, that is, it is adequately perceived and actively used by the language community. Thus, there is a need for a comprehensive study of the process of mastering foreign language innovations: in the language system, on the one hand, and by native speakers, on the other.
The problem of typological description of foreign language units in two language systems deserves special consideration, since on its basis it is possible to identify interlingual and particular patterns of the processes of borrowing and development.
The relevance of the chosen topic is also justified by the insufficient knowledge of the latest modern borrowings in terms of their quantity and thematic affiliation.
In connection with the above provisions, the goal of the study was determined - a systemic-structural and anthropocentric study of the process of mastering foreign language vocabulary.
This goal led to the formulation of the following tasks:
1) systematize existing concepts about lexical borrowing;
2) describe the ways and sources of penetration of foreign language vocabulary into various areas of the language;
3) study the psychological aspects of the perception of borrowed units separate groups native speakers of the recipient language;
4) characterize the main types of adaptation of foreign language vocabulary;
5) identify the peculiarities of perception of borrowed units by speakers of different ages;
6) highlight the main adaptation parameters.
The object of the study is lexical borrowings.
The subject of this work is the nature and mechanisms of mastering foreign language vocabulary by the recipient language system and different age groups of its speakers.
The research material was 600 words and phrases borrowed by the Russian and Chinese languages at the end of the 20th century. beginning of XXI centuries selected from modern dictionaries foreign words, popular youth magazines and electronic resources.
The complex nature of the object under study determined the choice of the following general scientific methods and techniques: receiving a continuous selection of borrowed units from dictionaries, printed publications, electronic resources; descriptive method, based on such research techniques as observation, comparison, classification and generalization; a method of system-structural analysis, which made it possible to establish the nature and mechanisms of formal adaptation of foreign language vocabulary; a method of psycholinguistic experiment used to determine the degree of mastery of foreign language borrowings in different age groups of native speakers of the recipient language; elements quantitative analysis, used to process the results of the experiment and to study the frequency of word usage.
When describing foreign language neologisms that are not recorded in dictionaries, the technique of lexicographic description was used.
The scientific novelty of the work lies in the comprehensive application of systemic-structural and anthropocentric approaches to describing the process of mastering foreign language neologisms; the development process is presented systematically, taking into account socio- and psycholinguistic parameters.
The theoretical significance of the study lies in the fact that it identifies and describes methods for identifying the meaning of borrowed words by different age groups of native speakers; criteria for mastering foreign language vocabulary have been determined; the thematic focus of borrowed vocabulary at the present stage of development of the Russian and Chinese languages was determined; the features and mechanisms of phonetic-graphic, semantic-semantic development of foreign language vocabulary borrowed by the languages under study at the turn of the century are described.
Practical significance The undertaken research lies in the possibility of using its results in developing lecture courses, organizing seminars on language typology, language theory, lexicology, lexicography, Russian as a foreign language. The proposed research methodology can be used in works devoted to the problems of lexical borrowing.
The conducted research allows us to make the following provisions for defense:
1. To determine the degree of mastery of foreign language borrowings in the system of the recipient language, the following are considered relevant: following signs: phonetic-graphic transmission of a foreign language word by means of the recipient language, the use of a foreign language word within the framework of the grammatical categories of the recipient language, consolidation (stabilization) of meaning; and to determine the degree of mastery of foreign language borrowings by native speakers, the necessary features are: their recognition, reproducibility, semantic and functional assimilation.
2. Language typology determines the nature, scale, specificity of borrowing, as well as the speed of adaptation processes in the recipient language.
3. The perception of foreign language vocabulary is a heterogeneous and complex process, which is determined by the individual personal characteristics of the perceiver, as well as the method of borrowing lexical units.
4. Identification of the meanings of unfamiliar/barely familiar lexical borrowings occurs at the associative level based on the internal form and sound-graphic design. Identification of foreign words already mastered by native speakers of the recipient language - on a situational level.
5. The correct contextual use of a borrowed word is not always a criterion for adequate understanding by its speakers.
The research materials were presented in the form of discussions at meetings of the Department of English and Chinese Languages of the Far Eastern Social and Humanitarian Academy, reports at graduate student seminars (Biysk, BG1SU named after V.M. Shukshin, 2006, 2009) and international conferences: II International Scientific and Practical Conference " General theoretical and typological problems of linguistics" (Biysk, November 30 - December 1, 2006), international scientific and practical conference (Biysk, December 4 - December 5, 2007).
The structure of the work is determined by the goals and objectives of the study. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a bibliography and appendices. The total volume of work is 232 pages (the main text is 197 pages).
Conclusion of the dissertation on the topic "Theory of Language", Borisova, Olga Sergeevna
Conclusions to the third chapter
1. The nature of borrowing in languages of different structures is not the same. In the Russian language, foreign language material initially penetrates into the literary language, and then into dialect groups, whereas in Chinese the opposite phenomenon is more common: before entering the literary language, a foreign word is borrowed in one or another dialect area, where interlingual contacts occur more often, and then penetrates into the literary language through internal borrowing. Thus, the speed of mastering foreign words in two languages is not the same. The special structure of the Chinese language system predetermines the presence of an intermediate stage at which the adaptation of a foreign language word to the system of the national Putonghua language occurs.
2. The speed of mastering foreign language innovations is not the same in different social groups of the language community and thematic areas. The highest level of recognition, knowledge and use of borrowings was shown by representatives of the group of recipients aged
20-30 years. At the present stage of development of the youth subsystem of the Russian language, computer vocabulary, vocabulary related to the everyday sphere and the sphere of culture and show business have been updated. Representatives of the older generation adequately perceive and more actively use borrowings from socio-political discourse. Among Chinese youth, everyday and computer vocabulary has become widespread, among older speakers - only everyday vocabulary.
3. The process of semantic adaptation of a foreign word involves a transformation of its semantic structure, which arises as a result of its ignorance or false/inaccurate understanding. The study showed that the main changes that the semantic structure of foreign words in two languages has undergone are: expansion of the semantic structure; narrowing of the semantic structure; shifting the hierarchy of values; change in semantic volume.
4. Identifiable words are explained differently by speakers, which is due to their individual characteristics and the nature of the borrowed units. Identification of familiar or unfamiliar vocabulary by native Russian speakers takes place at the associative level or based on external form words. Native speakers of Chinese more often rely on the internal form of the word or turn to foreign language prototypes. Identification of the meanings of familiar words among Russian speakers in most cases takes place at the situational level, while Chinese informants are prone to detailed interpretation or categorization. A carrier parameter such as age matters. Young people predominantly describe the concept, while representatives of the older generation strive to express their attitude towards it.
5. Formally correct and semantically precise use is not always a criterion for an accurate understanding of a borrowed unit. The study revealed cases of automatic memorization of a foreign language word and its formally correct use without understanding the meaning. In Chinese similar phenomenon excluded by the very nature of language and the peculiarities of perception.
6. The functional activity of a borrowed word depends to some extent on its stylistic affiliation. It is customary to evaluate the borrowing of a term and a common literary word differently. However, during the analysis of the semantic description of language borrowings, the phenomenon of a foreign word going beyond the scope of a special sphere and penetrating into other thematic areas was observed. This is due to the great permeability of certain spheres of modern discourse.
CONCLUSION
Based on the provisions submitted for defense, I would like to conceptually expand the conclusions of this dissertation research and outline its future prospects.
At the present stage of language development, changes in the lexical fund of the languages under study are primarily manifested in the intensification of the process of lexical borrowing. However, the volume of foreign language innovations and the speed of their penetration into the Russian and Chinese languages are not the same, which is associated with linguistic and extralinguistic factors. The lexical fund of the Russian language is more permeable than the vocabulary of Chinese. The complex phonetic organization, semantic significance of syllables, hieroglyphic writing and the peculiarities of the mentality of Chinese speakers are a kind of barrier to the penetration of foreign words into its system. In addition, the historical background and public policy China. China was isolated from the Western world for many centuries and limited to rare contacts with its immediate neighbors. After the implementation of the political course of “openness,” a large flow of foreign language vocabulary poured into the Chinese language, most of which, due to disabilities the language system still remains unassimilated. For this reason, the Chinese government has taken a number of measures aimed at combating the unreasonable use of foreign words.
The nature of borrowing in the two languages is also not the same; it differs not only in the speed and scale of foreign language units entering the language, but also in other factors, among which are the routes of penetration and the method of borrowing. In the Russian language, foreign language innovations directly penetrate into the literary language, while in Chinese, most foreign words enter the national Putonghua language not directly, but through the vocabulary of other dialects. More permeable, in terms of linguistic infusions, is the lexical system of the Guangdong dialect, which is widespread in the Guangdong province of the same name, in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Interlingual contacts occur here constantly, so the percentage of foreign words is higher, and they are more actively used by native speakers. This fact is also associated with another equally significant feature of the borrowing process in the Chinese language: the sound-graphic version of borrowing is a kind of semantic and functional indicator. Thus, vocabulary borrowed from the Chinese language can have the status of generally used or dialectally limited.
Differences in the methods of presenting foreign language material are manifested in the predominance of certain types of lexical borrowings. Thus, in the Russian language the number of phonetic borrowings prevails, in the Chinese language - word-formation cripples, which is also associated with the different capabilities of the two language systems to adapt borrowed vocabulary. The Russian language is based on alphabetic writing, while Chinese is based on hieroglyphic writing. Hieroglyphs are a means of recording semantically significant syllables, and not a means of conveying the sound of words. In addition, under the influence of national culture and traditions, the Chinese try to use in speech those words whose meaning clearly follows from the constituent morphemes.
Borrowing as a multifaceted linguistic phenomenon presupposes not only the appearance of foreign language vocabulary in the language system, but also its subsequent development. Mastering a foreign word in a language implies its adaptation to phonetic, spelling, grammatical and lexical systems. However, the phonetic-graphic transmission of a foreign word by means of the recipient language, correlation with certain grammatical categories are only external signs of mastery. Having been mastered by these systems, a foreign word, however, may not be learned by native speakers and is rarely used in speech. Thus, the concept of mastery includes not only formal, but also functional indicators: a word must not only be adapted to the system of the recipient language, but also acquired by native speakers. We are talking about two sides of a single process: the adaptation of borrowed vocabulary in the system of language and speech of native speakers. The first side is dictated by the need to adapt a foreign word to the sound-graphic forms typical of the recipient language, the second - directly by the tasks of communication.
The focus of this study on native speakers is explained by the fact that Ferdinand de Saussure noted earlier: there is nothing in language that would not come into it from speech, and speech is an individual category, directly related to the speaker. In the process of mastering foreign language vocabulary by native speakers of the recipient language, the word goes through a long and difficult path from ignorance, false interpretation to adequate understanding. The concept of “mastery” presupposes not only an adequate understanding, but also the active use of a borrowed unit in the speech of native speakers. Not in all cases, contextually correct use guarantees an accurate understanding of the semantics of a borrowed word. During the analysis of materials obtained as a result of a survey of native Russian speakers, cases of automatic memorization of a foreign language word and its formally correct use without understanding the meaning were identified. In the Chinese language, such a phenomenon is excluded by the very nature of the language and the peculiarities of national thinking.
A generalized analysis of the research results made it possible to determine the criteria for mastering foreign language vocabulary. Relevant signs of mastery of borrowings in the language system are:
1) phonetic-graphic transmission of a foreign word by means of the recipient language;
2) the use of a foreign word within the grammatical categories of the recipient language;
3) consolidation (stabilization) of the value.
The necessary parameters for mastering foreign language borrowings in the speech of native speakers are the following:
1) recognition - determined by the novelty coefficient;
2) reproducibility - determined by the number of speakers using borrowing in speech;
3) semantic assimilation - determined by the ability of speakers to explain the meaning of a borrowed unit;
4) functional assimilation - determined by the ability to semantically correctly use a borrowed word in speech.
Thus, based on the listed characteristics, we can distinguish five degrees of mastery of foreign language vocabulary: I. highest, II. high,
III. average,
IV. low, V. zero.
Words with the highest degree of mastery are words that are recorded in dictionaries, have a zero coefficient of novelty, a maximum frequency of use, and are formally correct and semantically accurately used by native speakers in speech constructions.
Words recorded in dictionaries, which are characterized by a low coefficient of novelty, are characterized by a high degree of mastery. high rate word usage, correct contextual use.
Words recorded in the dictionary in at least one of the meanings have an average degree of mastery, with average indicators of novelty, frequency of use in speech, correctly/partially incorrectly used by speakers in speech constructions.
Words with a low degree of mastery are words that have appeared in the language, but have not yet been recorded in dictionaries, with a low coefficient of frequency of use, with a high degree of novelty, and are incorrectly used by native speakers in speech constructions.
Words that have appeared in the language but have not yet been recorded in dictionaries, which are not recognized by native speakers and are not used in their own speech, have a zero degree of mastery.
It should be noted that when deciding on the distribution of borrowed vocabulary according to the degree of mastery, it is more advisable to rely on the results of the experiment in which representatives of the younger generation took part, since it is they who form the modern speech habit. In addition, the degree of mastery of commonly used and terminological vocabulary should be assessed differently, since the scope of the latter is functionally limited.
The work does not cover all the parameters that influence the nature of the acquisition of borrowed vocabulary by a language community. Further Analysis experimental materials may include a description of semantic modifications of words taking into account gender characteristics. Observations show that the methods of explicating the meanings of borrowed words are different for men and women: men explicate meanings at the level of archisemes, women - at the level of differential semes. In addition, men are more expressive in their assessment. However, these facts require careful experimental verification. The study can also be expanded by including such parameters of speakers as education, occupation, since foreign language vocabulary contains a huge number of very diverse social assessments.
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