Plan:

1. Language is a means of creation artistic images.

2. Language characters- a means of typification and individualization of characters.

3. Synonyms and antonyms.

4. Special lexical resources of the language.

5. Special visual arts language. Epithet and comparison. Paths.

6. The originality of poetic syntax.

Key words: Language work of art, poetic measure, typification and individualization of language, synonyms, archaisms, historicisms, neologisms, professionalisms, vulgarisms, barbarisms, epithet, metaphor, trope, comparison, metanymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony, sarcasm, litotes, periphrasis, repetition.

In a work of art, the main means by which the artist achieves individualization of the image of life is language. Language is a form public consciousness, covering all sides surrounding a person reality. Creating living pictures or a living expression of human experiences, feelings, and emotionally charged thoughts is possible only if the writer masters the entire richness of his national language. Only under this condition will he be able to find those few, or even the only, as they say, words and expressions that will most adequately convey what is being depicted. Language, playing a colossal role in the creation of artistic images, can only be understood in connection with the figurative system that underlies the work.

The imagery system determines the motivation and selection of lexical, intonation-syntactic, and sound means with the help of which this or that image is created. In this sense, language is form in relation to the image, just as the image is form in relation to ideological content works. Consequently, studying the language of a poetic work means understanding its images - ideas - in a new, subtler and more accurate way. The language of a person characterizes the characteristics of his life experience, culture, mentality, and psychology.

Individualization of the language of the characters serves at the same time as a means of its typification. It is very important to understand the relationship between the typical and the special in the language of the characters. How, in the work of the great writer, the interpenetration of the general and the individual, the typical and the special, tangibly appears in the language of the character. The organizing role in the linguistic design of a work is played by the author's speech, often by a special intonation, which is reflected in the pronunciation of the characters. Sometimes, in order to most directly express the author's attitude towards the depicted, writers act as storytellers as characters.

Sometimes writers make narrators people who have a different social profile than theirs, a different culture, a different psychological make-up. This is done to create the desired angle of view or internal interaction between the voices of the narrator and the writer himself. A writer’s search for the necessary word is not an easy task. Draft manuscripts poetic works convincingly demonstrate the thoroughness, painstaking, and sometimes grandeur of the plans. To enter into consideration of all the verbal riches means to understand what is called the language of a work of art.

Synonyms- words that are close in meaning. The creation of synonyms captures different shades of similar but not identical concepts. The use of synonymous words and expressions helps the writer to diversify his speech and avoid repetition.

Antonyms- words that have opposite meanings. They are used in cases where the writer needs to sharply contrast different phenomena with each other, to create the impression of contrast. Writers use special lexical resources of the language as a means of figuratively reproducing reality. The historical past is the source from which obsolete words that have fallen out of use - archaisms - come from.

Archaisms are used in works depicting the distant past and contribute to the creation of an appropriate historical flavor. Historicisms are words denoting phenomena of the past that no longer exist (sagittarius, blunderbuss, clerk, etc.).

Neologisms- new words that did not previously exist in the language: airplane, car (it is also necessary to note the author’s neologisms: new words created by the writers themselves).

The means of artistic representation are dialectisms, or provincialisms, i.e. words not used in literary language, but typical only for residents of certain regions. Professionalisms- words and expressions characteristic of representatives of certain social groups and people of certain professions.

Barbarisms- words and figures of speech foreign origin, which have not yet entered national language writer, or cannot enter. Vulgarisms- words of a rude everyday nature, curses, etc.

Artistic expressiveness Epithets, comparisons, metaphors, metonymies, and hyperboles also contribute to literary depiction.

Epithet - an artistic definition that distinguishes an essential, from the author’s point of view, feature in the depicted phenomenon. For example: The lonely couple turns white, etc. Epithets can be figurative (... “In the fog of the blue sea”...), lyrical (here the writer’s attitude to the depicted “Divine night! Charming night!” is directly expressed), constant (stable, folklore combinations: a beautiful maiden, a good fellow, the field is clean, etc.). Epithetation is an extremely important means for the writer to individualize and concretize a phenomenon or its particular property.

The simplest type of trail is comparison, i.e. - the bringing together of two phenomena with the aim of clarifying one by the other with the help of it secondary signs. For example: eyes like stars, etc. Writers resort to it when highlighting essential features in what is depicted can be expressed expressively by comparing it with something. A classic example of a comparison that runs through all works is Lermontov’s famous poem “The Poet,” in which the state of the poet and poetry is revealed through the comparison of the poet with a dagger.

Metaphor- a trope based on the similarity of two phenomena, a hidden comparison. Unlike a simple comparison, where there is something, it is compared and with what it is compared, metaphor has only the latter. Thus the phenomenon about which we're talking about, is only implied in the metaphor. Allegory (allegory) is close to metaphor.

Allegory can cover the entire work, the creatures, phenomena, objects depicted in allegorical works always mean other persons, facts, things.

Metonymy- is created not by comparing similar objects and their characteristics, but by bringing together similar objects that are in one or another external or internal connection with each other.

Synecdoche- a special type of metonymy. It is based on the transfer of meaning based on the quantitative relationship between these phenomena.

Hyperbola artistic exaggeration litotes- artistic is an understatement. The functions of hyperbole and litotes are to focus attention on the exaggerated or downplayed features of phenomena as significant.

Irony- an expression of ridicule in which the external form is opposite to the internal meaning.

Sarcasm- evil or bitter irony. Irony reveals the essence of the depicted object and clearly reveals the author's attitude towards it.

Periphrase- replacing a proper name or title with a descriptive expression.

The syntactic structure of each writer's language is very unique. General character the writer’s creativity leaves a certain stamp on the poetic syntax. L.N. Tolstoy sought to show people in all the “details of thoughts and feelings: to reveal the dialectics of the soul.” This internal attitude determined the phrases that were so characteristic of him, outwardly very complex, but extremely precise in meaning. A.S. Pushkin in his prose works revealed the characters of people, depicting mainly their actions and behavior. That is why Pushkin’s phrases are short and laconic: the facts are conveyed with transparent clarity. M. Lermontov adopted Pushkin’s manner of conveying facts in short sentences, but at the same time he was inclined to more complete disclosure psychological states actors. Thus, general principles the artistic depiction of reality that this writer adheres to are the basis of the syntactic means he needs for a more complete depiction of the world around him. Repetition is a syntactic construction that is based on the repetition of individual words that carry the main semantic load. The repetition of initial words and phrases in sentences, verses or lines is called anaphora. Epiphora – repetition of final words and expressions in verses or lines.

Literature:

1. B.V. Tomashevsky Stylistics and versification - L., 1990.

2. Russian writers About the language of fiction. - M., 1989.

3. S.Ya. Marshak Education with words. - M., 1981.

4. A.V. Fedorov Language and style of a work of art. - M, 1988.

6. M.M. Bakhtin Aesthetics of verbal creativity. - M., 1989.

7. O. Sharafuddinov Features of poetic language and style. - T., 1988.

LECTURE 6. POETRY

Plan:

1. Poetry.

2. Versification.

3. Auxiliary rhyme elements of verse

4. Rhyme. Methods of rhyming

5. Strophic.

Key words: Prosody, versification, verse, prose, measure, rhythm, foot, tonic versification, syllabic versification, syllabic-tonic versification, meter of verse, iambic, trochee, dactyl, anapest, amphibrachium, rhyme, types of rhymes, methods of rhyming, stanza, types of stanzas .

Poetry - branch of literary criticism that studies sound form literary works. The main material for such study is poetry, i.e. speech is the most organized in terms of sound.

Poetry is divided into three parts: phonics(euphonics) - the study of combinations of sounds: actually metric(rhythm) - the doctrine of the structure of verse: stanza- the doctrine of combinations of verses.

Initially, poetry was a normative science, a system of rules and “liberties” that taught how poetry “should” be written. Only in the 19th century did it become a research science, studying how poetry was and is actually written. The ultimate goal poetry is to establish the place of the sound series in the general structure of the work.

Versification is a way of organizing the sound composition of poetic speech studied by poetry. Studying poetry allows you to answer three questions:

– What is the difference between verse and prose?

– How does a verse in one language differ from a verse in another language or era?

- How does a verse of one poem differ from a verse of another?

The word “verse” translated from Greek means “row”, i.e. speech, clearly divided into relative segments, correlated and commensurate with each other. Each of these segments is also called a verse and is usually highlighted in a separate line in writing. Of course, when read meaningfully, prose is also divided into segments, speech beats; but this division is syntactically arbitrary.

– The difference between poetic speech and prose was successfully defined by B. Tomashevsky: poetic speech is divided into comparable units, and prose is continuous speech;

“verse has an internal measure, but prose does not.”

For modern perception The first point is more significant than the second. Both features give rhythm to speech. The first sign is international. In the languages ​​of all nations, it is customary to print each verse on a separate line, thereby highlighting it as the basic unit of poetic speech. The second feature is purely national and depends on the phonetic structure of a given language, primarily on the rhyme of neighboring verses:

– Cross called the rhyme of the first verse with the third, the second with the fourth.

– Annular called a rhyme in which the first verse rhymes with the fourth, and the second with the third.

– Steam room called a rhyme in which the first verse rhymes with the second, and the third with the fourth.

Such a complex rhythmic unit as a stanza is based on the order of rhymes in poetry. Stanza is a group of poems with a specific rhyme arrangement. A stanza is a complete syntactic whole. The most elementary stanza - couplet, where the lines rhyme with each other. The elegiac distic consisted of two lines: the first was a hexameter, the second was a pentameter.

Quatrain (quatrain) - rhyme can be varied.

An octave is an eight-line verse in which the first verse rhymes with the third, the second verse with the fourth and sixth, the seventh with the eighth. Tercines are tercets with an original rhyming method.

A sonnet is a fourteen-line poem divided into two quatrains and two final tercets.

Nine - gives various types arrangement of rhymes, among which the Spenser stanza is famous.

Rubai is an aphoristic quatrain with rhyming and energetic development of thought.

Literature:

1. L.I. Timofeev Essays on the theory and history of Russian poetry. - M., 1988.

2. V.E. Kholshevnikov Fundamentals of poetry. Russian versification. - M., 1992.

3. V.A. Kovalenko Practice of modern versification. - M., 1982.

4. B.V. Tomashevsky Verse and language Philological essays. - M., 1989.

5. M. Bakhtin Aesthetics of verbal creativity. - M., 1989.

6. B.V. Tomashevsky Stylistics and versification. - L., 1989.

|7. L.I. Timofeev Fundamentals of the theory of literature. - M., 1983.

8. M.B. Khrapchenko Creative individuality of the writer and the development of literature. - M., 1985.

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THE LANGUAGE OF FICTION, poetic language, the language of verbal art is one of the languages ​​of spiritual culture, along with the language of religion (cult) and the language of science. Together with them, over the past few centuries, in European-type cultures, the language of fiction has been opposed, first of all, to the standard literary language as the language of official life. Just like other languages ​​of spiritual culture, poetic language is focused on conscious and active change, on the search for new expressive possibilities, and in other cases - on originality, while “language changes in the mass” happen completely “independently of any deliberate creativity."

The languages ​​of spiritual culture and literary language to some extent share the functions of expressing meaning and conveying it. The aesthetic “orientation to expression” was conceptualized by I.G. Haman, I.G. Herder, W. von Humboldt, and German romantics. They gave impetus to linguistic poetics, primarily in Germany (among German followers of B. Croce: K. Vossler, L. Spitzer) and in Russia (A. A. Potebnya and his school, and later - theorists of the Moscow Linguistic Circle and Petrograd OPOYAZ ). Spitzer wrote: “Language is first of all communication, art is expression... only with the high sophistication that the corresponding disciplines achieved, language began to be considered also as expression, and art as communication.” By Russian “formalists”, expressiveness, understood as a special (“emotive”) function of language, was separated from its proper “poetic function”, manifested in the “reflectiveness” of the word, in its “turning towards itself”, or, what is the same, in “focusing on the message for its own sake.”

Unlike literary language, the language of fiction (like other languages ​​of spiritual culture), due to its “orientation to expression,” is organically connected with the content and directly contains it. In verbal art, unity of form and content is achieved, if not complete, then at least partial: here any element of the external linguistic structure can be semanticized. Not to mention vocabulary and phonetics, “including grammatical categories, used for correspondence by similarity or contrast, in poetry there are all categories of changeable and unchangeable parts of speech, numbers, genders, cases, tenses, types, moods, voices, classes of abstract and concrete words, negations, finite and non-finite verbal forms, certain and indefinite pronouns or members and, finally, various syntactic units and constructions.” In poetic language, in addition to the auxiliary, grammatical role, all these forms can play a role figurative means. Let us at least recall L.V. Shcherba’s observations on the semantics of gender and voice, dating back to A. Grigoriev and Potebnya, in G. Heine’s poem about the pine and palm tree (“Ein Fichtenbaum steht einsam...”) and in his Russian translations: “It is absolutely obvious... that the masculine gender (Fichtenbaum, not Fichte) is not accidental... and that in its opposite feminine Palme, he creates the image of a man’s unsatisfied love for a distant, and therefore inaccessible, woman.”

The close connection between content and expression also determines the semiotic nature of the most significant differences between the language of fiction and other languages ​​of spiritual culture. If a religious-mythological symbol in the limit gravitates towards omni-meaning, and a scientific term - towards unambiguity, then an artistic (poetic) image in general case is ambiguous, “figurative”, because it combines “direct” and “figurative” meaning. Since all verbal art is, to one degree or another, fiction, “the real meaning of an artistic word is never confined to its literally" But poetic fiction is almost always more or less plausible, and therefore the possibility of its real interpretation never completely disappears. And since to express poetic meaning, “broader” or “more distant,” the artist of words freely uses the forms of everyday language, the direct, primary, general linguistic meaning is sometimes considered as “ internal form"as a link between external forms language and poetic semantics.

The simultaneous actualization of the “poetic” (artistic) and “prosaic” (everyday) understanding of the text creates the prerequisites for the potential double meaning of almost any linguistic form: lexical, grammatical, phonetic. This is clearly seen in the example of word order in a poem. Inversion in a general literary language is a strong emphatic means, but in poetry the order of words is syntactically much freer, and therefore, its violation is less significant, especially since grammatical freedom in verse is strictly limited by size and rhyme. The placement of a word is predetermined by its rhythmic form and often cannot be changed without damaging the given line or stanza. In Pushkin’s “The Stone Guest” (1830), Don Guan asks a monk about Don Anna: “What kind of strange widow is this? And not bad?” - “We, hermits, should not be seduced by the beauty of women...” From the point of view of standard syntax (“We, hermits, should not be seduced feminine beauty"), in the Monk's remark all the words are out of place, but this makes them stand out no more than the word "not bad", the rhythmic position of which does not in the least contradict the grammatical one.

This feature of many poetic contexts was absolutized by B.V. Tomashevsky. He considered that “verse is speech without logical stress”: all the words in it are equally stressed and therefore “much more significant.” However, even where word order is strictly connected with the metrical structure, inversion, if it does not diverge from the meaning, can be read in an expressive manner, especially when supported by transfer: “The first step is difficult and the first path is boring. I overcame early adversity. I set the craft as the footstool of art...” (A.S. Pushkin. Mozart and Salieri. 1830). It is hardly possible to categorically protest against phrasal stress on the words “overcame”, “craft”, but one cannot insist on such phrasing, because the order of words is quite explainable by the pressure of the meter. On the other hand, as G.O. Vinokur noted, inversions in poetic language “were not always generated by versification conditions, for example, in Lomonosov’s line: “warmed by the gentle waters of the south” - the rhythm does not prevent the rearrangement of the words “gentle” and “water” . In such cases, there is a temptation to look for a semantic background: “As if I had committed a grave duty” (“As if I had committed a grave duty”); “Although I deeply feel the insult, Although I love life a little” (here is an undoubted inversion, destroying the parallelism: “Although I deeply feel the insult, Although I love life a little”), etc. (“Mozart and Salieri”). However, even in these examples it is impossible to see an unambiguous emphasis, since lines of this kind are perceived against the backdrop of many poems in which inversions are only a concession to meter or even ornamental poetism, a tribute to literary tradition. This is how grammatical ambiguity is realized: through the “poetic” meaning of the inversion the “prosaic” one shines through, and vice versa.

The originality of the language of fiction is not only functional-semantic, but also formal. Thus, in the field of phonetics of the Russian poetic language, there may be non-normative shifts, shifts in stress, as well as differences in sound distribution or sound composition, in particular the inclusion of sounds from other languages ​​as “quotations”: “Before the Genius of Fate, it’s time to humble yourself, rubbish” - rhyme for the word “carpet” (A.A. Blok. “ Autumn evening was. To the sound of glass rain...", 1912). Particularly noteworthy is the phenomenon of complete poetic reduction of vowels, the possibility of which was pointed out by V.K. Trediakovsky in “A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems” (1735). Among modern authors, D.A. Prigov often uses this technique: “But justice will come And the free peoples of the Isthmus of Gibraltar will reunite with their homeland” (“Isthmus of Gibraltar ...”, 1978).

Features of syntax in the language of fiction may consist in the use various kinds non-literary constructions: foreign language, archaic or colloquial. Syntax colloquial and artistic speech They are brought together, among other things, by frequent omissions of grammatically implied forms, but the functions of ellipsis in literature and beyond often do not coincide: in poetic speech, the restoration of omitted members is often impossible and undesirable, since vaguely polysemantic semantics is more consistent with the poet’s intention. In the 12 lines of M.I. Tsvetaeva’s poem “On the hills - round and dark ...” (1921) there is not a single subject and predicate: “On the hills - round and dark, Under the ray - strong and dusty, With a boot - timid and meek - For a cloak - stained and torn." But the absence of verbal predicates not only does not deprive the poem of its dynamics, but on the contrary, it accentuates it: in place of one missing verb there are four dashes, emphasizing the swiftness and inexorability of the movement of women’s boots following the man’s cloak.

The area of ​​poetic syntax also includes all deviations from standard language norms, expressed in a violation of grammatical connection. The deformation of general linguistic grammar can be expressed in such figures as ellipsis, anacoluth, sylleps, enallag, parcellation, etc. A special type of solecism is the omission of prepositions, as in the poems of D.D. Burliuk or V.V. Mayakovsky: “Once the plague approached the throne "(V. Mayakovsky. Me and Napoleon, 1915) - if desired, this and similar examples can be interpreted as both ellipsis and anacoluth. A separate category of cases consists of inversions; sometimes the poetic order is so free that it obscures the meaning: “His yearning bones, And by death - guests alien to this land, not calmed down” (A.S. Pushkin. Gypsies. 1824; instead of “guests of this alien land, not calmed by death”). Finally, in poetry there can be an overcoming of syntax and the liberation of semantics from the connection of formal relations. Vinokur discovered movement in this direction in Mayakovsky: “Morgan. Wife. In corsets. It won’t move” (“Proletarian, nip the war in the bud!”, 1924). This is not a parcellation: “words that could be ... subject and predicate,” the poet “separates ... with inserted phrases.”

Poetic morphology is all types of violation of standard inflection. This is, firstly, the change of unchangeable words and, secondly, conversion, i.e. transition of a word to another grammatical category: change of gender or declension, singular for nouns that in a literary language have only the form plural, and vice versa, transition relative adjectives in qualitative, change of verb aspect (for example, simple future tense for imperfect verbs), reflexivity irreflexive verbs, transitivity of intransitives and much more. Plus, poetic morphology allows for colloquial, dialectal or archaic inflection: “I am - of course you are too!” (G.R. Derzhavin. God. 1784).

Along with poetic form-creation there is poetic word-creation. If it is carried out in accordance with general linguistic word-formation models, it should be classified as poetic lexicology, but if the writer’s word-creation sets in motion models that are unproductive or unproductive outside of fiction, then we are dealing with poetic word-formation. The most radical inventor of occasional methods of word production, admittedly, was V. Khlebnikov, who expanded the poetic vocabulary through, for example, “abortion” of consonants (by analogy with declension and conjugation): “creators”<- «дворяне», «могатырь» <- «богатырь», «можар» <- «пожар». Если у Маяковского большинство неологизмов строится из готовых, легко вычленяемых морфем, то у Хлебникова «смехачи» и «гордешницы» - это ранний этап его словоновшества, от которого он ушел к неологизмам типа «резьмо» и «мнестр».

Perhaps the most noticeable differences between the poetic language and the language of official life are concentrated in the field of vocabulary: a work of any genre can organically include Slavicisms and historicisms, archaisms and occasionalisms, barbarisms, professionalisms, argotisms, dialectisms, vernacular, slang, which are outside the scope of the commonly used dictionary, as well as swearing and swearing. Less attention is usually paid to poetic phraseology, the sphere of interest of which is not only the formation of more or less stable figures of speech inherent in a given author, direction or era, but also the transformation of general linguistic phraseological units in the language of fiction. N.V. Gogol, apparently, most often resorted to the “decomposition of phraseological adhesions into component parts” among Russian writers. In just one sentence from “Taras Bulba” (1835), he contaminates four clichés: “And the gray ones, standing like gray doves, nodded their heads and, blinking their gray mustache, quietly said: “A well spoken word!” Pigeons are gray, and geldings are gray; they usually twirl their whiskers and blink their eyes.

In addition to creative deviations from the literary language, writers often take advantage of the right to make an accidental, unintentional mistake. Their language also allows for any distortion of national speech in order to convey the state of mind or indicate the ethnic or social background of the speaking subject: “My friend, my ears are blocked; Slice it a bit more…” (A.S. Griboyedov. Woe from Wit). A literary text easily includes foreign language inserts that appear with any frequency (for example, in macaroni poetry) and of almost any length (phoneme, morpheme, word, combination of words, phrase, etc.). At the same time, multilingual elements can be clearly differentiated, as in A.K. Tolstoy’s “History of the Russian State” (1868), or they can be “fused” so that the “superstrate language” becomes inseparable from the “substrate language” (classical sample - “Finnegans Wake”, 1939, J. Joyce). In some cases, a work of national literature is entirely created in another language: for example, the languages ​​of Russian fiction were French and German, Latin and Church Slavonic.

Due to the ordering and semantization of external form, a new level arises in the language of fiction - compositional. Of course, texts compiled according to the rules of literary language also have their own composition. But the composition of the composition is different. In the language of official life, composition is determined primarily by pragmatics, and in the languages ​​of spiritual culture - by semantics: a change in composition directly affects the content (it is not difficult to imagine what will happen if we rearrange the composition of novels by L. Stern or M. Yu. Lermontov in accordance with the plot). In this regard, the “reverse” order of phrases, paragraphs, chapters, and parts is, in principle, no different from the reverse order of words. In the normal case, the theme (what is known) precedes the rheme (what is communicated). Likewise, in a narrative work, what happens earlier usually precedes what happens later; the opposite sequence is a compositional inversion, which, just like a syntactic inversion, is stylistically and semantically marked.

The content of the compositional level of the language of fiction consists of semantic structures, which do not fit into the framework of a simple sentence. This is, for example, the plot: it as a whole or its individual links can be common to a number of works, authors, literary eras, i.e. belonging not to the text, but to the language (in fact, it was the linguistic nature of the plot of a fairy tale that was established by V.Ya. Propp). In poetic language, the main unit of the compositional level is . The same strophic form, found in many works, has its own meaning, its own “semantic halo”, which makes its use more or less appropriate here and now. A stanza can not only enhance the semantics of other linguistic forms, but also impart to the text its own semantics associated with the history of its use: for example, the odic tenth, the “high” semantics of which is due to its connection with the solemn and spiritual ode, falling into the “low” works of I. S. Barkova, N.P. Osipova and others, gave their works a comical flavor.

There are truly countless examples of how compositional forms accompany general semantics. It is more difficult to demonstrate how composition forms meaning on its own, without the support of other linguistic means. The simplest example of this kind is given by N.M. Karamzin’s poem “Cemetery” (1792), written in two voices. The first voice paints the picture of a sepulchral dream exclusively in dark tones, the second - exclusively in light ones. Symmetrical replicas alternate one after another, occupying three lines each. It would seem that polar points of view on “life after life” are represented equally - no one is given preference. However, the “dark voice” in this duet begins, and the “light” one ends, and therefore the poem becomes a hymn to eternal peace: “The wanderer is afraid of the dead vale; Feeling horror and trembling in his heart, he hurries past the cemetery.” - “A tired wanderer sees the abode of the Eternal World - throwing away his staff, He remains there forever.” The author's position is stated only with the help of compositional forms, and this is one of the fundamental differences between aesthetic language and everyday language: in everyday dialogue, unlike poetic dialogue, the one who has the last word does not always win. Thus, behind the imaginary dialogical nature of the composition, the monologic nature of the artistic expression is hidden.

The language of fiction is a kind of mirror of literary language. Rich literature means rich literary language. And it is no coincidence that great poets and writers, for example Dante in Italy, Pushkin in Russia, become the creators of national literary languages. Great poets create new forms of literary language, which are then used by their followers and all those who speak and write in this language. Artistic speech appears as the pinnacle achievement of language. In it, the possibilities of the national language are presented in the most complete and pure development.

The artistic style differs from other functional styles of the Russian language by its special aesthetic function. If colloquial speech performs a communicative function - the function of direct communication, scientific and official business - the function of a message, then the artistic style performs an aesthetic function, the function of an emotional-figurative impact on the reader or listener.

This means that artistic speech should arouse in us a sense of beauty, beauty. Scientific prose affects the mind, artistic prose affects the feeling. A scientist thinks in concepts, an artist - in images. The first one argues, analyzes, proves, the second one draws, shows, depicts. This is the specificity of the language of fiction. The word performs an aesthetic function in it.

Of course, this function is characteristic to a certain extent of other styles. Each of them strives to be expressive in their own way. However, for an artistic style, the focus on expressiveness is the main, determining one.

The word in a work of art seems to be doubled: it has the same meaning as in the general literary language, as well as an additional, incremental one, associated with the artistic world, the content of this work. Therefore, in artistic speech, words acquire a special quality, a certain depth, and begin to mean more than what they mean in ordinary speech, while remaining outwardly the same words.

This is how ordinary language is transformed into artistic language; this, one might say, is the mechanism of action of the aesthetic function in a work of art.

The peculiarities of the language of fiction include an unusually rich, varied vocabulary. If the vocabulary of scientific, official business and colloquial speech is relatively limited thematically and stylistically, then the vocabulary of artistic style is fundamentally unlimited. The means of all other styles can be used here - terms, official expressions, colloquial words and phrases, and journalism. Of course, all these various means undergo aesthetic transformation, fulfill certain artistic tasks, and are used in unique combinations. However, there are no fundamental prohibitions or restrictions regarding vocabulary. Any word can be used if it is aesthetically motivated and justified.

Here, for example, is an excerpt from L. Leonov’s novel “Russian Forest,” in which special vocabulary is widely and uniquely used. Its use is motivated by the fact that it is a fragment of a lecture by the hero of the work, Professor Vikhrov.

This is how darkness and disorder sets in in nature. The springs are extinguished, the lakes become peaty, the creeks are filled with arrowleaf and kuga... Thus a monster enters our house, getting rid of which will require immeasurably more effort than we spent on expelling the forest. According to popular belief, the forest attracts water and then releases it in a cloud on its further journey. This means that he harnesses every drop of water into double and triple work. The larger the forests, the more often the rain will touch the ground with the constant two hundred millimeters of precipitation that we receive on average from the ocean per year.

Colloquial speech is close to the language of fiction in its naturalness and simplicity of expression, democracy, and accessibility. It is widely used not only in dialogues, but also in the author’s speech.

Journalism is attracted to fiction by the possibility of an immediate, direct assessment of what is depicted. Artistic speech is an objectified picture of the world. When the writer has a need for evaluation, the need to speak on his own behalf, journalistic digressions appear in the work.

However, such diversity does not lead to chaos or lexical diversity, since each linguistic means in a work of art is motivated meaningfully and stylistically, and all together they are united by their inherent aesthetic function.

Such a wide range in the use of speech means is explained by the fact that, unlike other functional styles, each of which reflects one specific aspect of life, the artistic style, being a kind of mirror of reality, reproduces all spheres of human activity, all phenomena of social life. The language of fiction is fundamentally devoid of any stylistic closure; it is open to any styles, any lexical layers, any linguistic means. This openness determines the diversity of the language of fiction.

One of the features of fiction is artistic and figurative speech concretization.

An important feature of the artistic style is the individuality of the syllable. Every great writer develops his own style of writing, his own system of artistic techniques.

Masters of words create amazingly vivid visual and expressive means of language (tropes), constantly replenishing its treasury, from which any native speaker can take handfuls of countless treasures.

Epithet and comparison. How many of them have been invented! Many have become habitual and have lost their brightness.

The most amazing and widespread among visual and expressive means is metaphor, or hidden comparison.

Some writers use a very common trope in an original way - allegory, i.e. the embodiment of an abstract concept or idea in a specific artistic image.

Can be very expressive personification - transferring human properties to inanimate objects and abstract concepts.

Very expressive figure of speech gradation- such an arrangement of words in which each subsequent one contains an increasing meaning, due to which the overall impression produced by the group of words increases. Gradation allows you to convey the deep experiences of a person in a moment of shock. Here, for example, is how Hamlet’s feelings are described in Shakespeare’s tragedy (translated by Mich. Lozinsky):

Thus, the essence of individuality is not in the absolute novelty of metaphors, images, combination of words, but in the constant renewal of poetic formulas and their change.

However, cliches are completely unacceptable in the language of fiction - mechanically applied walking epithets, frequently used comparisons that are unable to evoke any emotions, and cliched expressions.

The language of fiction has a strong impact on the literary language and constitutes its main wealth.

Features of artistic speech.

1. Imagery. A word in artistic speech contains not only meaning, but in combination with other words it will create an image of an object or phenomenon. The generally accepted meaning of an object acquires a specific form, as it were, which makes the object visible, tangible and perceptible.

2. Emotionality. Literary speech is emotionally charged, so it affects the reader, causing appropriate emotions. This feature manifests itself in different ways.

3. Semantic capacity. Artistic speech is particularly brevity, accuracy and expressiveness.

Imagery, emotionality and semantic capacity are achieved through the entire structure of artistic speech by the selection of words, that is, vocabulary, a special combination of words, that is, syntax; phonetic features of the language are often used.

The book sphere of communication is expressed through an artistic style - a multi-tasking literary style that has developed historically and stands out from other styles through means of expressiveness.

Artistic style serves literary works and aesthetic human activity. The main goal is to influence the reader with the help of sensory images. Tasks by which the goal of the artistic style is achieved:

• Creating a living picture that describes the work.
• Transferring the emotional and sensory state of the characters to the reader.

Features of artistic style

Artistic style has a purpose of emotional impact on a person, but it is not the only one. The general picture of the application of this style is described through its functions:

• Figurative-cognitive. Presenting information about the world and society through the emotional component of the text.
• Ideological and aesthetic. Maintaining the system of images through which the writer conveys the idea of ​​the work to the reader awaits a response to the plot's concept.
• Communicative. Expressing the vision of an object through sensory perception. Information from the artistic world is connected with reality.

Signs and characteristic linguistic features of artistic style

To easily identify this style of literature, let’s pay attention to its features:

• Original syllable. Due to the special presentation of the text, the word becomes interesting without contextual meaning, breaking the canonical patterns of text construction.
• High level of text organization. Dividing prose into chapters and parts; in a play - division into scenes, acts, phenomena. In poems, metric is the size of the verse; stanza - the study of the combination of poems, rhyme.
• High level of polysemy. The presence of several interrelated meanings for one word.
• Dialogues. The artistic style is dominated by the speech of characters as a way of describing phenomena and events in the work.

The literary text contains all the richness of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The presentation of the emotionality and imagery inherent in this style is carried out using special means called tropes - linguistic means of expressive speech, words in a figurative meaning. Examples of some tropes:

• Comparison is part of the work, with the help of which the character’s image is complemented.
• Metaphor is the meaning of a word in a figurative sense, based on an analogy with another object or phenomenon.
• An epithet is a definition that makes a word expressive.
• Metonymy is a combination of words in which one object is replaced by another on the basis of spatio-temporal similarity.
• Hyperbole is a stylistic exaggeration of a phenomenon.
• Litota is a stylistic understatement of a phenomenon.

Where is the fiction style used?

The artistic style has incorporated numerous aspects and structures of the Russian language: tropes, polysemy of words, complex grammatical and syntactic structure. Therefore, its general scope of application is enormous. It also includes the main genres of works of art.

The genres of artistic style used are related to one of the genres that express reality in a special way:

• Epic. Shows external unrest, the author’s thoughts (description of storylines).
• Lyrics. Reflects the author's inner emotions (the experiences of the characters, their feelings and thoughts).
• Drama. The presence of the author in the text is minimal, there is a large number of dialogues between the characters. Such works are often made into theatrical productions. Example - Three sisters A.P. Chekhov.

These genres have subtypes, which can be divided into even more specific varieties. Basic:

Epic genres:

• Epic is a genre of work in which historical events predominate.
• A novel is a large manuscript with a complex plot line. All attention is paid to the life and fate of the characters.
• A short story is a work of smaller volume that describes the life story of a hero.
• A story is a medium-sized manuscript that has the plot features of a novel and a short story.

Lyric genres:

• Ode is a solemn song.
• An epigram is a satirical poem. Example: A. S. Pushkin “Epigram on M. S. Vorontsov.”
• Elegy is a lyrical poem.
• A sonnet is a poetic form of 14 lines, the rhyme of which has a strict construction system. Examples of this genre are common in Shakespeare.

Genres of dramatic works:

• Comedy - the genre is based on a plot that makes fun of social vices.
• Tragedy is a work that describes the tragic fate of heroes, the struggle of characters and relationships.
• Drama – has a dialogue structure with a serious storyline showing the characters and their dramatic relationships with each other or with society.

How to define a literary text?

It is easier to understand and consider the features of this style when the reader is provided with a literary text with a clear example. Let's practice determining what style of text is in front of us using an example:

“Marat’s father Stepan Porfiryevich Fateev, an orphan from infancy, was from a family of Astrakhan binders. The revolutionary whirlwind blew him out of the locomotive vestibule, dragged him through the Mikhelson plant in Moscow, machine gun courses in Petrograd ... "

Main aspects confirming the artistic style of speech:

• This text is based on conveying events from an emotional point of view, so there is no doubt that this is a literary text.
• The means used in the example: “a revolutionary whirlwind blew out, dragged” is nothing more than a trope, or rather, a metaphor. The use of this trope is inherent only in literary texts.
• An example of a description of a person’s fate, environment, social events. Conclusion: this literary text belongs to the epic.

Any text can be analyzed in detail using this principle. If the functions or distinctive features described above immediately catch your eye, then there is no doubt that this is a literary text.

If you find it difficult to deal with a large amount of information on your own; the basic means and features of a literary text are not clear to you; sample assignments seem difficult - use a resource such as a presentation. A ready-made presentation with illustrative examples will clearly fill gaps in knowledge. The area of ​​the school subject “Russian language and literature” is served by electronic sources of information on functional speech styles. Please note that the presentation is succinct and informative and contains explanatory means.

Thus, once you understand the definition of artistic style, you will better understand the structure of works. And if a muse visits you and you want to write a work of art yourself, follow the lexical components of the text and the emotional presentation. Good luck with your studies!

Details Category: “The great, powerful and truthful Russian language” Published 04/13/2016 17:01 Views: 2312

The language of fiction, i.e. The language of writers is guided by the norms of literary language, but contains a lot of individual things that are not generally accepted.

What does the concept of “literary language” mean?

Literary language

The literary language is the processed part of the common language. Literary language has written norms; all verbal types of culture are created in it; it has stylistic differentiation and functions in written and spoken forms.
Literary language is the common written language of a certain people or several peoples. This is the language of official business documents, school teaching, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form. The historically established literary language is not static, but mobile and has the ability to develop.

Correlation between literary and national languages

There is a difference between them: the national language is a form of the literary language, but not every literary language becomes the national language.
The Russian literary language began to take shape from the beginning of the 17th century, and it became the national language in the first half of the 19th century, in the era of A. S. Pushkin.

Russian literary language

The creation of the Russian literary language is usually associated with Cyril and Methodius. Church Slavonic writing, introduced by Cyril and Methodius in 863, was based on the Old Church Slavonic language, which was derived from South Slavic dialects, in particular the Macedonian dialect of Old Bulgarian. The Church Slavonic language was a book language, not a spoken language, the language of church culture, which spread among many Slavic peoples.

Lavrenty Zizaniy. Miniature from the 18th century. (from the original of the 17th century)
To systematize Church Slavonic texts and introduce uniform language norms in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the first grammars were written: the grammar of Laurentius Zizania (1596) and the grammar of Meletius Smotrytsky (1619).

Meletius Smotrytsky
The process of formation of the Church Slavonic language was basically completed at the end of the 17th century. The first Russian literary works used the writing of Cyril and Methodius: “The Tale of Bygone Years” (1113), “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”, “The Life of Theodosius of Pechora”, “The Sermon on Law and Grace” (1051), “The Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh” ( 1096) and “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (1185-1188).

The most important reforms of the Russian literary language and system of versification in the 18th century. were made by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. Lomonosov was the author of scientific Russian grammar. In this book, he described the riches and possibilities of the Russian language. Lomonosov's grammar was published 14 times and formed the basis for the course of Russian grammar of Barsov (1771), a student of Lomonosov.
N. M. Karamzin played a major role in the formation of the Russian literary language. But Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin is considered the creator of the modern literary language.
Now let's move on to talking directly about the language of fiction.

Composition of the language of fiction

The language of fiction includes literary language, dialects, urban vernacular, youth and professional jargon, argot (the language of a socially closed group of people, characterized by the specificity of the vocabulary used, the originality of its use, but not having its own phonetic and grammatical system) - everything , which is an integral part of the common (national) language.
In addition, the language of fiction is distinguished by a variety of author's styles, as well as the presence of tropes. Let's talk about this in more detail.

Writer's style

Each writer has his own individual author's style (idiostyle). The first to explore idiostyle in the 20th century. started by Yu. N. Tynyanov, Yu. N. Karaulov and V. V. Vinogradov. Currently, many scientists are engaged in research in this area.
What is meant by author's style in literature? These are all those features that distinguish the works of one author from the works of other authors and reflect his individuality (most often this refers to the language of the work, since it is the linguistic features that are most clearly manifested). It is impossible to judge the author's style from one work, although in all the author's works some common features and the author's moral attitude to the subject are preserved. “Whatever the artist depicts: saints, robbers, kings, lackeys, we look for and see only the soul of the artist himself,” wrote L.N. Tolstoy in the Preface to the works of G. de Maupassant.
For example, the stylistic originality of the prose of F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881) is manifested in the special “speech intensity” of his heroes. Dostoevsky's novels always contain extensive dialogues and monologues, which are characterized by verbal repetition, slips of the tongue, and interruptions of speech.

“On the way to Porfiry, Razumikhin was in a particularly excited state.
“This, brother, is wonderful,” he repeated several times, “and I’m glad!” I'm glad!
“What are you happy about?” - Raskolnikov thought to himself.
“I didn’t even know that you also pawned it from the old woman.” And... and... how long has it been? So how long have you been with her?
“What a naive fool!”
“When?” Raskolnikov paused, remembering, “yes, three days before her death, I was with her, it seems.” However, I’m not going to buy things back now,” he picked up with some kind of hasty and special concern for things, “after all, again I only have a silver ruble... because of this damned delirium yesterday!..
He spoke particularly impressively about delirium.
“Well, yes, yes, yes,” Razumikhin hurriedly assented and unknown to what, “so that’s why you were then... partly amazed... and you know, in your delirium you kept remembering some rings and chains!.. Well yes, yes... It’s clear, everything is clear now.”

Style L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910) is distinguished by a detailed psychological analysis of the characters, for which the writer needs a very complex syntax. Tolstoy's complex sentences sometimes take up half a page of printed text. Here is an example of complex syntax in L. Tolstoy (chapter 2 of part III of volume “War and Peace”: “When he went over in his imagination this whole strange Russian company, in which not a single battle was won, in which not a single one was taken in two months banners, no guns, no corps of troops, when he looked at the secretly sad faces of those around him and listened to reports that the Russians were still standing - a terrible feeling, similar to the feeling experienced in dreams, covered him, and all the unfortunate accidents came to his mind , which could destroy him." Tolstoy often uses different types of syntactic connections.

A.P. style Chekhov (1860-1904) is distinguished by the meager precision of details,

characteristics, variety of intonations. The writer often uses indirect speech, when the statement can belong to both the hero and the author. Modal words (certainly, really, probably, etc.) are also a special feature of Chekhov’s style. Often the use of modal words gives Chekhov's works an intonation of hope, but uncertainty.

“My husband may be an honest, good man, but he’s a lackey!” (A.P. Chekhov “Lady with a Dog”). “The light crackled in the lamp, and everything seemed to be quiet and safe” (A.P. Chekhov “The Bride”).

Style I.A. Bunin (1870-1953) – refined, sophisticated. The writer carefully selects synonyms, the words in his works seem to be gradually strung along the thread of the plot, and the expressed feelings are distinguished by almost physiological accuracy thanks to precisely chosen words.

“On the fifth day there was an impenetrable blizzard. In the snow-white and cold farmhouse there was a pale twilight and there was great grief: a child was seriously ill. And in the heat, in delirium, he often cried and kept asking for some red bast shoes. And his mother, who did not leave the bed where he lay, also cried bitter tears - from fear and from her helplessness. What to do, how to help? The husband is away, the horses are bad, and the hospital, the doctor, is thirty miles away, and no doctor would go in such passion...” (I. Bunin “Lapti”).

The writer's idiomatic style is manifested even in the use of punctuation marks. It is known, for example, that the author’s use of dashes by M. Tsvetaeva. The dash is her favorite sign. Tsvetaeva’s stylistic functions of the dash are very diverse. It forms the complex syntactic structure of Tsvetaeva’s verse. The intonations of her poems and special rhythms are similar to the rhythms of the heart. This reflects her unique talent and complexity of fate.

Get used to it -
And the lid!
Nourishing –
Too much.
- Three days like this and I’m ready:
- I'm starting to love cats
And merchants...
- If they choke you, I’ll forgive you.
- Tomorrow I will baptize my daughter:
It’s all the same to me, but to her -
To her - goals.

For Tsvetaeva, punctuation marks are filled with no less, and sometimes even more, meaning than words. Tsvetaeva’s dash occurs during repetition, when it separates two identical words after a period within a line. Sometimes Tsvetaeva’s dashes help create an effect reminiscent of the rapid change of close-ups in cinema. For example, the poem “Train of Life”:

Venue. - And sleepers. - And the last bush
In hand. - I'm letting go. - Late
Keep. - Sleepers. - From so many lips
Tired. - I look at the stars.

Trails

Trope is a word or expression used figuratively in order to enhance the figurativeness of language and the artistic expressiveness of speech. Tropes are widely used in literary works, oratory, and sometimes in everyday speech. The term comes from the ancient Greek τρόπος - turnover.

Main types of trails

Metaphor

Metaphor (from the ancient Greek μεταφορά - “transfer”, “figurative meaning”) is a word or expression used in a figurative meaning, i.e. transfer of a name from one object (phenomenon, action, sign) to another based on their similarity.

Book hunger does not go away: products from the book market increasingly turn out to be stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying.

A metaphor can introduce an element of evaluation into a word. So if we say straight line or crooked line, then the line assessment will be neutral. What if we say crooked smile, then we get a negative estimate.
There are also author’s metaphors:

Nature's clear smile through a dream meets morning of the year (A.S. Pushkin)

Metonymy

Metonymy (from the Greek metõnymia - “renaming”) is the transfer of a name from one object (phenomenon, action) to another based on their contiguity. Metonymy should not be confused with metaphor, because metonymy is based on replacing words “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, representative of a class instead of the whole class or vice versa, container instead of content or vice versa, etc.), and metaphor is based on “by similarity.” The meaning of metonymy is that it identifies a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the others.

Moscow sings, filled with lights! (E. Dolmatovsky).
Bucket splashed.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Synecdoche (from the ancient Greek συνεκδοχή) is a ratio. Stylistic device, naming the particular instead of the general and vice versa.

"We all look at Napoleons"(A.S. Pushkin).
“Most of all, take care a penny"(N.V. Gogol) - instead of money.

Epithet

Epithet (from the ancient Greek ἐπίθετον - “attached”) is a bright, colorful definition. Expressed mainly by an adjective (also an adverb, noun, numeral): Mother Volga, wind-tramp, bright eyes, damp earth, etc.
An epithet is a very common trope in literature; without epithets it is difficult to imagine a work of art, especially poetry.

Under blue skies
Magnificent carpets,
Glistening in the sun, the snow lies;
Transparent the forest alone turns black,
And the spruce turns green through the frost,
And the river glitters under the ice.
A.S. Pushkin

Hyperbola

Hyperbole (from the Greek Hyperbole) is an obvious and deliberate exaggeration in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the idea being said.

For example:
I've said this a thousand times.
We have enough food for six months.

“...a rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper”
N.V. Gogol

My love,
like the apostle at the time,
I will destroy roads across a thousand thousand...
V. V. Mayakovsky

And I swear - I will be the last bastard! –
Don't lie, don't drink - and I will forgive the betrayal!
And I will give you the Bolshoi Theater
And the Small Sports Arena!
V. Vysotsky

Hyperbole is used especially often in satire. Satire in Russia began to develop back in the 18th century. The most striking images of satire in Russian literature of the 19th century. are represented by the works of A. S. Griboyedov, N. V. Gogol, A. V. Sukhovo-Kobylin, N. A. Nekrasov and especially the work of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. The satire of A.P. Chekhov is calm and laconic.

Litotes

Litota, litotes (from the ancient Greek λιτότης - simplicity, smallness, moderation) - understatement or deliberate softening.

A person's life is one moment.
Many litotes are phraseological units: “snail’s pace”, “at a stone’s throw”, “the cat cried for money”, “the sky seemed like a sheepskin”.

Litota is used in folk and literary fairy tales: “Tom Thumb”, “Little Little Man”, “Thumbelina Girl”.

In A. S. Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit” Molchalin says:
Your Pomeranian is a lovely Pomeranian, no bigger than a thimble!
I stroked him all over; like silk wool!

“Such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces” (N.V. Gogol “Nevsky Prospekt”).

Comparison

Comparison is an artistic technique (trope) in which one object or phenomenon is compared to another according to some characteristic common to them.

As if covered with a veil, all nature was hiding behind a transparent matte haze (A.P. Chekhov).
The cat walked around the house and garden, as owner and caretaker(K. Paustovsky).

Allegory

Allegory (from the ancient Greek ἀλληγορία - allegory) is an artistic representation of ideas or concepts through a specific artistic image or dialogue.
Most often, allegory is used in parables, fables, and poems.
An example of an allegory is human age, which is associated with 4 seasons: childhood - spring; youth - summer; maturity – autumn; old age - winter.
Everyone remembers I.A.’s fables well. Krylov, in which human vices are allegorically shown. Allegorical (allegorical) are the novels “Penguin Island” by Anatole France or “War with the Newts” by Karel Capek.

Personification (personification)

Personification (from Lat. persona “face”, Lat. facio “I do” - personification). Attributing properties and characteristics of animate objects to inanimate ones.

S.A. Yesenin was a Russian man close to nature, he knew and understood nature well, which is why there are especially many personifications in his poems.

The grove dissuaded golden
Birch, cheerful language,
AND cranes, sadly flying by,
Already don't regret about no one else.

Whom should I feel sorry for? After all, everyone in the world is a wanderer -
He will pass, come in and leave the house again.
About all those who have left hemp tree dreams
With a wide moon over the blue pond.
S. Yesenin

Try to find the personifications yourself in this poem by S. Yesenin:

The fields are compressed, the groves are bare,
Water causes fog and dampness.
Wheel behind the blue mountains
The sun went down quietly.

The dug-up road sleeps.
Today she dreamed
Which is very, very little
We have to wait for the gray winter.

Oh, and I myself am in the ringing thicket
I saw this in the fog yesterday:
Red moon as a foal
He harnessed himself to our sleigh.

Irony

Irony (from the ancient Greek εἰρωνεία “pretense”) is a satirical device in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts the obvious meaning. The purpose of irony is to create the feeling that the subject of discussion is not what it seems.
To achieve an ironic meaning, you can use words in a negative sense, exactly the opposite of the literal one: “Well, you’re brave!”, “Smart, smart...”. Here positive statements have negative connotations.
“Where can we fools drink tea?” An ironic worldview is a very valuable thing. This is a state of mind that allows you not to take common statements and stereotypes on faith and not to take various “generally accepted values” too seriously.

Sarcasm

Sarcasm (Greek σαρκασμός, literally “tearing flesh”) is a caustic mockery, one of the types of satire, the highest degree of irony, based on enhanced contrast and the immediate deliberate exposure of a flaw.

If a patient really wants to live, doctors are powerless (Faina Ranevskaya).
Only the Universe and human stupidity are infinite. Although I have doubts about the first one (Albert Einstein).