Childhood and primary education

Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in ancient German city Ulm, in Germany, but a year later the family moved to Munich, where Albert’s father, Hermann Einstein, and uncle Jacob organized a small company, the Electrical Factory of J. Einstein and Co. At first, the company's business, which was involved in improving arc lighting devices, electrical measuring equipment and direct current generators, was quite successful. But in the 90s. In the 19th century, in connection with the expansion of the construction of large power plants and long-distance power lines, a number of powerful electrical engineering firms arose. Hoping to save the company, the Einstein brothers moved to Milan in 1894, but two years later, unable to withstand the competition, the company ceased to exist.

Uncle Jacob devoted a lot of time to his little nephew. “I remember, for example, that the Pythagorean theorem was shown to me by my uncle even before the sacred little book on geometry fell into my hands,” this is what Einstein said about the Euclidean geometry textbook in his memoirs dating back to 1945. Often the uncle would assign the boy mathematical problems, and he “experienced true happiness when he completed them.”

Albert's parents first sent him to a Catholic school. primary school, and then to the Luitpold Classical Gymnasium in Munich, known as a progressive and very liberal educational institution, but which he never graduated from, having moved with his family to Milan. Both at school and at the gymnasium, Albert Einstein acquired a bad reputation. Reading popular science books gave young Einstein, in his own words, “a truly fantastic free-thinking.” In his memoirs, theoretical physicist Max Born wrote: “Already in early years Einstein showed an indomitable will for independence. He hated playing soldier because it meant violence." Later, A. Einstein said that people who enjoy marching to the sounds of marching were given a brain in vain; they could well have been content with one spinal brain.

First year in Switzerland

In October 1895, sixteen-year-old Albert Einstein walked from Milan to Zurich to enroll at the ETH, the famous Polytechnic, which did not require a high school diploma for admission. Having brilliantly passed the entrance exams in mathematics, physics and chemistry, he, however, failed miserably in other subjects. The rector of the Polytechnic, appreciating Einstein's extraordinary mathematical abilities, sent him for training to the cantonal school in Aarau (20 miles west of Zurich), which at that time was considered one of the best in Switzerland. The year spent at this school, which was led by a serious scientist and excellent teacher A. Tauchschmid, turned out to be both very useful and, in contrast to the barracks environment in Prussia, pleasant.

Studying at the Polytechnic

Albert Einstein passed his final exams in Aarau quite successfully (except for the exam in French), which gave him the right to enroll at the Polytechnic in Zurich. The Department of Physics there was headed by Professor V.G. Weber, an excellent lecturer and talented experimenter, who dealt mainly with electrical engineering issues. At first, he received Einstein very well, but later the relationship between them became so complicated that after graduation, Einstein was unable to get a job for some time. To some extent, this was explained by purely scientific reasons. Distinguished by his conservatism of views on electromagnetic phenomena, Weber did not accept Maxwell's theory, ideas about the field and adhered to the concept of long-range action. His students learned the past of physics, but not its present and, especially, its future. Einstein studied the works of Maxwell, was convinced of the existence of an all-pervading ether and thought about how various fields (in particular, magnetic fields) act on it and how movement relative to the ether can be experimentally detected. He did not know about Michelson’s experiments at that time and, independently of him, proposed his own interference technique.

But the experiments invented by Albert Einstein, who worked passionately in his physics workshop, had no chance of coming true. The teachers did not like the obstinate student. “You are a smart guy, Einstein, a very smart guy, but you have a big drawback - you don’t tolerate comments,” Weber once told him, and this determined a lot.

Patent Office. First steps towards recognition

After graduating from the Polytechnic (1900), the young certified physics teacher (Einstein was then in his twenty-second year) lived mainly with his parents in Milan and for two years could not find a permanent job. Only in 1902 did he finally receive, on the recommendation of friends, a position as an expert at the Federal Patent Office in Bern. Shortly before this, Albert Einstein changed his citizenship and became a Swiss citizen. A few months after getting the job, he married his former Zurich classmate Mileva Maric, originally from Serbia, who was four years older than him. He worked at the Patent Office, which Einstein called a “secular monastery,” for more than seven years, considering these years the happiest of his life. The position of “patent clerk” constantly occupied his mind with various scientific and technical issues, but left enough time for independent creative work. By the middle of the “happy Bern years,” its results formed the content of scientific articles that changed the face of modern physics and brought Einstein world fame.

Brownian motion

The first of these articles, “On the motion of particles suspended in a fluid at rest, resulting from the molecular kinetic theory,” published in 1905, was devoted to the theory of Brownian motion. This phenomenon (the continuous random zigzag movement of pollen particles in a liquid), discovered in 1827 by the English botanist Robert Brown, had already received a statistical explanation, but Einstein’s theory (who did not know previous work on Brownian motion) had a complete form and opened up the possibility of quantitative experimental research . In 1908, J. B. Perrin's experiments completely confirmed Einstein's theory, which played an important role in the final formation of molecular kinetic concepts.

Quanta and photoelectric effect

In the same 1905, another work of Einstein was published - “On a heuristic point of view on the emergence and transformation of light.” Five years earlier, Max Planck had shown that the spectral composition of radiation emitted by hot bodies can be explained if we assume that the radiation process is discrete, that is, light is not emitted continuously, but in discrete portions of a certain energy. Einstein put forward the assumption that the absorption of light occurs in the same portions and that in general “uniform light consists of grains of energy (light quanta) ... rushing through empty space at the speed of light.” This revolutionary idea allowed Einstein to explain the laws of the photoelectric effect, in particular, the fact of the existence of the “red boundary,” that is, that minimum frequency below which electrons are not knocked out of matter by light at all.

The idea of ​​quanta was also applied by Albert Einstein to explain other phenomena, for example, fluorescence, photoionization, and mysterious variations in the specific heat capacity of solids that classical theory could not describe.

Einstein's work on the quantum theory of light was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921.

Particular (special) theory of relativity

The theory of relativity, which he first presented in 1905, in the article “On the electrodynamics of moving bodies,” brought A. Einstein the greatest fame. Already in his youth, Einstein tried to understand what an observer would see if he rushed at the speed of light after a light wave. Now Einstein decisively rejected the concept of the ether, which made it possible to consider the principle of equality of all inertial reference systems as universal, and not just limited by the framework of mechanics.

Einstein put forward an amazing and at first glance paradoxical postulate that the speed of light is the same for all observers, no matter how they move. This postulate (subject to certain additional conditions) leads to the formulas previously obtained by Hendrik Lorentz for transformations of coordinates and time when moving from one inertial reference system to another, moving relative to the first. But Lorentz considered these transformations as auxiliary, or fictitious, not directly related to real space and time. Einstein understood the reality of these transformations, in particular, the reality of the relativity of simultaneity.

Thus, the principle of relativity, established for mechanics by Galileo, was extended to electrodynamics and other areas of physics. This led, in particular, to the establishment of an important universal relationship between mass M, energy E and momentum P: E 2 = M 2 c 4 + P 2 c 2 (where c is the speed of light), which can be called one of the theoretical prerequisites for the use of intranuclear energy.

Professorial activity. Invitation to Berlin. General theory of relativity

In 1905, Albert Einstein was 26 years old, but his name had already become widely known. In 1909 he was elected professor at the University of Zurich, and two years later - at the German University in Prague.

In 1912, Einstein returned to Zurich, where he took a chair at the Polytechnic, but already in 1914 he accepted an invitation to move to Berlin as a professor at the University of Berlin and at the same time director of the Institute of Physics. Einstein's German citizenship was restored. By this time, work on the general theory of relativity was already in full swing. As a result of the joint efforts of Einstein and his former student friend M. Grossman, the article “Sketch of the Generalized Theory of Relativity” appeared in 1912, and the final formulation of the theory dates back to 1915. This theory, according to many scientists, was the most significant and most beautiful theoretical construction in history physics. Based on the well-known fact that the “heavy” and “inertial” masses are equal, it was possible to find a fundamentally new approach to solving the problem posed by Isaac Newton: what is the mechanism for transmitting gravitational interaction between bodies and what is the carrier of this interaction.

Albert Einstein is a great German theoretical physicist who made a huge contribution to the development of physics and was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. His legacy includes more than 300 works on physics, 150 books, several theories that were of great importance for modern science.

Early years

Future great physicist born into an ordinary Jewish family in southern Germany in 1879. Having moved to Munich, Albert began studying at a local Catholic school. At the age of 12, he realized that what is written in the Bible cannot be true, science cannot confirm it. From an early age he began to play the violin, and he had this love of music throughout his life.
In 1895, he tried to enter the Technical School, passed mathematics brilliantly, but failed botany and French. The following year, he nevertheless entered the school at the pedagogical faculty.

Scientific activities

In 1900, Albert Einstein graduated from college and received a diploma as a teacher of physics and mathematics. The following year, he received Swiss citizenship, finally raising the required amount. But then he had serious problems with money and even had to go hungry for several days, which hit his liver hard, from which he suffered for the rest of his life.
But despite this, he continued to study physics, and in 1901 his first article was published. But in 1902 he was helped to find an excellent job with a salary of 3,500 francs a year, that is, a little less than 300 francs a month.
In January 1903, Einstein married a girl he had met while studying. 1905 became a year of revolution for all of science and for Einstein himself. This year, three of his articles were published, making an immense contribution to science. These are the theory of relativity, quantum theory and Brownian motion.
These works brought him worldwide fame, and the following year he received a doctorate in physics. In 1911, he headed the department of physics at the German University. In 1913 he became a professor at the prestigious University of Berlin. In 1919 he divorced his wife.
In 1922 he received the Nobel Prize. It is interesting that before this he had been nominated for it several times, almost from the beginning of his scientific career, except for a couple of years.
Albert Einstein also traveled around the world and gave lectures at the most famous universities. Because of Nazism in Germany, the great physicist left his country forever and received citizenship in the United States. Almost overnight he became one of the most famous people in this country.
The scientist always advocated peace and was an ardent opponent of any manifestations of violence, especially war. Einstein himself, as a person, was very kind, friendly, always joyfully communicated with all his fans, answered all letters, even children's ones.
Interestingly, being a very rich man, he never bought himself a TV or a car.
He opposed nuclear war most vehemently, and even in his last letter he begged all his friends to prevent the possibility of it starting. In 1955, his health deteriorated greatly, at which time he wrote that his role on Earth was completed.
The great physicist died on April 18, 1955. Before his death, he refused a magnificent funeral; his ashes were scattered among twelve friends.

German Albert Einstein

theoretical physicist, one of the founders of modern theoretical physics, Nobel Prize laureate in physics 1921, public figure and humanist

Brief biography

An outstanding theoretical physicist, one of the founders of modern theoretical physics, who is credited with developing and introducing into science a number of major physical theories, in particular the theory of relativity. He owns the works that formed the basis of statistical physics and quantum theory. Einstein's ideas led to a fundamentally different understanding of the physical essence of time and space, compared to Newton's, and the creation of a new theory of gravity. Einstein is a Nobel Prize laureate in physics, a member of a large number of academies of sciences, and an honorary doctor of about two dozen universities. He wrote more than three hundred works on physics, approximately 150 articles and books devoted to the philosophy and history of science. The outstanding physicist was an active public figure, a humanist, and opposed any violence.

The future luminary of world science was born on March 14, 1879 in the German Württemberg, Ulm. Their family did not live very richly and in 1880 moved to Munich, where his father and his brother created a small enterprise, and Albert was sent to a local Catholic school. Popular science books freed his thinking from religious conventions and made him a great skeptic of any authority. During my childhood, I developed a lifelong passion for music.

In 1894, in connection with the interests of the company, the family moved to Italy, and a year later Albert came to them without receiving a matriculation certificate. Also in 1895, Einstein came to take exams at the Zurich Polytechnic and, having failed French and botany, was left out of work. The director, who noticed the capable mathematician, gave him good advice to get a certificate at the Swiss school of Aarau and come to them again. Thus, in October 1896, Einstein became a student at the Faculty of Education at the Polytechnic.

In 1900, a newly appointed teacher of physics and mathematics was left without work and was in great need; starvation provoked liver disease, which caused him a lot of suffering throughout his life. Nevertheless, Einstein continued to do what he loved - physics, and already in 1901 his debut article was published in a Berlin journal. With the assistance of a former classmate, he managed to get a job at the Federal Patent Office of Bern. The work made it possible to combine the performance of official duties with independent developments, and already in 1905 he defended his dissertation at the University of Zurich and received a doctorate. The works of this period of Einstein's biography as a scientist became famous throughout the world, although not overnight.

The physicist worked at the patent office until October 1909. In the same year he became a professor at the University of Zurich, and in 1911 he agreed to an offer to move to the German University in Prague and head the department of physics. At this time, he continues to publish works on the theory of relativity, thermodynamics, and quantum theory in special publications. In 1912, having returned to Zurich, Einstein lectured as a professor at the Polytechnic, where he studied. At the end of the next year he becomes head of the new Berlin Physical Research Institute and a member of the Bavarian and Prussian Academies of Sciences.

After the First World War, A. Einstein, while maintaining an interest in previous areas of research, became interested in unified field theory and cosmology, the first article on which was published in 1917. During this period, he suffered a lot from the health problems that befell him at once, but did not stop work. Einstein's authority increased even more when the deflection of light he predicted under certain conditions was recorded in the fall of 1919. Einstein's law of gravity left the pages of specialized literature and appeared in European newspapers, albeit in an inaccurate form. Having been nominated more than once for the Nobel Prize, Einstein became its owner only in 1921, because... For a long time, committee members could not decide to reward the owner of bold views. Officially, the prize was awarded for the theory of the photoelectric effect with the ambiguous note “For other work in the field of theoretical physics.”

When the Nazis came to power in Germany, Einstein was forced to leave Germany - as it turned out, forever. In 1933, he renounced his citizenship, resigned from the Bavarian and Prussian Academies of Sciences and emigrated to the United States. There he was treated very well warm welcome, maintained the reputation of the greatest scientist and provided a position at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study. Being a man of science, he did not break away from social and political life, actively opposed military action, and advocated respect for human rights and humanism.

The year 1949 was marked in his biography by signing a letter to the American President, pointing out the threat posed by the development of nuclear weapons in Nazi Germany. The consequence of this appeal was the organization of similar studies in the United States. Subsequently, Einstein regarded his involvement in this as a huge mistake and the greatest tragedy, because. before his eyes, the possession of nuclear energy turned into a means of manipulation and intimidation. After the war, A. Einstein, together with B. Russell, wrote a manifesto, which became the ideological basis of the Pugwash movement of scientists for peace, together with other outstanding scientists, warned the world about the consequences of the creation hydrogen bomb, arms race. The study of cosmological problems occupied him until the end of his life, but during this period his main efforts were focused on developing a unified field theory.

At the beginning of 1955, Einstein began to feel much worse, made a will, and on April 18, 1955, while in Princeton, died of an aortic aneurysm. According to the will of the scientist, who throughout his life, despite his world fame, remained a modest, unpretentious, friendly and somewhat eccentric person, the funeral ceremony and cremation took place in the presence of only those closest to him.

Biography from Wikipedia

Albert Einstein(German: Albert Einstein, MFA [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n]; March 14, 1879 (18790314), Ulm, Württemberg, Germany - April 18, 1955, Princeton, New Jersey, USA) - theoretical physicist, one of the founders of modern theoretical physics, laureate Nobel Prize in Physics 1921, public figure and humanist. Lived in Germany (1879-1893, 1914-1933), Switzerland (1893-1914) and the USA (1933-1955). Honorary doctor of about 20 leading universities in the world, member of many Academies of Sciences, including foreign honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1926).

He also predicted gravitational waves and "quantum teleportation", and predicted and measured the Einstein-de Haas gyromagnetic effect. Since 1933, he worked on problems of cosmology and unified field theory. He actively opposed war, against the use of nuclear weapons, for humanism, respect for human rights, and mutual understanding between peoples.

Einstein owns decisive role in the popularization and introduction into scientific circulation of new physical concepts and theories. First of all, this relates to a revision of the understanding of the physical essence of space and time and to the construction of a new theory of gravity to replace the Newtonian one. Einstein also, together with Planck, laid the foundations of quantum theory. These concepts, repeatedly confirmed by experiments, form the foundation of modern physics.

Early years

Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in the southern German city of Ulm, into a poor Jewish family.

Hermann Einstein and Paulina Einstein (née Koch), father and mother of the scientist

Father, Hermann Einstein (1847-1902), was at that time a co-owner of a small enterprise producing feather stuffing for mattresses and featherbeds. Mother, Pauline Einstein (née Koch, 1858-1920), came from the family of wealthy corn merchant Julius Derzbacher (he changed his surname to Koch in 1842) and Yetta Bernheimer.

In the summer of 1880, the family moved to Munich, where Hermann Einstein, together with his brother Jacob, founded a small company selling electrical equipment. Albert's younger sister Maria (Maya, 1881-1951) was born in Munich.

Albert Einstein received his primary education at a local Catholic school. According to his own recollections, as a child he experienced a state of deep religiosity, which ended at the age of 12. Through reading popular science books, he became convinced that much of what is stated in the Bible cannot be true, and the state is deliberately deceiving the younger generation. All this made him a freethinker and forever gave rise to a skeptical attitude towards authorities. Of his childhood experiences, Einstein later recalled as the most powerful: the compass, Euclid's Principia, and (around 1889) Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. In addition, on his mother’s initiative, he began playing the violin at the age of six. Einstein's passion for music continued throughout his life. Already in the USA in Princeton, in 1934 Albert Einstein gave a charity concert, where he performed Mozart’s works on the violin for the benefit of scientists and cultural figures who emigrated from Nazi Germany.

At the gymnasium (now the Albert Einstein Gymnasium in Munich) he was not among the first students (with the exception of mathematics and Latin). Albert Einstein disliked Albert Einstein's ingrained system of rote learning (which he later said was detrimental to the very spirit of learning and creative thinking), as well as the authoritarian attitude of teachers toward students, and he often got into arguments with his teachers.

In 1894, the Einsteins moved from Munich to the Italian city of Pavia, near Milan, where the brothers Hermann and Jacob moved their company. Albert himself remained with relatives in Munich for some more time to complete all six classes of the gymnasium. Having never received his matriculation certificate, he joined his family in Pavia in 1895.

In the fall of 1895, Albert Einstein arrived in Switzerland to take the entrance exams to the Higher Technical School (Polytechnic) in Zurich and upon graduation to become a physics teacher. Having shown himself brilliantly in the mathematics exam, he at the same time failed the exams in botany and French, which did not allow him to enter the Zurich Polytechnic. However, the director of the school advised the young man to enter the graduating class of a school in Aarau (Switzerland) in order to receive a certificate and repeat admission.

At the cantonal school of Aarau, Albert Einstein devoted his free time studying Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. In September 1896, he successfully passed all the final exams at school, with the exception of the French language exam, and received a certificate, and in October 1896 he was admitted to the Polytechnic at the Faculty of Education. Here he became friends with a fellow student, mathematician Marcel Grossman (1878-1936), and also met a Serbian medical student, Mileva Maric (4 years older than him), who later became his wife. That same year, Einstein renounced his German citizenship. To obtain Swiss citizenship, he was required to pay 1,000 Swiss francs, but the poor financial situation of the family allowed him to do this only after 5 years. This year, his father’s enterprise finally went bankrupt; Einstein’s parents moved to Milan, where Herman Einstein, already without his brother, opened a company selling electrical equipment.

The teaching style and methodology at the Polytechnic differed significantly from the ossified and authoritarian German school, so further education was easier for the young man. He had first-class teachers, including the wonderful geometer Hermann Minkowski (Einstein often missed his lectures, which he later sincerely regretted) and the analyst Adolf Hurwitz.

Beginning of scientific activity

In 1900, Einstein graduated from the Polytechnic with a diploma as a teacher of mathematics and physics. He passed the exams successfully, but not brilliantly. Many professors highly appreciated the student Einstein's abilities, but no one wanted to help him continue his scientific career. Einstein himself later recalled:

I was bullied by my professors, who did not like me because of my independence and closed my path to science.

Although the following year, 1901, Einstein received Swiss citizenship, he could not find a permanent job until the spring of 1902 - even as a school teacher. Due to lack of income, he literally starved, not eating for several days in a row. This became the cause of liver disease, from which the scientist suffered for the rest of his life.

Despite the hardships that plagued him in 1900-1902, Einstein found time to further study physics. In 1901, the Berlin Annals of Physics published his first article, “Consequences of the Theory of Capillarity” ( Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen), dedicated to the analysis of the forces of attraction between atoms of liquids based on the theory of capillarity.

Former classmate Marcel Grossman helped overcome the difficulties, recommending Einstein for the position of third-class expert at the Federal Patent Office for Inventions (Bern) with a salary of 3,500 francs per year (during his student years he lived on 100 francs per month).

Einstein worked at the Patent Office from July 1902 to October 1909, working primarily expert assessment applications for inventions. In 1903 he became a permanent employee of the Bureau. The nature of the work allowed Einstein to devote his free time to research in the field of theoretical physics.

In October 1902, Einstein received news from Italy of his father's illness; Hermann Einstein died a few days after his son's arrival.

On January 6, 1903, Einstein married twenty-seven-year-old Mileva Maric. They had three children. The first, even before marriage, was born daughter Lieserl (1902), but biographers were unable to find out her fate. Most likely, she died in infancy - in the last surviving letter from Einstein, where she is mentioned (September 1903), we are talking about some complications after scarlet fever.

Since 1904, Einstein collaborated with Germany's leading physics journal, the Annals of Physics, providing abstracts of new papers on thermodynamics for its abstract supplement. Probably, the authority this acquired in the editorial office contributed to his own publications in 1905.

1905 - “Year of Miracles”

The year 1905 went down in the history of physics as the “Year of Miracles” (Latin: Annus Mirabilis). This year, the Annals of Physics published three outstanding papers by Einstein that marked the beginning of a new scientific revolution:

• “Towards the electrodynamics of moving bodies” (German: Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper). The theory of relativity begins with this article.
• “On a heuristic point of view concerning the origin and transformation of light” (German: Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichts betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt). One of the works that laid the foundation for quantum theory.
• “On the motion of particles suspended in a fluid at rest, required by the molecular kinetic theory of heat” (German: Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen) - a work devoted to Brownian motion and which significantly advanced statistical physics.

Einstein was often asked the question: how did he create the theory of relativity? Half jokingly, half seriously, he answered:

Why did I create the theory of relativity? When I ask myself this question, it seems to me that the reason is as follows. A normal adult does not think about the problem of space and time at all. In his opinion, he had already thought about this problem in childhood. I developed intellectually so slowly that space and time were occupied by my thoughts when I became an adult. Naturally, I could penetrate deeper into the problem than a child with normal inclinations.

Special theory of relativity

Throughout the 19th century, a hypothetical medium, the ether, was considered the material carrier of electromagnetic phenomena. However, by the beginning of the 20th century, it became clear that the properties of this medium are difficult to reconcile with classical physics. On the one hand, the aberration of light suggested the idea that the ether is absolutely motionless, on the other hand, Fizeau’s experiment testified in favor of the hypothesis that the ether is partially carried away by moving matter. Michelson's experiments (1881), however, showed that no “ethereal wind” exists.

In 1892, Lorentz and (independently) George Francis Fitzgerald suggested that the ether is motionless, and the length of any body contracts in the direction of its movement. However, the question remained open as to why the length was reduced in exactly such proportion as to compensate for the “etheric wind” and prevent the existence of the ether from being discovered. Another serious difficulty was the fact that Maxwell's equations did not correspond to Galileo's principle of relativity, despite the fact that electromagnetic effects depend only on relative movements. The question was investigated under what coordinate transformations Maxwell's equations are invariant. The correct formulas were first written down by Larmore (1900) and Poincaré (1905), the latter proved their group properties and proposed calling them Lorentz transformations.

Poincaré also gave a generalized formulation of the principle of relativity, which also covered electrodynamics. Nevertheless, he continued to recognize the ether, although he was of the opinion that it would never be discovered. In a report at the physics congress (1900), Poincaré first expressed the idea that the simultaneity of events is not absolute, but represents a conditional agreement (“convention”). It was also suggested that the speed of light is limiting. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, there were two incompatible kinematics: classical, with Galilean transformations, and electromagnetic, with Lorentz transformations.

Einsteinhaus- Einstein's house in Bern, where the theory of relativity was born

Einstein, thinking on these topics largely independently, suggested that the first is an approximate case of the second for low speeds, and that what was considered the properties of the ether is in fact a manifestation of the objective properties of space and time. Einstein came to the conclusion that it was absurd to invoke the concept of the ether only to prove the impossibility of observing it, and that the root of the problem lay not in dynamics, but deeper - in kinematics. In the above-mentioned seminal article “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” he proposed two postulates: the universal principle of relativity and the constancy of the speed of light; from them one can easily derive the Lorentz contraction, Lorentz transformation formulas, the relativity of simultaneity, the uselessness of the ether, a new formula for adding velocities, the increase of inertia with speed, etc. In another of his articles, which was published at the end of the year, the formula E = m c 2 appeared , which defines the relationship between mass and energy.

Some scientists immediately accepted this theory, which later became known as the “special theory of relativity” (STR); Planck (1906) and Einstein himself (1907) built relativistic dynamics and thermodynamics. Einstein's former teacher, Minkowski, in 1907 presented a mathematical model of the kinematics of the theory of relativity in the form of the geometry of a four-dimensional non-Euclidean world and developed the theory of invariants of this world (the first results in this direction were published by Poincaré in 1905).

However, many scientists considered the “new physics” too revolutionary. She abolished the ether, absolute space and absolute time, revised Newtonian mechanics, which served as the basis of physics for 200 years and was invariably confirmed by observations. Time in the theory of relativity flows differently in different reference systems, inertia and length depend on speed, movement faster than light is impossible, the “twin paradox” arises - all these unusual consequences were unacceptable to the conservative part of the scientific community. The matter was also complicated by the fact that STR did not initially predict any new observable effects, and the experiments of Walter Kaufmann (1905-1909) were interpreted by many as a refutation of the cornerstone of SRT - the principle of relativity (this aspect was finally clarified in favor of SRT only in 1914-1916). Some physicists tried to develop alternative theories after 1905 (for example, Ritz in 1908), but later it became clear that these theories were irreparably inconsistent with experiment.

Many prominent physicists remained faithful to classical mechanics and the concept of the ether, among them Lorentz, J. J. Thomson, Lenard, Lodge, Nernst, Wien. At the same time, some of them (for example, Lorentz himself) did not reject the results of the special theory of relativity, but interpreted them in the spirit of Lorentz’s theory, preferring to look at the space-time concept of Einstein-Minkowski as a purely mathematical technique.

The decisive argument in favor of the truth of STR was the experiments to test the General Theory of Relativity. Over time, experimental confirmation of the SRT itself gradually accumulated. Quantum field theory, the theory of accelerators are based on it, it is taken into account in the design and operation of satellite navigation systems (even corrections to the general theory of relativity were needed here), etc.

Quantum theory

To resolve the problem that went down in history as the “Ultraviolet catastrophe” and correspondingly harmonize theory with experiment, Max Planck suggested (1900) that the emission of light by a substance occurs discretely (indivisible portions), and the energy of the emitted portion depends on the frequency of the light. For some time, even its author himself considered this hypothesis as a conventional mathematical technique, but Einstein, in the second of the above-mentioned articles, proposed a far-reaching generalization of it and successfully applied it to explain the properties of the photoelectric effect. Einstein put forward the thesis that not only radiation, but also the propagation and absorption of light are discrete; Later these portions (quanta) were called photons. This thesis allowed him to explain two mysteries of the photoelectric effect: why the photocurrent did not arise at any frequency of light, but only starting from a certain threshold, depending only on the type of metal, and the energy and speed of the emitted electrons depended not on the intensity of the light, but only on its frequency. Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect corresponded with experimental data with high accuracy, which was later confirmed by Millikan's experiments (1916).

Initially, these views were met with misunderstanding by most physicists; even Planck and Einstein had to be convinced of the reality of quanta. Gradually, however, experimental data accumulated that convinced skeptics of the discrete nature of electromagnetic energy. The final point in the debate was the Compton effect (1923).

In 1907, Einstein published the quantum theory of heat capacity (the old theory at low temperatures was very inconsistent with experiment). Later (1912) Debye, Born and Karman refined Einstein's theory of heat capacity, and excellent agreement with experiment was achieved.

Brownian motion

In 1827, Robert Brown observed under a microscope and subsequently described the chaotic movement of flower pollen floating in water. Einstein, based on molecular theory, developed a statistical and mathematical model of such movement. Based on his diffusion model, it was possible, among other things, to estimate with good accuracy the size of molecules and their number per unit volume. At the same time, Smoluchowski, whose article was published several months later than Einstein, came to similar conclusions. Einstein presented his work on statistical mechanics, entitled “A New Determination of the Size of Molecules,” to the Polytechnic as a dissertation and in the same 1905 received the title of Doctor of Philosophy (equivalent to a candidate of natural sciences) in physics. The following year, Einstein developed his theory in a new article, “Toward the Theory of Brownian Motion,” and subsequently returned to this topic several times.

Soon (1908), Perrin's measurements completely confirmed the adequacy of Einstein's model, which became the first experimental proof of the molecular kinetic theory, which was subject to active attacks by positivists in those years.

Max Born wrote (1949): “I think that these studies of Einstein, more than all other works, convince physicists of the reality of atoms and molecules, of the validity of the theory of heat and the fundamental role of probability in the laws of nature.” Einstein's work on statistical physics is cited even more often than his work on relativity. The formula he derived for the diffusion coefficient and its connection with the dispersion of coordinates turned out to be applicable in the most general class of problems: Markov diffusion processes, electrodynamics, etc.

Later, in the article “Toward the Quantum Theory of Radiation” (1917), Einstein, based on statistical considerations, first suggested the existence of a new type of radiation occurring under the influence of an external electromagnetic field (“induced radiation”). In the early 1950s, a method of amplifying light and radio waves based on the use of stimulated radiation was proposed, and in subsequent years it formed the basis of the theory of lasers.

Bern - Zurich - Prague - Zurich - Berlin (1905-1914)

The work of 1905 brought Einstein, although not immediately, worldwide fame. On April 30, 1905, he sent the text of his doctoral dissertation on the topic “A New Determination of the Size of Molecules” to the University of Zurich. The reviewers were Professors Kleiner and Burkhard. On January 15, 1906, he received his doctorate in physics. He corresponds and meets with the most famous physicists in the world, and Planck in Berlin includes the theory of relativity in his curriculum. In his letters he is called “Mr. Professor,” but for another four years (until October 1909) Einstein continued to serve in the Patent Office; in 1906 he was promoted (he became an expert of class II) and his salary was increased. In October 1908, Einstein was invited to read an elective course at the University of Bern, but without any payment. In 1909, he attended a congress of naturalists in Salzburg, where the elite of German physics gathered, and met Planck for the first time; over 3 years of correspondence they quickly became close friends.

After the congress, Einstein finally received a paid position as extraordinary professor at the University of Zurich (December 1909), where his old friend Marcel Grossmann taught geometry. The pay was small, especially for a family with two children, and in 1911 Einstein without hesitation accepted an invitation to head the department of physics at the German University in Prague. During this period, Einstein continued to publish a series of papers on thermodynamics, relativity and quantum theory. In Prague, he intensifies research on the theory of gravity, setting the goal of creating a relativistic theory of gravity and fulfilling the long-standing dream of physicists - to exclude Newtonian long-range action from this area.

In 1911, Einstein participated in the First Solvay Congress (Brussels), dedicated to quantum physics. There his only meeting took place with Poincaré, who did not support the theory of relativity, although he personally had great respect for Einstein.

A year later, Einstein returned to Zurich, where he became a professor at his native Polytechnic and lectured there on physics. In 1913, he attended the Congress of Naturalists in Vienna, visiting 75-year-old Ernst Mach there; Once upon a time, Mach's criticism of Newtonian mechanics made a huge impression on Einstein and ideologically prepared him for the innovations of the theory of relativity. In May 1914, an invitation came from the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, signed by physicist P. P. Lazarev. However, the impressions of the pogroms and the “Beilis case” were still fresh, and Einstein refused: “I find it disgusting to go unnecessarily to a country where my fellow tribesmen are so cruelly persecuted.”

At the end of 1913, on the recommendation of Planck and Nernst, Einstein received an invitation to head the physics research institute being created in Berlin; He is also enrolled as a professor at the University of Berlin. In addition to being close to his friend Planck, this position had the advantage that it did not require him to be distracted by teaching. He accepted the invitation, and in the pre-war year 1914, the convinced pacifist Einstein arrived in Berlin. Mileva and her children remained in Zurich; their family broke up. In February 1919 they officially divorced.

Citizenship of Switzerland, a neutral country, helped Einstein withstand militaristic pressure after the outbreak of war. He did not sign any “patriotic” appeals; on the contrary, in collaboration with the physiologist Georg Friedrich Nicolai, he compiled the anti-war “Appeal to the Europeans” as a counterweight to the chauvinistic manifesto of the 1993s, and in a letter to Romain Rolland he wrote:

Will future generations thank our Europe, in which three centuries of the most intense cultural work only led to the fact that religious madness was replaced by nationalistic madness? Even scientists from different countries behave as if their brains were amputated.

General Relativity (1915)

Descartes also declared that all processes in the Universe are explained by the local interaction of one type of matter with another, and from the point of view of science, this short range thesis was natural. However, Newton's theory of universal gravitation sharply contradicted the thesis of short-range action - in it, the force of attraction was transmitted incomprehensibly through completely empty space, and infinitely quickly. Essentially, Newton's model was purely mathematical, without any physical content. Over the course of two centuries, attempts were made to correct the situation and get rid of the mystical long-range action, to fill the theory of gravitation with real physical content - especially since after Maxwell, gravity remained the only refuge of long-range action in physics. The situation became especially unsatisfactory after the approval of the special theory of relativity, since Newton's theory was incompatible with Lorentz transformations. However, before Einstein, no one managed to correct the situation.

Einstein's main idea was simple: the material carrier of gravity is space itself (more precisely, space-time). The fact that gravity can be considered as a manifestation of the properties of the geometry of four-dimensional non-Euclidean space, without involving additional concepts, is a consequence of the fact that all bodies in the gravitational field receive the same acceleration (“Einstein’s principle of equivalence”). With this approach, four-dimensional space-time turns out to be not a “flat and indifferent stage” for material processes; it has physical attributes, and first of all, metric and curvature, which influence these processes and themselves depend on them. If the special theory of relativity is a theory of uncurved space, then general theory of relativity, according to Einstein, was supposed to consider more general case, space-time with a variable metric (pseudo-Riemannian manifold). The reason for the curvature of space-time is the presence of matter, and the greater its energy, the stronger the curvature. Newton’s theory of gravitation is an approximation of the new theory, which is obtained if we take into account only the “curvature of time,” that is, the change in the time component of the metric (the space in this approximation is Euclidean). The propagation of gravitational disturbances, that is, changes in the metric during the movement of gravitating masses, occurs at a finite speed. From this moment on, long-range action disappears from physics.

The mathematical formulation of these ideas was quite labor-intensive and took several years (1907-1915). Einstein had to master tensor analysis and create its four-dimensional pseudo-Riemannian generalization; in this he was helped by consultations and joint work, first with Marcel Grossman, who became a co-author of Einstein’s first articles on the tensor theory of gravity, and then with the “king of mathematicians” of those years, David Hilbert. In 1915, the field equations of Einstein's general theory of relativity (GTR), generalizing Newton's, were published almost simultaneously in papers by Einstein and Hilbert.

The new theory of gravity predicted two previously unknown physical effects, fully confirmed by observations, and also accurately and completely explained the secular shift of Mercury's perihelion, which had long puzzled astronomers. After this, the theory of relativity became an almost universally accepted foundation of modern physics. In addition to astrophysics, general relativity has found practical application, as mentioned above, in global positioning systems (Global Positioning Systems, GPS), where coordinate calculations are made with very significant relativistic corrections.

Berlin (1915-1921)

In 1915, in a conversation with the Dutch physicist Vander de Haas, Einstein proposed a scheme and calculation of the experiment, which, after successful implementation, was called the “Einstein-de Haas effect.” The result of the experiment inspired Niels Bohr, who two years earlier had created a planetary model of the atom, since it confirmed that circular electron currents exist inside atoms, and electrons in their orbits do not emit. It was these provisions that Bohr based his model on. In addition, it was discovered that the total magnetic moment was twice as large as expected; the reason for this became clear when spin, the electron's own angular momentum, was discovered.

In June 1916, in the article “ Approximate integration of gravitational field equations» Einstein first presented the theory of gravitational waves. Experimental verification of this prediction was carried out only a hundred years later (2015).

After the end of the war, Einstein continued to work in the previous areas of physics, and also worked on new areas - relativistic cosmology and the “Unified Field Theory”, which, according to his plan, was supposed to combine gravity, electromagnetism and (preferably) the theory of the microworld. The first article on cosmology, " Cosmological considerations for general relativity", appeared in 1917. After this, Einstein experienced a mysterious “invasion of diseases” - in addition to serious problems with the liver, a stomach ulcer was discovered, then jaundice and general weakness. He did not get out of bed for several months, but continued to work actively. Only in 1920 did the diseases recede.

In June 1919, Einstein married his maternal cousin Else Löwenthal (née Einstein) and adopted her two children. At the end of the year, his seriously ill mother Paulina moved in with them; she died in February 1920. Judging by the letters, Einstein took her death seriously.

In the autumn of 1919, the English expedition of Arthur Eddington, at the moment of an eclipse, recorded the deflection of light predicted by Einstein in the gravitational field of the Sun. Moreover, the measured value corresponded not to Newton’s, but to Einstein’s law of gravitation. The sensational news was reprinted in newspapers throughout Europe, although the essence of the new theory was most often presented in a shamelessly distorted form. Einstein's fame reached unprecedented heights.

In May 1920, Einstein, along with other members of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, was sworn in as a civil servant and legally considered a German citizen. However, he retained Swiss citizenship until the end of his life. In the 1920s, receiving invitations from everywhere, he traveled extensively throughout Europe (using a Swiss passport), giving lectures to scientists, students and the inquisitive public. He also visited the United States, where a special welcoming resolution of Congress was adopted in honor of the eminent guest (1921). At the end of 1922, he visited India, where he had long contact with Rabindranath Tagore, and China. Einstein met the winter in Japan, where he was caught by the news that he had been awarded the Nobel Prize.

Nobel Prize (1922)

Einstein was repeatedly nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics. The first such nomination (for the theory of relativity) took place, on the initiative of Wilhelm Ostwald, already in 1910, but the Nobel Committee considered the experimental evidence of the theory of relativity insufficient. Einstein's nomination was repeated every year thereafter, except in 1911 and 1915. Among the recommenders over the years were such prominent physicists as Lorentz, Planck, Bohr, Wien, Chwolson, de Haas, Laue, Zeeman, Kamerlingh Onnes, Hadamard, Eddington, Sommerfeld and Arrhenius.

However, members of the Nobel Committee for a long time did not dare to award the prize to the author of such revolutionary theories. In the end, a diplomatic solution was found: the 1921 prize was awarded to Einstein (in November 1922) for the theory of the photoelectric effect, that is, for the most indisputable and experimentally tested work; however, the text of the decision contained a neutral addition: “... and for other work in the field of theoretical physics.”

As I have already informed you by telegram, the Royal Academy of Sciences, at its meeting yesterday, decided to award you the Prize in Physics for the past year, thereby recognizing your work in theoretical physics, in particular the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, without taking into account your work on the theory of relativity and theories of gravity, which will be evaluated once they are confirmed in the future.

Since Einstein was away, the prize was accepted on his behalf on December 10, 1922 by Rudolf Nadolny, the German Ambassador to Sweden. Previously, he asked for confirmation whether Einstein was a citizen of Germany or Switzerland; The Prussian Academy of Sciences has officially certified that Einstein is a German subject, although his Swiss citizenship is also recognized as valid. Upon his return to Berlin, Einstein received the insignia accompanying the prize personally from the Swedish ambassador.

Naturally, Einstein dedicated his traditional Nobel speech (in July 1923) to the theory of relativity.

Berlin (1922-1933)

In 1923, completing his journey, Einstein spoke in Jerusalem, where it was planned to open the Hebrew University soon (1925).

In 1924, a young Indian physicist, Shatyendranath Bose, wrote to Einstein in a brief letter asking for help in publishing a paper in which he put forward the assumption that formed the basis of modern quantum statistics. Bose proposed to consider light as a gas of photons. Einstein came to the conclusion that the same statistics could be used for atoms and molecules in general. In 1925, Einstein published Bose's paper in a German translation, followed by his own paper in which he outlined a generalized Bose model applicable to systems of identical particles with integer spin called bosons. Based on this quantum statistics, now known as Bose-Einstein statistics, both physicists in the mid-1920s theoretically substantiated the existence of a fifth state of matter - the Bose-Einstein condensate.

The essence of the Bose-Einstein “condensate” is the transition of a large number of particles of an ideal Bose gas to a state with zero momentum at temperatures approaching absolute zero, when the de Broglie wavelength of the thermal motion of the particles and the average distance between these particles are reduced to the same order. Since 1995, when the first such condensate was obtained at the University of Colorado, scientists have practically proven the possibility of the existence of Bose-Einstein condensates made of hydrogen, lithium, sodium, rubidium and helium.

As a person of enormous and universal authority, Einstein was constantly involved in various kinds of political actions during these years, where he advocated social justice, internationalism and cooperation between countries. In 1923, Einstein participated in the organization of the cultural relations society "Friends new Russia" He repeatedly called for the disarmament and unification of Europe, and for the abolition of compulsory military service.

In 1928, Einstein saw off Lorentz, with whom he became very friendly in his last years, on his last journey. It was Lorentz who nominated Einstein for the Nobel Prize in 1920 and supported it the following year.

In 1929, the world noisily celebrated Einstein's 50th birthday. The hero of the day did not take part in the celebrations and hid in his villa near Potsdam, where he enthusiastically grew roses. Here he received friends - scientists, Rabindranath Tagore, Emmanuel Lasker, Charlie Chaplin and others.

In 1931, Einstein visited the USA again. In Pasadena he was very warmly received by Michelson, who had four months to live. Returning to Berlin in the summer, Einstein, in a speech to the Physical Society, paid tribute to the memory of the remarkable experimenter who laid the first stone of the foundation of the theory of relativity.

In addition to theoretical research, Einstein also owned several inventions, including:

• very low voltage meter (together with the Habicht brothers, Paul and Konrad);
• a device that automatically determines exposure time when taking photographs;
• original hearing aid;
• silent refrigerator (shared with Szilard);
• gyro-compass.

Until about 1926, Einstein worked in many areas of physics, from cosmological models to research into the causes of river meanders. Further, with rare exceptions, he focuses his efforts on quantum problems and the Unified Field Theory.

Interpretation of quantum mechanics

The birth of quantum mechanics took place with the active participation of Einstein. In publishing his seminal works, Schrödinger admitted (1926) that he was greatly influenced by “the brief but infinitely prescient remarks of Einstein.”

In 1927, at the Fifth Solvay Congress, Einstein decisively opposed the “Copenhagen interpretation” of Max Born and Niels Bohr, which interpreted the mathematical model of quantum mechanics as essentially probabilistic. Einstein said that supporters of this interpretation “make a virtue out of necessity,” and the probabilistic nature only indicates that our knowledge of the physical essence of microprocesses is incomplete. He sarcastically remarked: “ God doesn't play dice"(German: Der Herrgott würfelt nicht), to which Niels Bohr objected: "Einstein, don't tell God what to do". Einstein accepted the “Copenhagen interpretation” only as a temporary, incomplete option, which, as physics progressed, should be replaced by a complete theory of the microworld. He himself made attempts to create a deterministic nonlinear theory, the approximate consequence of which would be quantum mechanics.

In 1933, Einstein wrote:

The real goal of my research has always been to simplify theoretical physics and unify it into a coherent system. I was able to satisfactorily realize this goal for the macrocosm, but not for quanta and the structure of atoms. I think that, despite significant advances, modern quantum theory is still far from a satisfactory solution to the last group of problems.

In 1947, he restated his position in a letter to Max Born:

Of course, I understand that the fundamentally statistical point of view, the need for which was first clearly recognized by you, contains a significant amount of truth. However, I cannot seriously believe in it, because this theory is incompatible with the basic position that physics must represent reality in space and time without mystical long-range actions. What I am firmly convinced of is that in the end they will settle on a theory in which the naturally related things will not be probabilities, but facts.

Einstein debated this topic until the end of his life, although few physicists shared his point of view. Two of his articles contained descriptions of thought experiments that, in his opinion, clearly showed the incompleteness of quantum mechanics; The so-called “Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox” (May 1935) received the greatest resonance. The discussion of this important and interesting problem continues to this day. Paul Dirac in his book “Memoirs of an Extraordinary Era” wrote:

I do not exclude the possibility that Einstein’s point of view may ultimately turn out to be correct, because the current stage of development of quantum theory cannot be considered as final.<…>Modern quantum mechanics is a great achievement, but it is unlikely to last forever. It seems very likely to me that sometime in the future there will be an improved quantum mechanics in which we return to causality, and which will justify Einstein's point of view. But such a return to causality can only be possible at the cost of abandoning some other fundamental idea that we now unconditionally accept. If we are to revive causality, we will have to pay for it, and for now we can only guess which idea must be sacrificed.

Princeton (1933-1945). The fight against Nazism

As it increases economic crisis In Weimar Germany, political instability intensified, contributing to the strengthening of radical nationalist and anti-Semitic sentiments. Insults and threats against Einstein became more frequent; one of the leaflets even offered a large reward (50,000 marks) for his head. After the Nazis came to power, all of Einstein’s works were either attributed to “Aryan” physicists or declared a distortion of true science. Lenard, who headed the German Physics group, proclaimed: “The most important example The dangerous influence of Jewish circles on the study of nature is represented by Einstein with his theories and mathematical chatter, composed of old information and arbitrary additions... We must understand that it is unworthy of a German to be the spiritual follower of a Jew.” An uncompromising racial cleansing unfolded in all scientific circles in Germany.

In 1933, Einstein had to leave Germany, to which he was very attached, forever. He and his family traveled to the United States of America with guest visas. Soon, in protest against the crimes of Nazism, he renounced German citizenship and membership in the Prussian and Bavarian Academies of Sciences and stopped communicating with the scientists who remained in Germany - in particular, with Max Planck, whose patriotism was hurt by Einstein's harsh anti-Nazi statements.

After moving to the United States, Albert Einstein received a position as professor of physics at the newly created Institute for Advanced Study (Princeton, New Jersey). The eldest son, Hans-Albert (1904-1973), soon followed him (1938); he subsequently became a recognized expert in hydraulics and a professor at the University of California (1947). Einstein's youngest son, Eduard (1910-1965), fell ill with a severe form of schizophrenia around 1930 and ended his days in a Zurich psychiatric hospital. Einstein's cousin, Lina, died in Auschwitz, another sister, Bertha Dreyfuss, died in the Theresienstadt concentration camp.

In the USA, Einstein instantly became one of the most famous and respected people in the country, gaining a reputation as the most brilliant scientist in history, as well as the personification of the image of the “absent-minded professor” and the intellectual capabilities of man in general. The following January, 1934, he was invited to the White House by President Franklin Roosevelt, had a cordial conversation with him and even spent the night there. Every day Einstein received hundreds of letters of various contents, which (even children’s ones) he tried to answer. Being a world-renowned natural scientist, he remained an approachable, modest, undemanding and friendly person.

In December 1936, Elsa died of heart disease; three months earlier, Marcel Grossmann died in Zurich. Einstein's loneliness was brightened up by his sister Maya, stepdaughter Margot (Elsa's daughter from her first marriage), secretary Ellen Dukas, cat Tiger and white terrier Chico. To the surprise of the Americans, Einstein never acquired a car or a television. Maya was partially paralyzed after a stroke in 1946, and every evening Einstein read books to his beloved sister.

In August 1939, Einstein signed a letter written on the initiative of Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard addressed to US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. The letter alerted the President to the possibility that Nazi Germany was capable of creating an atomic bomb. After months of deliberation, Roosevelt decided to take this threat seriously and started his own atomic weapons project. Einstein himself did not take part in this work. He later regretted the letter he signed, realizing that for the new US leader Harry Truman, nuclear energy served as a tool of intimidation. Subsequently, he criticized the development of nuclear weapons, their use in Japan and tests at Bikini Atoll (1954), and considered his involvement in accelerating work on the American nuclear program to be the greatest tragedy of his life. His aphorisms became widely known: “We won the war, but not the peace”; "If the third world war is fought atomic bombs, then the fourth - with stones and sticks.”

During the war, Einstein advised the US Navy and contributed to solving various technical problems.

Princeton (1945-1955). Fight for peace. Unified field theory

In the post-war years, Einstein became one of the founders of the Pugwash Peace Scientists' Movement. Although its first conference was held after Einstein’s death (1957), the initiative to create such a movement was expressed in the widely known Russell-Einstein Manifesto (written jointly with Bertrand Russell), which also warned about the dangers of the creation and use of the hydrogen bomb. As part of this movement, Einstein, who was its chairman, together with Albert Schweitzer, Bertrand Russell, Frederic Joliot-Curie and other world-famous scientists, fought against the arms race and the creation of nuclear and thermonuclear weapons.

In September 1947, in an open letter to delegations of UN member states, he proposed to reorganize the UN General Assembly, turning it into a permanent world parliament, with greater powers than the Security Council, which (in Einstein's opinion) was paralyzed in its actions by law veto. To which in November 1947, the largest Soviet scientists (S.I. Vavilov, A.F. Ioffe, N.N. Semenov, A.N. Frumkin) expressed disagreement with the position of A. Einstein (1947) in an open letter.

Until the end of his life, Einstein continued to work on the study of cosmological problems, but he directed his main efforts to the creation of a unified field theory. He was helped in this by professional mathematicians, including (at Princeton) John Kemeny. Formally, there were some successes in this direction - he even developed two versions of the unified field theory. Both models were mathematically elegant, from which not only the general theory of relativity followed, but also the entire electrodynamics of Maxwell - but they did not give any new physical consequences. But pure mathematics, in isolation from physics, never interested Einstein, and he rejected both models. At first (1929) Einstein tried to develop the ideas of Kaluza and Klein - the world has five dimensions, and the fifth has micro-dimensions and is therefore invisible. It was not possible to obtain new physically interesting results with its help, and the multidimensional theory was soon abandoned (to be later revived in superstring theory). The second version of the Unified Theory (1950) was based on the assumption that spacetime has not only curvature, but also torsion; it also organically included general relativity and Maxwell’s theory, but it was not possible to find a final edition of the equations that would describe not only the macroworld, but also the microworld. And without this, the theory remained nothing more than a mathematical superstructure over a building that did not need this superstructure at all.

Weyl recalled that Einstein once told him: “Physics cannot be constructed speculatively, without a guiding visual physical principle.”

Last years of life. Death

In 1955, Einstein's health deteriorated sharply. He wrote a will and told his friends: “I have fulfilled my task on Earth.” His last work was an unfinished appeal calling for the prevention of nuclear war.

During this time, Einstein was visited by historian Bernard Cohen, who recalled:

I knew that Einstein was a great man and a great physicist, but I had no idea of ​​the warmth of his friendly nature, his kindness and great sense of humor. During our conversation it did not feel like death was near. Einstein's mind remained alive, he was witty and seemed very cheerful.

Stepdaughter Margot recalled her last meeting with Einstein in the hospital:

He spoke with deep calm, even with slight humor about doctors, and waited for his death as an upcoming “natural phenomenon.” As fearless as he was during life, he met death so calmly and peacefully. Without any sentimentality and without regrets, he left this world.

Albert Einstein died on April 18, 1955 at 1 hour 25 minutes, at the age of 77 in Princeton from an aortic aneurysm. Before his death, he uttered a few words in German, but the American nurse could not reproduce them later. Not accepting any form of personality cult, he prohibited lavish burial with loud ceremonies, for which he wished that the place and time of the burial not be disclosed. On April 19, 1955, the funeral of the great scientist took place without wide publicity, attended by only 12 of his closest friends. His body was burned at the Ewing Cemetery Crematory ( Ewing Cemetery), and the ashes are scattered to the wind.

Personal position

Human qualities

Close friends describe Einstein as a sociable, friendly, cheerful person, they note his kindness and willingness to help at any moment, complete absence snobbery, captivating human charm. His excellent sense of humor is often noted. When Einstein was asked where his laboratory was, he smiled and showed a fountain pen.

Einstein was passionate about music, especially the works of the 18th century. Over the years, his favorite composers have included Bach, Mozart, Schumann, Haydn and Schubert, and in recent years, Brahms. He played the violin well, which he never parted with. From fiction spoke with admiration of the prose of Leo Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Dickens, and the plays of Brecht. He was also interested in philately, gardening, and sailing (he even wrote an article about the theory of yacht control). In his private life he was unpretentious; at the end of his life he invariably appeared in his favorite warm sweater.

Despite his colossal scientific authority, he did not suffer from excessive conceit; he readily admitted that he could be wrong, and if this happened, he publicly admitted his error. This happened, for example, in 1922, when he criticized the article of Alexander Friedman, who predicted the expansion of the Universe. Having then received a letter from Friedman explaining the controversial details, Einstein reported in the same journal that he was wrong, and Friedman’s results were valuable and “shed new light” on possible models of cosmological dynamics.

Injustice, oppression, lies always provoked his angry reaction. From a letter to sister Maya (1935):

It seems that people have lost the desire for justice and dignity, they have ceased to respect what they managed to win at the cost of enormous sacrifices. best generations… Ultimately, the basis of all human values ​​is morality. The clear awareness of this in a primitive era testifies to the unparalleled greatness of Moses. What a contrast with today's people!

The most hated word in German it was for him Zwang- violence, coercion.

Einstein’s attending physician, Gustav Bucchi, said that Einstein hated posing for the artist, but as soon as he admitted that he hoped to get out of poverty thanks to his portrait, Einstein immediately agreed and patiently sat in front of him for long hours.

At the end of his life, Einstein briefly formulated his value system: “The ideals that illuminated my path and gave me courage and courage were goodness, beauty and truth.”

Political beliefs

Socialism

Albert Einstein was a staunch democratic socialist, humanist, pacifist and anti-fascist. Einstein's authority, achieved thanks to his revolutionary discoveries in physics, allowed the scientist to actively influence socio-political transformations in the world.

In an essay entitled "Why Socialism?" ( "Why Socialism?"), published as an article in the largest Marxist magazine in the United States, Monthly Review, Albert Einstein outlined his vision of socialist transformation. In particular, the scientist substantiated the unviability of the economic anarchy of capitalist relations, which is the cause of social injustice, and called the main vice of capitalism “neglect human personality" Condemning the alienation of man under capitalism, the desire for profit and acquisition, Einstein noted that a democratic society in itself cannot limit the willfulness of the capitalist oligarchy, and ensuring human rights becomes possible only in a planned economy. It should be noted that the article was written at the invitation of Marxist economist Paul Sweezy at the height of the McCarthyite “witch hunt” and expressed the scientist’s civic position.

Because of his “leftism,” the scientist was often attacked by right-wing conservative circles in the United States. Back in 1932, the American Women's Patriotic Corporation demanded that Einstein not be allowed into the United States, since he was a known troublemaker and friend of the communists. The visa was nevertheless issued, and Einstein sadly wrote in the newspaper: “Never before have I received such an energetic refusal from the fair sex, and if I did, it was not from so many at once.” During the rampant McCarthyism, the FBI had a personal file of the “unreliable” Einstein, consisting of 1,427 pages. In particular, he was accused of “preaching a doctrine aimed at establishing anarchy.” FBI archives also indicate that the physicist was the object of close attention from the intelligence services, since during 1937-1955 Einstein “was or was a sponsor and honorary member of 34 communist fronts,” was the honorary chairman of three such organizations, and among his relatives friends were people “sympathizers with communist ideology.”

Relation to the USSR

Einstein advocated building a democratic socialism that would combine social protection and economic planning with a democratic regime and respect for human rights. He wrote about Lenin in 1929: “I respect in Lenin a man who used all his strength with complete self-sacrifice of his personality to implement social justice. His method seems inappropriate to me. But one thing is certain: people like him are the guardians and renewers of the conscience of mankind.”.

Einstein did not approve of the totalitarian methods of building a socialist society observed in the USSR. In a 1933 interview, Einstein explained why he never accepted an invitation to come to the USSR: he was against any dictatorship that “enslaves the individual through terror and violence, whether they manifest themselves under the flag of fascism or communism.” In 1938, Einstein wrote several letters to Stalin and other leaders of the USSR, in which he asked for a humane treatment of foreign physicist emigrants repressed in the USSR. In particular, Einstein was worried about the fate of Fritz Noether, Emmy Noether's brother, who hoped to find refuge in the USSR, but was arrested in 1937 and soon (in September 1941) executed. In a conversation in 1936, Einstein called Stalin a political gangster. In a letter to Soviet scientists (1948), Einstein pointed out such negative features of the Soviet system as the omnipotence of the bureaucracy, the tendency to turn Soviet power into “a kind of church and brand as traitors and vile villains all who do not belong to it.” At the same time, Einstein always remained a supporter of rapprochement and cooperation between Western democracies and the socialist camp.

Pacifism

To justify his anti-war position, Einstein wrote:

My pacifism is an instinctive feeling that controls me because killing a person is disgusting. My attitude does not come from any speculative theory, but is based on the deepest antipathy to any kind of cruelty and hatred.

He rejected nationalism in all its manifestations and called it “the measles of humanity.” In 1932, in order to prevent the Nazis from winning the elections, he signed the appeal of the International Socialist Union of Struggle with a call for a united workers' front of the Social Democratic and Communist parties.

During the war, Einstein, temporarily abandoning his fundamental pacifism, took an active part in the fight against fascism. After the war, Einstein supported nonviolent means of struggle for the rights of the masses, especially noting the merits of Mahatma Gandhi: “I consider Gandhi’s views the most outstanding of all the politicians of our contemporaries. We must try to act in this spirit: not to use violence to fight for our rights.".

He served on the advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York with Julian Huxley, Thomas Mann, and John Dewey. First Humanist Society of New York).

Fight for human rights

Being an opponent of colonialism and imperialism, Albert Einstein, along with Henri Barbusse and Jawaharlal Nehru, participated in the Brussels Congress of the Anti-Imperialist League (1927). He actively contributed to the struggle of the black population of the United States for civil rights, being for two decades a close friend of the famous black singer and actor Paul Robeson in the USSR. Upon learning that the elderly William Du Bois had been declared a “Communist spy,” Einstein demanded that he be called as a witness for the defense, and the case was soon closed. He strongly condemned the “case of Oppenheimer,” who in 1953 was accused of “communist sympathies” and removed from secret work.

In 1946, Einstein was among the activists who collaborated to open a secular Jewish university at Middlesex University, but when his proposal to appoint the British Labor economist Harold Laski as president of the university was rejected (as a person supposedly “alien to American principles of democracy”), the physicist withdrew his support and later, when the institution opened as Louis Brandeis University, refused an honorary degree from it.

Zionism

Alarmed by the rapid rise of anti-Semitism in Germany, Einstein supported the call of the Zionist movement to create a Jewish national home in Palestine and made a number of articles and speeches on this topic. The idea of ​​opening the Hebrew University in Jerusalem (1925) received especially active support on his part. He explained his position:

Until recently I lived in Switzerland, and while I was there I was not aware of my Jewishness...
When I arrived in Germany, I first learned that I was a Jew, and more non-Jews than Jews helped me make this discovery... Then I realized that only a joint cause, which would be dear to all Jews in the world, could lead to the revival of the people...
If we did not have to live among intolerant, soulless and cruel people, I would be the first to reject nationalism in favor of universal humanity.

A consistent internationalist, he defended the rights of all oppressed peoples - Jews, Indians, African Americans, etc. Although he initially believed that the Jewish hearth could do without a separate state, borders and army, in 1947 Einstein welcomed the creation of the state of Israel, hoping for a binational Arab-Jewish solution to the Palestinian problem. He wrote to Paul Ehrenfest in 1921: “Zionism represents a truly new Jewish ideal and can restore the joy of existence to the Jewish people.” After the Holocaust, he noted: “Zionism did not protect German Jewry from destruction. But for those who survived, Zionism gave them the inner strength to endure the disaster with dignity, without losing healthy self-esteem.” In 1952, Einstein received an offer from then Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion to become the second president of Israel, which the scientist politely refused, citing a lack of experience and ability to work with people. Einstein bequeathed all his letters and manuscripts (and even the copyright for the commercial use of his image and name) to the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.

Philosophy

Einstein was always interested in the philosophy of science and left a number of in-depth studies on this topic. The 1949 anniversary collection for his 70th birthday was called (presumably with his knowledge and consent) “Albert Einstein. Philosopher-scientist." Einstein considered Spinoza to be the closest philosopher to himself in terms of worldview. The rationalism of both of them was all-encompassing and extended not only to the sphere of science, but also to ethics and other aspects of human life: humanism, internationalism, love of freedom, etc. are good not only in themselves, but also because they are the most reasonable. The laws of nature objectively exist, and they are understandable for the reason that they form world harmony, reasonable and aesthetically attractive at the same time. This is the main reason for Einstein’s rejection of the “Copenhagen interpretation” of quantum mechanics, which, in his opinion, introduced an irrational element and chaotic disharmony into the picture of the world.

In his book The Evolution of Physics, Einstein wrote:

With the help of physical theories, we try to find our way through the labyrinth of observed facts, to organize and comprehend the world of our sensory perceptions. We want observed facts to follow logically from our concept of reality. Without faith that it is possible to embrace reality with our theoretical constructs, without faith in the internal harmony of our world, there could be no science. This faith is and will always remain the main motive of all scientific creativity. In all our efforts, in every dramatic struggle between old and new, we recognize the eternal desire for knowledge, an unshakable faith in the harmony of our world, constantly increasing as the obstacles to knowledge grow.

In science, these principles meant a strong disagreement with the then fashionable positivist concepts of Mach, Poincaré and others, as well as a rejection of Kantianism with its ideas of “a priori knowledge.” Positivism played a certain positive role in the history of science, as it stimulated the skeptical attitude of leading physicists, including Einstein, towards previous prejudices (primarily the concept of absolute space and absolute time). It is known that Einstein, in a letter to Mach, called himself his student. However, Einstein called the philosophy of the positivists stupid. Einstein explained the essence of his disagreements with them:

...A priori we should expect a chaotic world that cannot be known through thinking. One could (or should) only expect that this world is subject to law only to the extent to which we can order it with our reason. It would be an ordering similar to the alphabetical ordering of words in a language. On the contrary, the ordering introduced, for example, by Newton's theory of gravity, is of a completely different nature. Although the axioms of this theory were created by man, the success of this enterprise presupposes a significant orderliness of the objective world, which a priori we have no reason to expect. This is the “miracle”, and the further our knowledge develops, the more magical it becomes. Positivists and professional atheists see this as a weak point, for they feel happy in the knowledge that they have not only successfully driven God out of this world, but also “deprived this world of miracles.”

Einstein's philosophy was based on completely different principles. In his autobiography (1949) he wrote:

There, outside, was this big world, existing independently of us, people, and standing before us as a huge eternal mystery, accessible, however, at least in part, to our perception and our mind. The study of this world beckoned as a liberation, and I soon became convinced that many of those whom I had learned to value and respect found their inner freedom and confidence by devoting themselves entirely to this activity. Mental grasp within the limits of the possibilities available to us of this extrapersonal world seemed to me, half consciously, half unconsciously, as the highest goal... The prejudice of these scientists [positivists] against the atomic theory can undoubtedly be attributed to their positivist philosophical attitude. This is an interesting example of how philosophical prejudices interfere with the correct interpretation of facts, even by scientists with bold thinking and subtle intuition.

In the same autobiography, Einstein clearly formulated two criteria for truth in physics: a theory must have “external justification” and “internal perfection.” The first means that the theory must be consistent with experience, and the second means that it must, from minimal premises, reveal the deepest possible patterns of the universal and reasonable harmony of the laws of nature. The aesthetic qualities of the theory (original beauty, naturalness, grace) thereby become important physical advantages.

A theory is more impressive the simpler its premises, the more diverse the subjects it relates, and the wider the scope of its application.

Einstein defended his belief in an objective reality that exists independently of human perception during his famous conversations with Rabindranath Tagore, who equally consistently denied such a reality. Einstein said:

Our natural point of view regarding the existence of truth independent of man cannot be explained or proven, but everyone believes in it, even primitive people. We attribute superhuman objectivity to truth. This reality, independent of our existence, our experience, our mind, is necessary for us, although we cannot say what it means.

Einstein's influence on twentieth-century philosophy of science is comparable to the influence he had on twentieth-century physics. The essence of the approach he proposed in the philosophy of science lies in the synthesis of a variety of philosophical teachings that Einstein proposed to use depending on the problem being solved by science. He believed that for a real scientist, as opposed to a philosopher, epistemological monism is unacceptable. Based on a specific situation, the same scientist can be an idealist, a realist, a positivist, and even a Platonist and Pythagorean. Since such eclecticism may seem unacceptable to a consistent systematic philosopher, Einstein believed that a real scientist in the eyes of such a philosopher looks like an opportunist. The approach advocated by Einstein was called “epistemological opportunism” in modern philosophy of science.

Religious views

Einstein's religious views have been the subject of long-standing controversy. Some claim that Einstein believed in the existence of God, others call him an atheist. Both of them used the words of the great scientist to confirm their point of view.

In 1921, Einstein received a telegram from New York rabbi Herbert Goldstein: “Do you believe in God period paid answer 50 words.” Einstein put it in 24 words: “I believe in Spinoza’s God, who manifests himself in the natural harmony of existence, but not at all in the God who worries about the destinies and affairs of people.”. He put it even more harshly in an interview with the New York Times (November 1930): “I do not believe in a God who rewards and punishes, in a God whose goals are molded from our human goals. I do not believe in the immortality of the soul, although weak minds, obsessed with fear or absurd selfishness, find refuge in such a belief.”

In 1940 he described his views in a magazine "Nature", in an article entitled "Science and Religion". There he writes:

In my opinion, a religiously enlightened person is one who, to the greatest extent possible, has freed himself from the fetters of egoistic desires and is absorbed in the thoughts, feelings and aspirations that he holds because of their superpersonal nature... regardless of whether an attempt is made to connect them with a divine being, for otherwise Buddha or Spinoza could not be considered religious personalities. The religiosity of such a person lies in the fact that he has no doubts about the significance and greatness of these superpersonal goals, which cannot be rationally justified, but do not need it... In this sense, religion is the ancient desire of humanity to clearly and fully understand these values ​​and goals and strengthen and expand their influence.

He goes on to make some connection between science and religion and says that “Science can only be created by those who are thoroughly imbued with the desire for truth and understanding. But the source of this feeling originates from the field of religion. From there comes the belief in the possibility that the rules of this world are rational, that is, comprehensible to reason. I cannot imagine a real scientist without a strong belief in this. The situation can be described figuratively as follows: science without religion is lame, and religion without science is blind.”. The phrase “science without religion is lame, and religion without science is blind” is often quoted out of context, depriving it of meaning.

Einstein then writes again that he does not believe in a personal God and states:

There is neither the dominance of man nor the dominance of deity as independent causes of natural phenomena. Of course, the doctrine of God as a personality intervening in natural phenomena can never be literally refuted by science, for this doctrine can always find refuge in those areas where scientific knowledge is not yet able to penetrate. But I am convinced that such behavior of some representatives of religion is not only unworthy, but also fatal.

In 1950, in a letter to M. Berkowitz, Einstein wrote: “I am agnostic towards God. I am convinced that for a clear understanding of the primary importance of moral principles in the improvement and ennobling of life, the concept of a legislator, especially a legislator working on the principle of reward and punishment, is not required.".

Once again Einstein described his religious views, responding to those who attributed his belief in the Judeo-Christian God:

What you read about my religious beliefs is, of course, a lie. A lie that is systematically repeated. I do not believe in God as a person and I have never hidden this, but expressed it very clearly. If there is something in me that can be called religious, then it is undoubtedly an unlimited admiration for the structure of the universe to the extent that science reveals it.

In 1954, a year and a half before his death, Einstein, in a letter to the German philosopher Eric Gutkind, described his attitude towards religion as follows:

“The word “God” is to me only a manifestation and product of human weaknesses, and the Bible is a collection of venerable, but still primitive legends, which, nevertheless, are rather childish. No interpretation, even the most sophisticated, can change this (for me).”

Original text(English)
The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this.

The most comprehensive overview of Einstein's religious views was published by his friend, Max Jammer, in the book Einstein and Religion (1999). However, he admits that the book is not based on his direct conversations with Einstein, but on the study of archival materials. Jammer considers Einstein to be a deeply religious man, calls his views a “cosmic religion” and believes that Einstein did not identify God with Nature, like Spinoza, but considered him a separate, non-personal entity, manifested in the laws of the Universe as “a spirit significantly superior to man,” according to Einstein himself.

At the same time, Einstein’s closest student Leopold Infeld wrote that “when Einstein talks about God, he always means the internal connection and logical simplicity of the laws of nature. I would call this a “materialistic approach to God.”

Grades and memory

Charles Percy Snow on Einstein:

If Einstein had not existed, 20th century physics would have been different. This cannot be said about any other scientist... He occupied a position in public life that is unlikely to be occupied by another scientist in the future. No one really knows why, but he entered public consciousness the whole world, becoming a living symbol of science and the ruler of the thoughts of the twentieth century.
He said: “Caring for man and his fate should be the main goal in science. Never forget this among your drawings and equations.” Later he also said: “Only the life that is lived for people is valuable”...
Einstein was the most noble man we have ever met.

Robert Oppenheimer: “There was always a kind of magical purity about him, at once childlike and infinitely stubborn.”

Bertrand Russell:

I think his work and his violin gave him a significant measure of happiness, but deep sympathy for people and interest in their fate protected Einstein from a degree of hopelessness unbecoming for such a person... Communication with Einstein brought extraordinary satisfaction. Despite his genius and fame, he behaved absolutely simply, without the slightest pretense of superiority... He was not only a great scientist, but also a great man.

H. H. Hardy described Einstein in two words: “Meek and wise.”

Confession

USSR postage stamp issued for the 100th anniversary of Albert Einstein (DFA [ITC “Mark”] No. 4944)

The archives of the Nobel Committee preserve about 60 nominations by Einstein in connection with the formulation of the theory of relativity; his candidacy was consistently nominated every year from 1910 to 1922 (except for 1911 and 1915). However, the prize was awarded only in 1922 - for the theory of the photoelectric effect, which seemed to members of the Nobel Committee to be a more indisputable contribution to science. As a result of this nomination, Einstein received the (previously deferred) prize for 1921 at the same time as Niels Bohr, who was awarded the 1922 prize.

Einstein was awarded honorary doctorates from numerous universities, including: Geneva, Zurich, Rostock, Madrid, Brussels, Buenos Aires, London, Oxford, Cambridge, Glasgow, Leeds, Manchester, Harvard, Princeton, New York (Albany) , Sorbonne.

Some other awards:

• Title of honorary citizen of New York (1921) and Tel Aviv (1923);
• Barnard Medal (1921);
• Matteucci Medal (1921);
• German Order of Merit (1923; Einstein renounced this order in 1933);
• Copley Medal (1925), "for the theory of relativity and contributions to quantum theory";
• Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Great Britain (1926);
• Max Planck Medal (1929), German Physical Society (German: Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft);
• Jules Jansen Prize (1931), French Astronomical Society (French: Société astronomique de France);
• Gibbs Lecture (1934);
• Franklin Medal (1935), Franklin Institute.

Posthumously, Albert Einstein was also noted for a number of distinctions:

• 1992: He was named number 10 on Michael Hart's list of the most influential people in history.
• 1999: Time magazine named Einstein "Person of the Century."
• 1999: A Gallup poll named Einstein number 4 on the list of the most admired people of the 20th century.
• 2005 was declared the Year of Physics by UNESCO on the occasion of the centenary of the “year of miracles”, culminating in the discovery of the special theory of relativity.

In the capital of the United States and in Jerusalem near the Israeli Academy of Sciences, monuments to Einstein by Robert Burks were erected.

In 2015, in Jerusalem, on the territory of the Hebrew University, a monument to Einstein was erected by Moscow sculptor Georgy Frangulyan.

Some memorable places associated with Einstein:

• Ulm, Bahnhofstrasse, building 135, here Einstein was born and lived until the family moved to Munich (1880). The house was destroyed by Allied bombing in the spring of 1945.
• Bern, Kramgasse street ( Kramgasse), house 49, lived from 1903 to 1905. Now it houses the Albert Einstein House Museum. There is also a separate Einstein Museum in the Historical Museum of Bern on Helvetiaplatz.
• Zurich, Mussonstrasse, house 12, lived from 1909 to 1911.
• Zurich, Hofstrasse, house 116, lived from 1912 to 1914.
• Berlin, Wittelsbacherstrasse, house 13, lived from 1914 to 1918. This Berlin house, like the next one, was destroyed during the hostilities of 1945.
• Berlin, Haberlandstrasse, building 5, lived from 1918 to 1933.
• Princeton, 112 Mercer Street, lived from 1933 to 1955.

Memorial plaques:

To Aarau

In Prague

In Berlin

In Milan

In Malta

Named after Einstein

• Einstein - a unit of the number of photons used in photochemistry
• Chemical element einsteinium (No. 99 in D. I. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table of Elements)
• Asteroid (2001) Einstein
• Einstein Crater on the Moon
• NASA's Einstein Observatory Satellite (HEAO2) with X-ray telescope (1978-1982)
• Quasar "Einstein Cross"

• “Einstein rings” - an effect created by “gravitational lenses”
• Astrophysical Observatory Potsdam
• Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, Holm, Germany
• Several prestigious awards for scientific achievements:
  • International UNESCO Albert Einstein Gold Medal
  • Einstein Prize(Lewis and Rose Strauss Foundation, USA)
  • Albert Einstein Medal(Swiss Albert Einstein Society, Bern)
  • Albert Einstein Prize(World Cultural Council, World Cultural Council)
  • Einstein Prize(American Physical Society, APS)
• Gymnasiums in Munich, St. Augustin and Angermünde
• Some medical institutions, including:
  • Medical Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ( Albert Einstein Medical Center)
  • Yeshiva University College of Medicine
• Street adjacent to Tel Aviv University in Israel.

Cultural influence

Albert Einstein has become the hero of a number of fictional novels, films and theatrical productions. In particular, he appears as a character in the film by Nicholas Rog “Insignificance”, the comedy by Fred Schepisi “I.Q.” (in which he is played by Walter Matthau), Philip Martin's film Einstein and Eddington ( Einstein and Eddington) 2008, in the Soviet / Russian films “Choice of Target”, “Wolf Messing”, the comic play by Steve Martin, the novels of Jean-Claude Carrier “Please Monsieur Einstein” ( Einstein S'il Vous Plait) and Alan Lightman's "Einstein's Dreams" ( Einstein's Dreams), Archibald MacLeish's poem "Einstein". The humorous component of the great physicist's personality appears in Ed Metzger's production of Albert Einstein: Practical Bohemian. “Professor Einstein,” who creates the chronosphere and prevents Hitler from coming to power, is one of the key characters in the alternative Universe he created in a series of computer real-time strategies Command & Conquer. The scientist in the film "Cain XVIII" is clearly made up to look like Einstein.

The appearance of Albert Einstein, usually seen as an adult in a simple sweater with disheveled hair, has become a staple in popular culture's portrayal of "mad scientists" and "absent-minded professors." In addition, it actively exploits the motif of the great physicist’s forgetfulness and impracticality, which is transferred to the collective image of his colleagues. Time magazine even called Einstein “a cartoonist’s dream come true.” Albert Einstein’s photographs became widely known. The most famous one was made at the physicist’s 72nd birthday (1951). Photographer Arthur Sass asked Einstein to smile for the camera, to which he stuck out his tongue. This image has become an icon of modern popular culture, presenting a portrait of both a genius and a cheerful living person. On June 21, 2009, at an auction in New Hampshire, America, one of the nine original photographs printed in 1951 was sold for $74,000. A. Einstein gave this photograph to his friend, journalist Howard Smith, and signed on it that “The humorous grimace is addressed to all of humanity.”

Einstein's popularity in the modern world is so great that controversial issues arise in the widespread use of the scientist's name and appearance in advertising and trademarks. Because Einstein bequeathed some of his property, including the use of his images, to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the brand "Albert Einstein" was registered as a trademark.

• Important character in the Command & Conquer: Red Alert series
• Super-specialist in the game Civilization IV, where he is an outstanding scientist, a gift to civilization
• One of the characters in the American film "IQ" (1994)
• in the album B&W (2006) by the group “Pilot”

Filmography

• film “I killed Einstein, gentlemen” (Czechoslovakia, 1969)
• film “Intelligence Quotient” (English I.Q.) (USA, 1994)
• d/f “Albert Einstein. Formula of Life and Death" (English: Einstein's Equation of Life and Death) (BBC, 2005).
• d/f "Einstein's Big Idea" (USA, France, Germany, UK, 2005)
• feature film “Einstein and Eddington” (BBC/HBO, 2008, directed by Philip Martin; Andy Serkis starred as Einstein).
• t/s “Einstein. Theory of Love" (Russia, 2013; 4 episodes) - role played by Dmitry Pevtsov
• t/s “Genius” (National Geographic, 2017)

Myths and alternative versions

The versatile scientific and political activity of Albert Einstein gave rise to an extensive mythology, as well as a considerable number of unconventional assessments of various aspects of his activity. Already during the scientist’s lifetime, an extensive literature arose that downplayed or denied his importance in modern physics. A significant role in its emergence was played by the “Aryan” physicists Philipp Lenard and Johannes Stark, as well as the mathematician E. Whittaker. Such literature became especially widespread in Nazi Germany, where, for example, the special theory of relativity was entirely attributed to “Aryan” scientists. Attempts to downplay Einstein's role in the development of modern physics continue to this day. For example, not long ago the version about Einstein appropriating the scientific discoveries of his first wife, Mileva Maric, was resurrected. Maxim Chertanov published a reasoned criticism of such fabrications in his ZhZL biography of Einstein.

Below is a brief summary of such myths, as well as those alternative versions that have been discussed in serious literature.

Scientific achievements of Mileva Maric

One of the many myths associated with Einstein is that Mileva Maric, his first wife, allegedly helped him develop the theory of relativity or was even its true author. This question has been studied by historians. No documentary evidence has been found for such a conclusion. Mileva didn't show special abilities to mathematics or physics, she could not even (after two attempts) pass the final exams at the Polytechnic. Not a single scientific work of hers is known - neither during the years of her life with Einstein, nor later (she died in 1948). Her recently published correspondence with Einstein does not contain any mention on her part of the ideas of the theory of relativity, while Einstein's letters in response contain numerous reflections on these topics.

Who is the author of the theory of relativity - Einstein or Poincaré

In discussions of the history of the special theory of relativity (SRT), an accusation against Einstein arises from time to time: why in his first article “On the electrodynamics of moving bodies” did he not refer to the work of his predecessors, in particular the work of Poincaré and Lorentz? Sometimes it is even stated that SRT was created by Poincaré, and Einstein’s article contained nothing new.

Until the end of his life, Lorentz never became a supporter of the theory of relativity and always refused the honor of being considered its “forerunner”: “The main reason why I could not propose a theory of relativity is that I adhered to the idea that only the variable t can be considered true time, and the local time t ′ proposed by me should be considered only as an auxiliary mathematical quantity.” In a letter to Einstein, Lorentz recalled:

I felt the need for a more general theory, which I tried to develop later... The credit for developing such a theory belongs to you (and, to a lesser extent, to Poincaré).

Insufficient attention to Poincaré's substantive work did occur, but, in fairness, this reproach should be addressed not only to Einstein, but to all physicists of the early 20th century. Even in France, in the work on SRT, Poincaré’s contribution was initially ignored, and only after the final approval of SRT (1920s) did historians of science rediscover the forgotten works and give Poincaré his due:

Having given impetus to further theoretical research, Lorentz’s work did not have any significant impact on the subsequent process of approval and recognition of the new theory... But Poincaré’s work also failed to solve this problem... Basic research Poincare did not have a noticeable influence on the views of a wide circle of scientists...

The reasons for this are the lack of consistency in Poincaré's relativistic articles and the significant differences between Einstein and Poincaré in the physical understanding of relativism. The formulas given by Einstein, although superficially similar to Poincaré’s formulas, had a different physical content.

Einstein himself explained that in his work “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies” two provisions were new: “the idea that the meaning of the Lorentz transformation goes beyond Maxwell’s equations and concerns the essence of space and time... and the conclusion that “Lorentz invariance “is a general condition for every physical theory.” P. S. Kudryavtsev wrote in “History of Physics”:

The true creator of the theory of relativity was Einstein, and not Poincare, not Lorentz, not Larmore or anyone else. The fact is that all these authors did not break away from electrodynamics and did not consider the problem from a broader point of view... Einstein’s approach to this problem is a different matter. He looked at it from a fundamentally new position, from a completely revolutionary point of view.

At the same time, discussing the history of the creation of the theory of relativity, Max Born came to the conclusion that:

...the special theory of relativity is not the work of one person, it arose as a result of the joint efforts of a group of great researchers - Lorentz, Poincaré, Einstein, Minkowski. The fact that only Einstein's name is mentioned has a certain justification, since the special theory of relativity was, after all, only the first step towards the general one, which embraced gravity.

It should also be noted that neither Lorentz nor Poincaré ever challenged Einstein's priority in the theory of relativity. Lorentz treated Einstein very warmly (it was he who recommended Einstein for the Nobel Prize), and Poincaré gave Einstein a high and friendly assessment in his famous testimonial.

Who discovered the formula E=mc²

The law of the relationship between mass and energy E=mc² is Einstein’s most famous formula. Some sources question Einstein's priority, pointing out that similar or even the same formulas were discovered by historians of science in the earlier works of G. Schramm (1872), N. A. Umov (1873), J. J. Thomson (1881), O Heaviside (1890), A. Poincaré (1900) and F. Gazenorl (1904). All these studies related to a special case - the supposed properties of the ether or charged bodies. For example, Umov studied the possible dependence of the density of the ether on the energy density of the electromagnetic field, and the Austrian physicist F. Gazenorl, in his works of 1904-1905, suggested that the radiation energy is equivalent to additional “electromagnetic mass” and is related to it by the formula: E = 3 4 m c 2 .

Einstein was the first to present this relation as universal law dynamics, relating to all types of matter and not limited to electromagnetism. In addition, most of the listed scientists associated this law with the existence of a special “electromagnetic mass” that depends on energy. Einstein combined all types of masses and noted an inverse relationship: the inertia of any physical object increases with increasing energy.

Hilbert and the gravitational field equations

As mentioned above, the final equations of the gravitational field of the general theory of relativity (GTR) were derived almost simultaneously (in different ways) by Einstein and Hilbert in November 1915. Until recently, it was believed that Hilbert received them 5 days earlier, but published them later: Einstein presented his work containing the correct version of the equations to the Berlin Academy on November 25, and Hilbert’s note “Foundations of Physics” was announced 5 days earlier, on November 20 1915 at a report at the Göttingen Mathematical Society, and then transferred to the Royal Scientific Society in Göttingen. Gilbert's article was published on March 31, 1916. The two scholars, in preparing their manuscripts, conducted a lively correspondence, some of which has survived; it clearly shows that both researchers had a mutual and fruitful influence on each other. In the literature, field equations are called “Einstein equations.”

In 1997, new documents were discovered, namely a proof of Hilbert's article, dated December 6. From this discovery, L. Corri and his co-authors who made it concluded that Hilbert wrote down the “correct” field equations not 5 days earlier, but 4 months later than Einstein. It turned out that Hilbert's work, prepared for publication earlier than Einstein's, differs significantly from its final printed version in two respects:

• It does not contain the field equations in their classical form, first published in Einstein's article (the expression with the absolute derivative is not disclosed). Later, however, it was discovered that the upper third of the 8th sheet of proof had been cut off for some reason; however, the context of this lacuna does not give reason to assume that this particular fragment contained the field equations.
• In addition to the field equations, Hilbert introduced additional 4 non-generally covariant conditions, which, in his opinion, are necessary for the unique solution of the equations.

This means that Hilbert’s version was initially unfinished and not completely generally covariant; the work took on its final form only before printing, when Einstein’s work had already seen the light. During the final edits, Hilbert inserted into his article references to Einstein’s parallel December work, added a remark that the field equations can be presented in a different form (he then wrote out Einstein’s classical formula, but without proof), and removed all discussions about additional conditions . Historians believe that this edit was largely influenced by Einstein's paper.

L. Corrie's conclusion was also confirmed in an article by T. Sauer.

In addition to Corrie, F. Vinterberg took part in further polemics, criticizing Corrie (in particular, for his silence about the presence of a lacuna in the proof).

Academician A. A. Logunov (with co-authors) also made an attempt to challenge the conclusions cited by Corrie and repeated by a number of other authors. He noted that the part of the 8th sheet that has not been preserved may contain something significant, for example, equations in classical form, and, in addition, these equations can be obtained in a “trivial way” from the Lagrangian explicitly written out in the proof. On this basis, Logunov proposed calling the field equations “Hilbert-Einstein equations.” This proposal by Logunov did not receive noticeable support from the scientific community.

A recent article by Ivan Todorov provides a fairly comprehensive overview current situation and history of the issue. Todorov characterizes Logunov’s reaction as too angry ( uncommonly angry reaction), however, he believes that it was provoked by the excessive one-sidedness of the position of Corrie et al. He agrees that “Only at the stage of proofreading does Hilbert suppress all extra conditions and recognize the unqualified physical relevance of the covariant equation.” , but notes that Hilbert's influence and collaboration with him was decisive for the acceptance of general covariance also by Einstein himself. Todorov does not find excessive conflict useful for the history of science and believes that it would be much more correct, following the example of Einstein and Hilbert themselves, not to make the priority issue a stumbling block at all.

It should also be emphasized that Einstein’s actual priority in creating the general theory of relativity was never disputed, including by Hilbert. One of the myths associated with Einstein claims that Hilbert himself, without any influence from Einstein, derived the main equations of general relativity. Hilbert himself did not think so and never claimed priority in any part of GTR:

Hilbert readily admitted and often spoke about it in lectures that great idea belongs to Einstein. “Any boy on the streets of Göttingen understands more about four-dimensional geometry than Einstein,” he once remarked. “And yet it was Einstein, not mathematicians, who did this work.”

Did Einstein recognize ether?

There is a statement that Einstein, who initially denied the ether in his 1905 work “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” where he called the introduction of “luminiferous ether” is unnecessary, later recognized its existence and even wrote a paper entitled “Ether and the Theory of Relativity” (1920).

There is terminological confusion here. Einstein never recognized the luminiferous ether of Lorentz-Poincaré. In the mentioned article, he proposes to return the term “ether” to its original (from ancient times) meaning: a material filler of emptiness. In other words, and Einstein directly writes about this, the ether in the new understanding is the physical space of the general theory of relativity:

Some important argument can be made in favor of the ether hypothesis. To deny the ether ultimately means to accept that empty space has no physical properties. The basic facts of mechanics do not agree with this view...

To summarize, we can say that the general theory of relativity endows space with physical properties; thus, in this sense, the ether exists. According to the general theory of relativity, space is unthinkable without ether; indeed, in such a space not only would the propagation of light be impossible, but scales and clocks could not exist and there would be no space-time distances in the physical sense of the word. However, this ether cannot be imagined as consisting of parts traceable in time; Only weighty matter has this property; in the same way, the concept of movement cannot be applied to it.

This new meaning of the old term, however, did not find support in the scientific world.

The establishment of Einstein's ideas (quantum theory and especially the theory of relativity) in the USSR was not easy. Some scientists, especially young scientists, accepted new ideas with interest and understanding, and already in the 1920s the first domestic works and tutorials on these topics. However, there were physicists and philosophers who strongly opposed the concepts of the "new physics"; Among them, A.K. Timiryazev (son of the famous biologist K.A. Timiryazev), who criticized Einstein even before the revolution, was especially active. His articles in the magazines “Krasnaya Nov” (1921, No. 2) and “Under the Banner of Marxism” (1922, No. 4) were followed by Lenin’s critical remark:

If Timiryazev in the first issue of the magazine should have stipulated that the theory of Einstein, who himself, according to Timiryazev, does not lead any active campaign against the foundations of materialism, has already been seized upon by a huge mass of representatives of the bourgeois intelligentsia of all countries, then this applies not to Einstein alone, but to a number, if not most, of the great reformers of natural science, starting with late XIX century.

Also in 1922, Einstein was elected a foreign corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Nevertheless, during 1925-1926 Timiryazev published at least 10 anti-relativistic articles.

K. E. Tsiolkovsky also did not accept the theory of relativity, who rejected relativistic cosmology and the limitation on the speed of movement, which undermined Tsiolkovsky’s plans for populating space: “His second conclusion: the speed cannot exceed the speed of light... these are the same six days allegedly used to create peace." Nevertheless, towards the end of his life, Tsiolkovsky apparently softened his position, because at the turn of the 1920s and 1930s, in a number of works and interviews, he mentioned Einstein’s relativistic formula E = m c 2 without critical objections. However, Tsiolkovsky never came to terms with the impossibility of moving faster than light.

Although criticism of the theory of relativity among Soviet physicists ceased in the 1930s, the ideological struggle of a number of philosophers with the theory of relativity as “bourgeois obscurantism” continued and especially intensified after the removal of Nikolai Bukharin, whose influence had previously softened the ideological pressure on science. The next phase of the campaign began in 1950; it was probably connected with similar in spirit campaigns against genetics (Lysenkoism) and cybernetics of that time. Not long before (1948), the Gostekhizdat publishing house published a translation of the book “The Evolution of Physics” by Einstein and Infeld, equipped with an extensive preface entitled: “On ideological vices in the book “The Evolution of Physics” by A. Einstein and L. Infeld.” Two years later, the magazine “Soviet Book” published devastating criticism of both the book itself (for its “idealistic bias”) and the publishing house that published it (for its ideological mistake).

This article opened a whole avalanche of publications that were formally directed against Einstein’s philosophy, but at the same time they accused a number of major Soviet physicists of ideological mistakes - Ya. I. Frenkel, S. M. Rytov, L. I. Mandelstam and others. Soon, an article by Associate Professor of the Rostovsky Department of Philosophy appeared in the journal “Questions of Philosophy” state university M. M. Karpov “On the philosophical views of Einstein” (1951), where the scientist was accused of subjective idealism, disbelief in the infinity of the Universe and other concessions to religion. In 1952, an article by the prominent Soviet philosopher A. A. Maksimov was published, which condemned not only philosophy, but also Einstein personally, “for whom the bourgeois press created advertisements for his numerous attacks on materialism, for promoting views that undermine the scientific worldview, emasculate ideologically science." Another prominent philosopher, I.V. Kuznetsov, stated during the 1952 campaign: “The interests of physical science urgently require deep criticism and decisive exposure the whole system Einstein's theoretical views." However, the critical importance of the “atomic project” in those years, the authority and decisive position of the academic leadership prevented a defeat of Soviet physics similar to the one inflicted on geneticists. After Stalin's death, the anti-Einstein campaign was quickly curtailed, although a considerable number of “Einstein subverters” can still be found today.

Other myths

• In 1962, a logic puzzle known as Einstein's Riddle was first published. This name was probably given to it for advertising purposes, because there is no evidence that Einstein had anything to do with this mystery. She is also not mentioned in any biography of Einstein.
• A famous biography of Einstein states that in 1915, Einstein allegedly helped design a new model of military aircraft. This activity is difficult to reconcile with his pacifist beliefs. The investigation showed, however, that Einstein was simply discussing with a small aircraft company an idea in the field of aerodynamics - a catback wing (a hump on the top of the airfoil). The idea turned out to be unsuccessful and, as Einstein later put it, frivolous; however, a developed theory of flight did not yet exist.
• George Gamow, in a 1956 paper and in his 1970 autobiography, wrote that Einstein called the introduction of the cosmological constant " biggest mistake in your life” (modern physics has again legitimized this constant). There is no confirmation of this phrase from other acquaintances of Einstein, and Gamow had a strong reputation as a joker and lover of practical jokes. In his letters, Einstein expressed himself cautiously and entrusted the solution of this problem to future astrophysicists. According to Linus Pauling, Einstein told him that he had made only one major mistake in his life - signing a letter to Roosevelt.
• Einstein is often mentioned among vegetarians. Although he supported the movement for many years, he only began following a strict vegetarian diet in 1954, about a year before his death.
• There is an unsubstantiated legend that before his death, Einstein burned his last scientific papers, which contained a discovery that was potentially dangerous to humanity. This topic is often associated with the Philadelphia Experiment. The legend is often mentioned in various media; the film “The Last Equation” was based on it.

Proceedings

• List scientific publications Albert Einstein

In original language

• Einstein Archives Online. Retrieved January 20, 2009. Archived August 11, 2011.
• Einstein's works in the ETH library. Retrieved February 11, 2009. Archived August 11, 2011.
• Complete list of Einstein's scientific works

In Russian translation

• Einstein A. Collection of scientific works in four volumes. - M.: Science, 1965-1967.
  • Volume 1. Works on the theory of relativity 1905-1920.
  • Volume 2. Works on the theory of relativity 1921-1955.
  • Volume 3. Works on kinetic theory, radiation theory and fundamentals of quantum mechanics 1901-1955.
  • Volume 4. Articles, reviews, letters. Evolution of physics.
• The principle of relativity. - Collection of works on the special theory of relativity. Compiled by A. A. Tyapkin. - M.: Atomizdat, 1973.
• Einstein A. Works on the theory of relativity. - M.: Amphora, 2008. - (On the shoulders of giants. Library of S. Hawking).
• Einstein A. The essence of the theory of relativity = Meaning of relativity. - M.: IL, 1955.
• Einstein A. Theory of relativity. Selected works. - Izhevsk: Scientific publishing house. Center “Regular and Chaotic Dynamics”, 2000. - 224 p.
• Einstein A. Physics and reality. - M.: Nauka, 1965.
• Einstein A., Infeld L. Evolution of physics. - M.: Nauka, 1965.
• Albert Einstein in the library of the Skepticism magazine website. Retrieved January 25, 2009. Archived August 11, 2011.
• Einstein A. Why socialism? Monthly Review (1949). Retrieved January 8, 2009. Archived August 11, 2011.
• Einstein on religion. - M.: Alpina non-fiction, 2010. - 144 p.

Biography and episodes of life Albert Einstein. When born and died Albert Einstein, memorable places and dates important events his life. Quotes from a theoretical physicist, photos and videos.

Years of life of Albert Einstein:

born March 14, 1879, died April 18, 1955

Epitaph

“You are the god of the most paradoxical theories!
I want to find something wonderful too...
Let there be death - let us believe a priori! -
The beginning highest form being."
From a poem by Vadim Rozov in memory of Einstein

Biography

Albert Einstein is one of the most famous physicists of recent centuries. In his biography, Einstein made a number of great discoveries and revolutionized scientific thinking. His scientific path was not simple, just as Albert Einstein’s personal life was not simple, but he left behind a huge legacy that still gives food for thought to modern scientists.

He was born into a simple, poor Jewish family. As a child, Einstein did not like school, so he preferred to study at home, which gave rise to some gaps in his education (for example, he wrote with errors), as well as many myths that Einstein was a stupid student. Thus, when Einstein entered the Polytechnic in Zurich, he received excellent marks in mathematics, but failed exams in botany and French, so he had to study at school for some more time before enrolling again. Studying at the Polytechnic was easy for him, and there he met his future wife Mileva, to whom some biographers attributed Einstein’s merits. Their first child was born before marriage; what happened to the girl next is unknown. She may have died in infancy or been given away to foster care. However, Einstein could not be called a man suited for marriage. All his life he devoted himself entirely to science.

After graduating from university, Einstein got a job at a patent office in Bern, writing many scientific publications during his work - and in his free time, since he coped with his work responsibilities very quickly. In 1905, Einstein first put down on paper his thoughts on his future theory of relativity, which states that the laws of physics should have the same form in any frame of reference.

For many years, Einstein taught at European universities and worked on his scientific ideas. He stopped conducting regular classes at universities in 1914, and a year later he published the final version of the theory of relativity. But, contrary to popular belief, Einstein received the Nobel Prize not for it, but for the “photoelectric effect.” Einstein lived in Germany from 1914 to 1933, but with the rise of fascism in the country he was forced to immigrate to America, where he remained until his death - he worked at the Institute for Advanced Study, searching for a theory about a single equation from which the phenomena of gravity could be extracted and electromagnetism, but these studies were unsuccessful. He spent the last years of his life with his wife Elsa Löwenthal, his cousin, and the children from his wife’s first marriage, whom he adopted.

Einstein's death occurred on the night of April 18, 1955 in Princeton. The cause of Einstein's death was an aortic aneurysm. Before his death, Einstein forbade any pompous farewells to his body and asked that the time and place of his burial not be disclosed. Therefore, Albert Einstein's funeral took place without any publicity, only his close friends were present. Einstein's grave does not exist, as his body was burned in a crematorium and his ashes were scattered.

Life line

March 14, 1879 Date of birth of Albert Einstein.
1880 Moving to Munich.
1893 Moving to Switzerland.
1895 Studying at school in Aarau.
1896 Admission to the Zurich Polytechnic (now ETH Zurich).
1902 Joining the Federal Office for Patents and Inventions in Bern, father's death.
January 6, 1903 Marriage to Mileva Maric, birth of daughter Lieserl, whose fate is unknown.
1904 Birth of Einstein's son, Hans Albert.
1905 First discoveries.
1906 Obtaining a Doctor of Science degree in physics.
1909 Obtaining a professorship at the University of Zurich.
1910 Birth of Eduard Einstein's son.
1911 Einstein headed the department of physics at the German University of Prague (now Charles University).
1914 Return to Germany.
February 1919 Divorce from Mileva Maric.
June 1919 Marriage to Else Löwenthal.
1921 Receiving the Nobel Prize.
1933 Moving to the USA.
December 20, 1936 Date of death of Einstein's wife, Elsa Löwenthal.
April 18, 1955 Date of death of Einstein.
April 19, 1955 Einstein's funeral.

Memorable places

1. Monument to Einstein in Ulm on the site of the house in which he was born.
2. Albert Einstein House Museum in Bern, in the house where the scientist lived in 1903-1905. and where his theory of relativity was born.
3. Einstein's house in 1909-1911. in Zurich.
4. Einstein's house in 1912-1914. in Zurich.
5. Einstein's house in 1918-1933. in Berlin.
6. Einstein's house in 1933-1955. in Princeton.
7. ETH Zurich (formerly Zurich Polytechnic), where Einstein studied.
8. University of Zurich, where Einstein taught in 1909-1911.
9. Charles University (formerly the German University), where Einstein taught.
10. Memorial plaque to Einstein in Prague, on the house in which he visited while teaching at the German University of Prague.
11. Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, where Einstein worked after immigrating to the United States.
12. Monument to Albert Einstein in Washington, USA.
13. Ewing Cemetery Crematorium, where Einstein's body was burned.

Episodes of life

Once at a social reception, Einstein met Hollywood actress Marilyn Monroe. Flirtingly, she said: “If we had a child, he would inherit my beauty and your intelligence. That would be wonderful." To which the scientist ironically remarked: “What if he turns out to be handsome, like me, and smart, like you?” Nevertheless, the scientist and the actress were bound by mutual sympathy and respect for a long time, which even gave rise to many rumors about their love affair.

Einstein was a fan of Chaplin and adored his films. One day he wrote a letter to his idol with the words: “Your film “Gold Rush” is understood by everyone in the world, and I am sure that you will become a great man! Einstein." To which the great actor and director replied: “I admire you even more. Nobody in the world understands your theory of relativity, but you still became a great man! Chaplin." Chaplin and Einstein became close friends; the scientist often hosted the actor at his home.

Einstein once said: “If two percent of the young people in a country refuse military service, the government will not be able to resist them, and there will simply not be enough space in prisons.” This spawned an entire anti-war movement among young Americans who wore badges on their chests that read “2%.”

Dying, Einstein spoke a few words in German, but the American nurse could not understand or remember them. Despite the fact that Einstein lived for many years in America, he claimed that he did not speak English well, and German remained his native language.

Covenant

“Caring for man and his fate should be the main goal in science. Never forget this among your drawings and equations.”

“Only life that is lived for people is valuable.”

Documentary about Albert Einstein

Condolences

“Humanity will always be indebted to Einstein for eliminating the limitations of our worldview that were associated with primitive ideas of absolute space and time.”
Niels Bohr, Danish theoretical physicist, Nobel Prize winner

“If Einstein had not existed, physics of the 20th century would have been different. This cannot be said about any other scientist... He occupied a position in public life that is unlikely to be occupied by another scientist in the future. No one, in fact, knows why, but he entered the public consciousness of the whole world, becoming a living symbol of science and the ruler of the thoughts of the twentieth century. Einstein was the most noble man we have ever met."
Charles Percy Snow, English writer, physicist

“There was always a kind of magical purity about him, at once childlike and infinitely stubborn.”
Robert Oppenheimer, American theoretical physicist

The world-famous scientist Albert Einstein was born in 1879 in southern Germany. His mother came from a noble family, but his father devoted his whole life to working in a factory where they stuffed mattresses. An interesting fact from his childhood is that he could not speak until he was 4 years old, but despite this, he was very curious and intelligent even at that time. Since childhood, he was very good at mathematics, he loved to solve the most difficult tasks and successfully completed them.

At the age of 12, it was not difficult for him to study geometry and other sciences. It is worth noting that until some time parents believed that their child was not fully functional and had dementia. This opinion was formed as a result of the fact that Albert Einstein had a large head, which cast doubt on his abilities. In addition, at school he was very slow compared to other students, and the teachers really believed that Einstein was no good for anything.

The future scientist played the violin wonderfully and once gave a concert in the capital of Germany, and the proceeds went to support famous figures in Germany who emigrated during fascism.

In 1896 he entered the gymnasium, and, oddly enough, was not the best student. Studying was difficult for him, but he enjoyed studying Latin and mathematics. He was unable to graduate from high school because his family was forced to move to Pavia, where the Einsteins were from.

He dreamed of entering the Zurich Institute, but could not pass the French exam and went to the Aarauk school. There he becomes interested in physics, studies various theories and successfully receives a certificate.

After 5 years, he moved to Switzerland with his wife and received citizenship there. After some time, he gets a job as a teacher at a local university, where he brilliantly lectures to students. At this time, Einstein wrote several scientific papers, which were published in popular science magazines. The fame of the young scientist spreads throughout Europe.

In 1955, Einstein died and was buried in America.

7th grade for children

Biography of Einstein Albert about the main thing

Albert Einstein was born in the spring of 1879 in Germany. His parents were Jews. My father owned a factory where they made stuffing for feather beds. Then the boy's father began selling electrical equipment, and the whole family moved to Munich. Albert got a little sister there.

The child attended a Catholic school. Until the age of 12, the boy was very religious. He read a lot of scientific books, and thoughts came to him that what was narrated in the Bible could not really happen. Albert believed that the German authorities were deliberately misleading the people. The boy also played the violin. He loved music. When the scientist grew up, he even gave a charity concert.

Then the boy was sent to a gymnasium. There his favorite subjects were mathematics and Latin. The boy often argued with his teachers; he did not like their education system.

The family moved to Italy in 1894, but the boy remained in Germany because he needed to finish high school.

The young man went to Switzerland in 1895 to attend school. Of the three exams, he only passed mathematics, so he was not accepted. Albert entered his last year of school. The following year, the young man entered college. He made friends among his classmates. I also met a girl from the Faculty of Medicine, she later became the wife of a physicist.

The student's father went broke. Parents moved to Milan. The teaching style at the school was not the same as at school. The young physicist liked this. Albert had very good teachers.

The young man graduated from the Polytechnic in 1900. The teachers highly appreciated Albert's knowledge and abilities, but did not want to help him in his scientific activities.

The scientist could not find a permanent job for several years. He lived in poverty and starved. Sometimes he did not eat even for several days. Because of this, Albert suffered from liver disease. The young man, even in such difficult times, continued to study physics.

As a result, Albert's friend got him a job at the Bureau. The scientist served there for seven years.

Albert's father died in 1902. Three months later the physicist got married. The couple had three children.

Albert worked for a magazine dedicated to physics. In 1905 he published three articles, they were brilliant. Then Albert began to study the properties of ether. He created a formula that showed the relationship between mass and energy. Throughout next years The scientist created many theories.

Albert became very ill, he did not get out of bed, not only his liver, but also his stomach hurt, and then jaundice began. Despite this, he continued to work.

The physicist married a second time in 1919. His wife had two girls, the scientist adopted them. That same year, Albert's mother died. This period was very difficult in the life of the physicist. In the autumn of that year, Eddington's expedition proved the physicist's prediction. The scientist became famous throughout the world.

In 1922, the physicist received the Nobel Prize. Albert traveled a lot.

The scientist had a negative attitude towards Nazism. He left Germany and went to the USA. He criticized the use of nuclear weapons.

The great and talented physicist died in the spring of 1955.

Personal life

Interesting facts and dates from life