Hormone name	Place of hormone production	Types of endocrine cells	Effect of hormones
Somatostatin	Stomach, proximal small intestine, pancreas	D cells	Inhibits the release of insulin and glucagon, most known gastrointestinal hormones (secretin, GIP, motilin, gastrin); inhibits the activity of gastric parietal cells and pancreatic acinar cells
Vasoactive intestinal (VIP) peptide	In all departments gastrointestinal tract	D cells	Inhibits the action of cholecystokinin, secretion hydrochloric acid and pepsin by the stomach, stimulated by histamine, relaxes smooth muscles blood vessels, gallbladder
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP)	Pancreas	D2 cells	Antagonist of CCK-PZ, enhances proliferation of the mucous membrane of the small intestine, pancreas and liver; participates in the regulation of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism
Gastrin	Antrum stomach, pancreas, proximal small intestine	G cells	Stimulates the secretion and release of pepsin by the gastric glands, stimulates the motility of the relaxed stomach and duodenum, as well as the gallbladder
Secretin	Small intestine	S cells	Stimulates the secretion of bicarbonates and water by the pancreas, liver, Brunner's glands, pepsin; inhibits secretion in the stomach
Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin (CCK-PZ)	Small intestine	I-cells	Stimulates the release of enzymes and weakly stimulates the release of bicarbonates by the pancreas, inhibits the secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, enhances contraction of the gallbladder and bile secretion, enhances motility of the small intestine
Motilin	Proximal small intestine	EC2 cells	Stimulates the secretion of pepsin by the stomach and the secretion of the pancreas, accelerates the evacuation of stomach contents
Histamine	Gastrointestinal tract	EC2 cells	Stimulates the secretion of stomach and pancreatic secretions, expands blood capillaries, has an activating effect on the motility of the stomach and intestines
Insulin	Pancreas	Beta cells	Stimulates the transport of substances through cell membranes, promotes glucose utilization and glycogen formation, inhibits lipolysis, activates lipogenesis, increases the intensity of protein synthesis
Glucagon	Pancreas	Alpha cells	Mobilizes carbohydrates, inhibits the secretion of the stomach and pancreas, inhibits the motility of the stomach and intestines

Metabolism in the body. Plastic and energetic role of nutrients.

The constant exchange of substances and energy between the body and the environment is a necessary condition its existence and reflects their unity. The essence is that entering the body nutrients, after digestive transformations, are used as a plastic material. The energy generated in this case replenishes the body's energy costs. The synthesis of complex body-specific substances from simple compounds absorbed into the blood is called assimilation or anabolism. The breakdown of body substances into final products, accompanied by the release of energy, is called dissimilation or catabolism. These processes are inextricably linked. Assimilation ensures the accumulation of energy, and the energy released during dissimilation is necessary for the synthesis of substances. Anabolism and catabolism are combined into a single process with the help of ATP and NADP. Through them, energy is transferred for assimilation processes. Proteins are basically plastic material. They are part of cell membranes and organelles. Body fats are triglycerides and phospholipids. and sterols. Their main role is energetic. During lipid oxidation, it is released greatest number energy, so about half of the body’s energy expenditure is provided by lipids. They are also an energy accumulator in the body, because they are stored in fat depots and used as needed. Fat depots make up about 15% of body weight. Fats have a certain plastic role, since phospholipids, cholesterol, and fatty acids are part of cell membranes and organelles. In addition, they cover the internal organs. Lipids are also sources of endogenous water. When 100 g of fat is oxidized, about 100 g of water is formed. Special feature performs brown fat. The polypeptide contained in its fat cells, when the body cools, inhibits the resynthesis of ATP due to lipids. As a result, heat production sharply increases. Carbohydrates mainly play an energy role, as they serve as the main source of energy for cells. They accumulate as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Carbohydrates have a certain plastic significance, since glucose is necessary for the formation of nucleotides and the synthesis of some amino acids.

Methods for studying the energy balance of the body.

The relationship between the amount of energy received from food and the energy released during external environment called the body's energy balance. There are 2 methods for determining the energy released by the body.

· 1.Direct calorimetry. Its principle is based on the fact that all types of energy ultimately turn into heat. Therefore, with direct calorimetry, the amount of heat released by the body into the environment per unit of time is determined. To do this, use special chambers with good thermal insulation and a system of special pipes through which water circulates and is heated.

· 2.Indirect calorimetry. It consists in determining the ratio of released carbon dioxide and absorbed oxygen per unit of time. This is a complete gas analysis. This ratio is called the respiratory coefficient (RK).

An incomplete gas analysis may be used. The amount of energy entering the body is determined by the quantity and energy value nutrients. Their energy value investigated by burning in a Berthelot bomb in the atmosphere pure oxygen In this way the physical caloric coefficient is obtained. For proteins it = 5.8 kcal/g, carbohydrates 4.1 kcal/g, fats 9.3 kcal/g. For calculations, the physiological caloric coefficient is used. For carbohydrates and fats it corresponds. For proteins it is less than physical - 4.1 kcal/g. In the body they are broken down into nitrogenous compounds containing residual energy.

133. Basal metabolism, the significance of its definition for the clinic.

The amount of energy expended by the body to perform vital functions important functions, Called the basal metabolic rate (BM). This is the expenditure of energy to maintain a constant body temperature, work internal organs, central nervous system, glands. Basal metabolism is measured by direct and indirect calorimetry methods at basic conditions: lying down with relaxed muscles, at a comfortable temperature, on an empty stomach (no earlier than 12 hours after eating). According to Rubner and Richet's surface law, the amount of basal metabolism is directly proportional to the surface area of ​​the body. This is due to the fact that the greatest amount of energy is spent on maintaining a constant body temperature. In addition, the amount of basal metabolism is influenced by gender, age, conditions environment, nature of nutrition, state of the endocrine glands, nervous system. Men's basal metabolic rate is 10% higher than women's. On average, its value in men is 1700 kcal/day, in women 1550. In children, its value, relative to body weight, is greater than in adulthood. In older people, on the contrary, it is less. In cold climates or in winter, basal metabolism increases and decreases in summer. In hyperthyroidism it increases sharply, and in hypothyroidism it decreases. Importance for the clinic: determination of basal metabolism (according to the ratios of body weight, age, height and body surface) is necessary for the preliminary diagnosis of thyroid hyperfunction (basal metabolism). Myxedema, failure of the pituitary gland, gonads - ↓ basal metabolism.

The gastrointestinal tract secretes many substances involved in digestion. Some of them are transported by the blood to target tissues and therefore can be considered hormones.

Hormones produced in the gastrointestinal tract are peptides; many of them exist in multiple molecular forms. The most studied are gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (pancreozymin). The gastrointestinal tract also produces glucagon (enteroglucagon), its molecular weight is twice that of glucagon synthesized in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas.

In addition, in the epithelium digestive tract Other hormones are also produced, which are still less studied.

Many of these peptides are found not only in the gut, but also in the brain; some, such as cholecystokinin, are found in the skin of amphibians. Apparently, these substances can play the role of hormones and neurotransmitters, and sometimes also act in a paracrine way.

The molecules of these peptides apparently arose early in the process of evolution; they are found in animals different groups. Thus, secretin-like activity was found in intestinal extracts of vertebrates of all classes and in some mollusks.

Gastrin

Gastrin (from the Greek gaster - “stomach”) is a hormone involved in the regulation of digestion. It is produced by G cells belonging to the diffuse endocrine system gastrointestinal tract, which are located in the mucous membrane of the stomach, duodenum, and also in the pancreas. Gastrin is present in three forms in the human body. Conditions for the production of gastrin are a decrease in stomach acidity, consumption of protein foods, and stretching of the stomach walls. G cells are also responsible for activity vagus nerve. The action of gastrin is aimed at the parietal cells of the gastric mucosa, which produce hydrochloric acid. In addition, it affects the production of bile, pancreatic secretions and gastrointestinal motility, the growth of epithelium and endocrine cells. It is normal to increase the production of hydrochloric acid when eating food and decrease its level after digestion is complete. Increasing the level of hydrochloric acid through a feedback mechanism reduces the production of gastrin.

Zollinger-Ellison syndrome develops with increased gastrin production. The reason for this is gastrinoma - a tumor, often malignant, that produces gastrin, while the secretion is not inhibited by increased stomach acidity. The tumor can be located within the gastrointestinal tract (in the pancreas, duodenum, stomach) or outside it (in the omentum, ovaries). Clinical picture Zollinger-Ellison syndrome includes ulcers of the gastrointestinal tract that are resistant to conventional therapy and impaired bowel function (diarrhea). Gastrinoma is common in Wermer syndrome (MEN-1) - hereditary disease, in which tumor transformation affects parathyroid glands, pituitary gland and pancreas.

In addition, gastrin secretion increases significantly with pernicious anemia- Addison-Beermer disease - when synthesis is disrupted internal factor Castle, responsible for the absorption of vitamin B12, and the parietal cells of the stomach wall are destroyed. In addition to Castle factor, these cells secrete hydrochloric acid. The clinical picture of the disease is determined atrophic gastritis and vitamin B12 deficiency (anemia, impaired epithelial regeneration, intestinal disorders, neurological symptoms).

Other gastrointestinal diseases also increase gastrin production, but to a lesser extent than the conditions described above.

Secretin

It is a hormone produced by the mucous membrane upper section small intestine and involved in the regulation of the secretory activity of the pancreas. Discovered in 1902 by English physiologists W. Bayliss and E. Starling (Starling, based on his study of hormones, introduced the very concept of hormone into science in 1905). By chemical nature, secretin is a peptide built from 27 amino acid residues, of which 14 have the same sequence as in glucagon. Secretin was obtained in pure form from the intestinal mucosa of pigs. It is released mainly under the influence of hydrochloric acid from gastric juice that enters the duodenum with food gruel - chyme (the release of secretin can be induced experimentally by introducing dilute acid into the small intestine). Absorbed into the blood, it reaches the pancreas, where it enhances the secretion of water and electrolytes, mainly bicarbonate. By increasing the volume of juice secreted by the pancreas, secretin does not affect the formation of enzymes by the gland. This function is performed by another substance produced in the intestinal mucosa - pancreozymin. Biological definition secretin is based on its ability (with intravenous administration animals) increase the amount of alkali in pancreatic juice. Currently being carried out chemical synthesis this hormone.

Cholecystokinin.

Cholecystokinimn (previously also called pancreozymin) is a neuropeptide hormone produced by cells of the mucous membrane of the duodenum and proximal part jejunum. In addition, it is found in pancreatic islets and various intestinal neurons. Stimulators of cholecystokinin secretion are proteins and fats entering the small intestine from the stomach as part of the chyme, especially with the presence of fatty acids long chain (fried foods), constituent components choleretic herbs(alkaloids, protopine, sanguinarine, essential oils etc.), acids (but not carbohydrates). Gastrin-releasing peptide is also a stimulator of cholecystokinin release.

Cholecystokinin stimulates the relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi; increases hepatic bile flow; increases pancreatic secretion; reduces pressure in the biliary system: causes contraction of the pylorus of the stomach, which inhibits the movement of digested food into the duodenum. Cholecystokinin is a blocker of hydrochloric acid secretion by parietal cells of the stomach

Glucagon.

Glucagon, an animal and human hormone produced by the pancreas. Stimulates the breakdown of reserve carbohydrate glycogen in the liver and thereby increases blood glucose levels

The digestive process, which, as is known, consists of the hydrolysis of nutrients along the gastrointestinal tract, the absorption of hydrolysis products, mainly in the form of monomers, from the intestines into the blood and lymph and their transportation to places of deposition and disposal, is provided by a number of functions (secretory, motor enzymatic, etc.), as well as their coordination in time and space with the help of diverse central and local regulatory mechanisms.

Stomach, proximal small intestine, pancreas D-cells Inhibits the release of insulin and glucagon, most known gastrointestinal hormones (secretin, GIP, motilin, gastrin); inhibits the activity of parietal cells of the stomach and acinar cells of the pancreas.

Vasoactive intestinal(VIP) peptide. In all parts of the gastrointestinal tract, D-cells inhibit the action of cholecystokinin, the secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsin by the stomach, stimulated by histamine, relaxes the smooth muscles of blood vessels and the gall bladder.

Pancreatic polypeptide(PP) Pancreas D2 cells Antagonist of CCK-PZ, enhances proliferation of the mucous membrane of the small intestine, pancreas and liver; participates in the regulation of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.

Secretin. Small intestine S-cells Stimulates the secretion of bicarbonate and water by the pancreas, liver, Brunner's glands, pepsin; inhibits secretion in the stomach.

Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin(CC-PZ) Small intestine I-cells Stimulates the release of enzymes and weakly stimulates the release of bicarbonates by the pancreas, inhibits the secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, enhances contraction of the gallbladder and bile secretion, enhances the motility of the small intestine.

Enteroglucagon. Small intestine EC1 cells Inhibits the secretory activity of the stomach, reduces gastric juice K+ content and increases the Ca2+ content, inhibits the motility of the stomach and small intestine.

Motilin. Proximal small intestine EC2 cells Stimulates the secretion of pepsin by the stomach and the secretion of the pancreas, accelerates the evacuation of stomach contents.

Gastroinhibitory peptide(GIP). Small intestine K-cells Inhibits the release of hydrochloric acid and pepsin, the release of gastrin, gastric motility, and stimulates the secretion of the colon.

Substance P. Small intestine EC1 cells Strengthens intestinal motility, salivation, inhibits insulin release.

Willikinin. Duodenum EC1 cells Stimulates rhythmic contractions of the villi of the small intestine.

Enterogastron. Duodenum EC1 cells Inhibits secretory activity and gastric motility.

Serotoni. n Gastrointestinal tract EC1, EC2 cells Inhibits the release of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, stimulates the release of pepsin, activates pancreatic secretion, bile secretion, intestinal secretion.

Histamine. Gastrointestinal tract EC2 cells Stimulates the secretion of stomach and pancreatic secretions, dilates blood capillaries, and has an activating effect on the motility of the stomach and intestines.

Insulin. Pancreas Beta cells Stimulates the transport of substances across cell membranes, promotes glucose utilization and glycogen formation, inhibits lipolysis, activates lipogenesis, increases the intensity of protein synthesis.

Glucagon. Pancreas Alpha cells Mobilizes carbohydrates, inhibits the secretion of the stomach and pancreas, inhibits the motility of the stomach and intestines.

Introduction:

Ø Biochemical mechanisms of regulation of digestion and hormones of the gastrointestinal tract

Conclusion:

Literature:

Introduction

Proteolytic enzymes are divided according to the characteristics of their action into exopeptidases, removing terminal amino acids, and endopeptidases, acting on internal peptide bonds.

When normal HCl secretion is disrupted, hypoacid or hyperacid gastritis, differing from each other in clinical manifestations.

The process of digestion, which, as is known, consists of the hydrolysis of nutrients along the gastrointestinal tract and the absorption of hydrolysis products.

Conclusion

The digestion of proteins, that is, their breakdown into individual amino acids, begins in the stomach and ends in small intestine. Digestion occurs under the action of gastric, pancreatic and intestinal juices, which contain proteolytic enzymes (proteases or peptidases). Proteolytic enzymes belong to the class of hydrolases.

The bulk of amino acids formed in the digestive tract as a result of protein digestion are absorbed into the blood and replenish the body’s amino acid pool. A certain amount of unabsorbed amino acids undergo decay in the large intestine.

Literature

1. Berezov T.T., Korovkin B.F. Biological chemistry. M.: Medicine, 1990.

2. Human biochemistry. In 2 volumes / Murray R., Grenner D., Mayes P., Rodwell W. M.: World, 1993.

3. Byshevsky A.Sh., Gersenev O.A. Biochemistry for the doctor. Ekaterinburg, 1994

4. Grinstein B., Grinstein A. Visual biochemistry. M.: GEOTAR Medicine, 2000.

5. Knorre D.G., Myzina S.D. Biological chemistry. M.: Higher School, 2000.

Various gastrointestinal hormones produced by the gastrointestinal glands affect the secretion digestive enzymes, the functioning of the pancreas and gallbladder, as well as the functioning cardiovascular system. Sufficient synthesis hormonal substances has an effect on a person’s mood, well-being and stress level. All endocrine elements of the digestive tract are combined under the complex concepts of “second brain” or “gastrointestinal nervous system”.

What hormones are needed for the gastrointestinal tract?

Hormonal substances have a high biological activity. They must be produced exactly in the quantity established by the physiological norm. The gastrointestinal tract secretes many types of hormones that provide chemical processing, regulate the contractile movements of intestinal muscles, and activate or block the production of enzymatic substances.

Name	Place of synthesis
Somatostatin	Gastric wall
	Pancreas
	All parts of the gastrointestinal system
Pancreatic polypeptide	Pancreas
Gastrin	Antrum of the stomach
	Pancreas
	Upper small intestine
Bombesin	Gastric wall
	Proximal duodenum
Secretin	Small intestine
Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin	Duodenum
Enteroglucagon	Small intestine
Motilin	Upper duodenum

Function of hormonally active substances

Vomiting is provoked by biologically active substances to throw out poor-quality food.

The action of hormones often extends to several body systems. Endocrine function The gastrointestinal tract provides a person with biologically active substances that support proper metabolism throughout the gastrointestinal system, protect the mucous membranes from contamination with food pathogenic microorganisms. It is they who provoke vomiting, diarrhea or other emergency functions aimed at throwing out low-quality food. The table shows the main properties of hormonal substances of the stomach:

Properties	Names	Function Description
Inhibition	Vasoactive intestinal peptide	Inhibition of the activities of others biologically active substances produced by the pancreas and gastric mucosa
	Bulbogastron
	Somatostatin
Stimulation	Gastrin	Activation of production by cells of the gastric mucosa
	Bombesin	Stimulates the synthesis of enzymatic substances in the pancreas
Vasodilation	Vasoactive intestinal peptide	Relaxation of smooth muscle fibers of blood vessels and gallbladder
Regeneration	Pancreatic polypeptide	Acceleration of cell division of the pancreas, liver and small intestine
Metabolism regulation	Pancreatic polypeptide	Managing the metabolism of sugars and fats
	Secretin	Maintaining water metabolism
	Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin
	Enteroglucagon	Control normal concentration ions in the stomach
Motor stimulation	Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin	Activation of the smooth muscles of the stomach, duodenum and gallbladder
	Motilin
	Gastrin

Sex hormones and gastrointestinal hormones, as well as maintaining their balance, play a very important role in ensuring the normal functioning of the human body. So, what are these hormones, how do they affect our body, and how to maintain their balance, read our article.

Hormone estrogen

Estrogens are a group female hormones, which are present in small quantities in male body. The main hormones of this group are estradiol, estriol and estrone.

• Estradiol is the most active hormone and is used to treat hormonal deficiency in women.
• Estrone is responsible for the development of the uterus, as well as the formation of secondary sexual characteristics.
• Estriol - is formed from the first two types. His high level in the urine of a pregnant woman indicates in good condition fetus

Why are estrogens needed?

These hormones control full development genitals. Under their influence, the following changes occur in a woman’s body:

• secondary sexual characteristics are formed;
• sizes increase;
• an acidic environment is provided;
• fat cells are distributed on the hips, buttocks and breasts, which gives the figure a femininity.

Symptoms of excess estrogen:

• bleeding;
• long and abundant;
• breast tenderness;
• mood swings.

Symptoms of estrogen deficiency:

• irregular periods;
• painful periods;
• lack of sexual desire;
• mood swings;
• memory impairment;
• skin problems.

Progesterone

Gastrointestinal hormones

Leptin and ghrelin

Hormones that regulate hunger. They "tell" you when it's best to eat and when to move away from the refrigerator. Ghrelin, produced in the stomach and pancreas, alerts the brain when the stomach is empty. Leptin, secreted by fat cells, releases appetite-suppressing hormones when you're full. This slim duo can be confused by sugar, which interferes with leptin production, causing ghrelin to send unreasonable hunger signals to the brain.

How to achieve balance?

Reduce the amount of sugar in your diet. Women should consume no more than six spoons per day, according to the American Heart Association.

Serotonin

Mainly produced in the intestines. It is, among other things, responsible for mood and memory, which is why it is often called a hormone. good mood. It also controls the ability to multitask. Abnormal levels of the hormone are associated with obsessive behavior, getting stuck on one idea, and depression.

How to achieve balance?

The body needs carbohydrates to make serotonin, so a low-carb diet can cause your hormone levels to drop (and your mood to drop). "The production of serotonin also requires the amino acid tryptophan, which is abundant in foods like yogurt and bananas," says Susan M. Kleiner, Ph.D., nutritionist and author of The Feel-Good Diet.