Greek empeiria - experience) is a philosophical position based on the assumption that the only source of all knowledge is experience. In extreme terms, empiricism views the newborn baby as a tabula rasa (blank slate), who learns “from scratch” and absolutely everything, since he does not have a genetic predisposition to any specific types of behavior. In practical terms, empiricism is aimed at collecting and evaluating factual data, as well as subsequent inductive conclusions from this data, it does not trust deductive conclusions from theoretical constructs.

Empiricism

empirism) E. is a direction in epistemology (gnoseology), according to which all knowledge arises as a result of sensory perception and is based on it. E. can be contrasted with two other often, although not necessarily, interconnected doctrines: nativism, which asserts that some knowledge is given to us from birth, and rationalism, which asserts that it is reason, and not sensory experience, that gives us the most reliable foundations of knowledge . These disputes go back to the 5th century. BC e. E. arose as a reaction to rationalism, the origin of which is associated with the name of Parmenides, and its further development with the name of Plato. Proponents of rationalism drew a sharp line between opinion, or misconception, and knowledge, or external (objective) and provable truth. They believed that sensory experience gives people only an opinion about the changing world of ghosts (appearance or appearance), and since ghosts can be misleading, sense perception cannot be relied on. Thus, the rationalists called for not trusting feelings at all and seeking knowledge through reason. An opinion may or may not be true, depending on the coincidence of opinion and observation; Unlike opinion, knowledge must be provable and objectively true, and only logic - reason - can provide proof and give confidence. Rationalists, as a rule, also believed that knowledge is predominantly given to people from birth, while learning is the “extraction to the surface” of what for the time being is implicitly present in the soul or in the brain. The name of Empedocles is associated with the emergence of another philosophy, E., who expressed distrust of the main. the idea of ​​rationalism, with its penchant for bizarre metaphysical speculation, and which attempted to show that observation leads to knowledge. Supporters of E. in its extreme manifestation claim that observation is the only reliable source of knowledge. Even if the rationalist rejects experience, it is the duty of the empiricist to prove that perception is in fact the source of true knowledge: that is, in order to confirm the possibilities of perception, the empiricist must study it. This is where psychology begins. To convince us of the correctness of his own belief system, an empiricist like Empedocles must explain to us how perception “works” - and this, undoubtedly, is the sphere of interest of psychology. Thus, theories of perception belong to the most ancient psychol. theories created to solve problems of philosophy. Empiricists also distrust the nativist claims of rationalists as appeals to the world of the incomprehensible. Modern philosophy dates the beginning of the debate between supporters of rationalism/nativism and empiricists to the 16th century. and connects it with the names of Rene Descartes, the founder of modern life. rationalism, and John Locke, most a bright representative modern empiricism. E. is represented by two schools - moderate and radical. The moderate empiricist agrees with those who believe that the source of all ideas is perception, but admits that the “apparatus of the mind,” that is, its functions such as memory, imagination and language, are given by humans. from birth. Supporters of extreme views, including John Stuart Mill, do not limit themselves to this and argue that the result of learning is not only what a person thinks about, but also how he thinks, i.e. the thought processes themselves . A unique synthesis of the ideas of rationalism and science was the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, who believed that science is highest form people cognition - begins with experience and with the systematization of its results. However, Kant believed that due to the innate properties of people. human mind experience inevitably “takes a certain form,” and becomes the source of an ordered phenomenon studied by science. Consequently, science is based on a logically provable foundation inherent in reason from birth, and therefore in previous experience. As scientists, psychologists are more likely to agree with empiricists than with rationalists, and this tendency is especially noticeable in countries with developed psychology. science - in England and the USA, that is, where E. occupies the dominant philosophy. positions. In our time, the debate between empiricism and rationalism has virtually ceased, giving way to the debate between nativism and economics, more familiar to psychologists, or the debate about the role of nature and nurture in development. Although E. is the dominant philosopher. teaching, however, there are exceptions to this general rule. For example, N. Chomsky in his work “Cartesian linguistics”, challenging the E. behaviorists, argues that most of the syntax of people. receives at birth. He bases linguistics on intuitions rather than behavior, and views language as a logical system that is virtually unchanged by external stimuli. See also Logical positivism by T. Leahy

EMPIRICISM

Empiricism; Empiric) - in philosophy - a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the source of knowledge and believes that the content of knowledge can either be presented as a description of this experience, or reduced to it.

The empirical approach in psychology describes and studies specific phenomena mental life. Jung defined his psychology as empirical, meaning that it was based more on concrete research and experiment than on theory.

"He saw this as the opposite of speculation or ideology and believed that empiricism has the advantage of presenting facts in the most accurate manner, although it is limited by underestimating the value of ideas. Empirical thinking is no less rational than ideological thinking; Jung discussed these two approaches in relation to introversion, which he considered as an expression of empiricism, while extraversion turned out to be more inherent in the ideological type (KSAP, p. 167).

Empiricism

The belief that all knowledge comes or should come from direct experience. As theoretical approach in psychology, empiricism suggests that the bulk of human knowledge is acquired through learning and experience, rather than through genetic predisposition. As a method of acquisition psychological knowledge, empiricism emphasizes the experimental collection of data rather than the deduction of a result from theoretical premises (rationalism). To demonstrate the difference between the two paths to knowledge, consider the question “How many legs does a horse have?” asked to a person who has never seen a horse. Having considered the functions of a horse, a rationalist can come to a conclusion about the most likely arrangement of its legs to perform those functions (i.e., four legs, one at each corner). A person using an empirical approach would simply find a horse and count its legs.

Annotation: The lecture will cover the following questions: science Empiricism and rationalism are the two main trends in philosophy of the 17th century. Empiricism Francis Bacon. Inductive method. Empiricism of Locke and Hobbes. Socio-political teachings of the New Age.

The purpose of the lecture: to acquaint the student with the peculiarities of the philosophy of empiricism of the New Age.

Features of modern philosophy.

The philosophy of the New Time covers the period from the 17th to the 20th centuries. The beginning of the era of New Time is associated with the era of the revolutionary movement in Europe. The Modern Age, by historical standards, ends in 1918 after the end of the First World War. The modern era is associated with two important events: firstly, with the scientific revolution, and secondly, with accelerated industrialization, which begins in the 18th century.

The following main features of the philosophy of the New Age can be identified:

• The emergence of the problem of the relationship between subject and object. As we remember, the philosophy of Antiquity was based on the principle of objectivism. The sensory-material cosmos was the object of philosophical knowledge. The philosophy of the Renaissance and the Middle Ages is based on the principle of subjectivism. The principle of subjectivism first appears in Christian philosophy. God is a personified substance that has free will and created the world. If the cosmos in the teachings of antiquity was an object of philosophy, then God is a subject, he thinks of himself, he himself is the cause of himself. Highest goal human life in Medieval philosophy there was knowledge of God, but not as an object of the external world (as they knew the cosmos in ancient philosophy), but as a subject involved in a person, who himself carries a piece of God within himself. The philosophy of the Renaissance is also based on the principle of subjectivism. Man becomes the measure of all things. However, the question of the relationship between object and subject was first raised precisely in the philosophy of the New Time. The subject in the philosophy of the New Time is everything active and individual. The subject is not only the measure, but also the basis of all things. In this position we see a combination of medieval philosophy and Renaissance philosophy. Consequently, in the Renaissance, a dialectical transition was made from the positions of the Renaissance to new problematics in philosophical thought. The philosophy of the New Time systematically expresses the interests of the bourgeoisie that had already formed at that time, its conscious interests and views. The center of philosophical thought is transferred from the shores of Italy to the North of England and the Netherlands.
• The main problematic of the philosophy of the New Time is natural philosophy, which is focused on the knowledge of nature. Natural scientific knowledge is based on experience and experiment.
• Cognition is research-oriented the whole system, not individual elements. However, at the same time the question arises about the essence of the process of cognition. Special attention is paid to epistemological problems in philosophy
• Philosophy again turns to materialism. But this New form materialism based on the achievements of scientific thought in the field of mechanics, mathematics, metaphysics. This is not the naive materialism of antiquity, but scientifically based materialism

In the philosophy of the New Time, a dispute between rationalism and empiricism flares up. In this dispute one can hear echoes of the polemics between nominalists and realists of medieval philosophy

Let's consider the philosophy of empiricism of the New Time. Its main representatives are Francis Bacon, J. Locke, Thomas Hobbes.

Empiricism

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

The founder of European empiricism is Francis Bacon. His main works: " On the dignity and enhancement of sciences ", " New Organon" And " New Atlantis ".

Bacon was the first to transfer the ideas of mechanics, physics and metaphysics from natural science to philosophy. For Bacon in a universal way knowledge of the world becomes combinatorics and mathematics. Bacon's position regarding philosophy is that philosophy, according to Bacon, should be the science of real world, and not about abstract categories.

The main task of science and philosophy according to Bacon is the study of nature. Economic and technical progress Bacon rightly associated it with the development of science and scientific and technical progress. Bacon postulates the thesis “Knowledge is power.”

Ontology.In his work “On the Dignity and Increase of the Sciences,” F. Bacon classifies the sciences. The classification criterion is a person’s abilities:

1. history is about memory. History was divided into two disciplines - natural history, which describes natural phenomena, and civil history, which describes social processes.
2. poetry is associated with imagination and fantasy
3. philosophy is related to reason

The subject of philosophy, according to F. Bacon, is:

1. nature
2. Human.

Nature in Bacon's philosophy consists of started. These first principles represent the human-perceived qualities of things. There are homogeneous simple qualities, such as light or color. The combination of simple qualities is nature. At the same time, Bacon does not give a clear answer to the question to what extent the simple qualities that we perceive in sensations correspond to those that actually exist. This question will be answered a little later by his followers.

Bacon believed that the true nature of things is perceived by us through sensations and manifested through forms. Forms are the original material quality. Form is the cause of the appearance of nature. Therefore, the basis of things is material quality. This means that Bacon solves the basic question of philosophy materialistically. K. Marx then as follows characterized the position of F. Bacon: “Bacon’s materialism conceals within itself the germs of all-round development. Matter smiles with poetic brilliance to all humanity.”

Bacon's forms of which material things are composed are atoms. Bacon's matter is sensually perceptible and consists of the simplest forms - atoms.

Matter is in constant motion. Matter is indestructible and uncreated, and unchangeable. Forms are in constant motion. To know the forms of which matter was composed meant to know movement itself. In nature, everything is constantly in motion. Bacon's materialism bears the features of elemental dialectics.

Epistemology. Bacon still adheres to the concept of the two truths of medieval philosophy - the truth of God and the truth of reason. He believed that a person can know nature through reason, but he can know God only through divine revelation.

Bacon paid special attention to the development of science, but he believed that science should produce practical results.

Bacon's method of cognition is based on sensory experience. Sensibly perceived matter becomes the object of knowledge. However, Bacon's matter is of a compromise nature, which is well manifested in the theory of two truths, as well as in the theory of the dual nature of the soul. Bacon distinguished the sensual and rational soul. The rational soul is given to man by God. The sensual soul comes from the body and is of natural origin. The rational soul must be comprehended by theology, the sensual soul must become the subject of the study of philosophy.

Bacon categorically rejected agnosticism, which was characteristic of his era. Science was actively developing, and it seemed that human knowledge had no limits. Knowledge of the world is important factor superiority of man over the surrounding world and nature. Bacon develops empiricism as a form of knowledge. It can be said that Bacon is a direct theorist of empiricism. Bacon saw the source of knowledge in experience. The process of cognition is a reflection of the external world in the human mind. Moreover, Bacon was not just an empiricist, but a rational empiricist. He postulated the unity of rational and sensory knowledge. He compared empiricists to ants who collect and use the collected data. He compared rationalists to spiders who squeezed the truth out of themselves. Bacon believed that one must be a thinking empiricist.

Bacon postulated the primacy of sensory knowledge. However, the senses must evaluate the experiment; the subtlety of experience exceeds the subtlety of feelings. Sensory cognition included in the experiment. The concept itself empiricism means experience based on experiment. This is the starting point of a new scientific method, which is being developed by Bacon. Bacon's empiricism is a kind of logic, if by logic we mean an instrument of knowledge. However, Bacon denies Aristotle's syllogism and formal logic. Bacon commented on his position regarding logic in the following way: “Formal logic comes from judgments, judgments from words, and words are nothing more than signs of concepts. If the words of reason are flawed, then the judgment itself is wrong...” 1 B. Frolova "Philosophy of New Time", M. 1987 .

Bacon contrasts Aristotelian logic with his own logic - induction. Induction is main method scientific knowledge, says Bacon. Induction must be productive, leading to conclusions that help to understand the world around us. Induction analyzes experience and deduces differences between elements. Bacon believed that science should not just be quantitative, i.e. lead not to an increase in knowledge, but to the systematization and deepening of knowledge. This is what we need" new method"Induction ascends from the particular to the general. General phenomena are deduced through abstraction from individual facts, and this is how the path to truth is revealed. True induction should not just generalize facts, but draw correct conclusions, lead to the classification of knowledge. Thus, Bacon prepared the ground for a new approach to scientific knowledge, although he did not fully realize it, F. Bacon’s method of knowledge is. experimental-inductive method- He considered experience and induction to be the main means of knowledge.

Empiricism.

Questions:

What is the main idea of ​​empiricism?

What is the main idea of ​​D. Locke?

What is the main idea of ​​D. Hume?

What is F. Bacon's main idea?

What is F. Bacon's doctrine of idols?

EmpireAndzm(from the Greek empeiría - experience), a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience is the source of knowledge and believes that the content of knowledge can be presented either as a description of this experience, or reduced to it. In contrast rationalism, in empiricism rational cognitive activity is reduced to various kinds combinations the material that is given in experience, and is interpreted as adding nothing to the content of knowledge.

One of the representatives of English empiricism was John Locke(1632-1704). He believed that he did not exist innate ideas and principles - neither theoretical nor practical (moral), including the idea of ​​God, but all human knowledge stems from from experience. All ideas arise from two main sources - external experience (feelings) and internal (reflections). Knowledge is based on simple ideas, for example, excited in the mind by various qualities of bodies - primary, with which these ideas are similar (extension, figure, density, movement), or secondary, with which the ideas are not similar (color, sound, smell, taste) . By combining, juxtaposing, and abstracting, the mind constructs from simple ideas complex and general ideas(modes, substances and relations). Locke distinguishes between clear and vague ideas, real and fantastic, adequate to their prototypes and inadequate. He believes that knowledge is real only insofar as its ideas are consistent with reality, and defines truth as the connection and separation of ideas or their signs in accordance with the correspondence or inconsistency of the things they designate

2. Another representative of English empiricism - David Hume(1711-1776) - believed that our knowledge begins with experience and ends with experience, without innate knowledge (a priori ) . Therefore we do not know the reason for our experience. Since experience is always limited by the past, we cannot comprehend the future. For such judgments Hume was considered great skeptic in the possibility of knowing the world through experience.

The experience consists of perceptions , perceptions are divided into impressions (sensations And emotions) And ideas(memories and imagination). After perceiving the material, the learner begins to process these ideas. Decomposition by similarities and differences, far from each other or nearby ( space), and by cause and effect. Everything consists of impressions. What is the source of the sensation of perception? Hume answers that there is at least three hypotheses:

There are images of objective objects (reflection theory, materialism).

The world is a complex of sensations of perception ( subjective idealism).

The sensation of perception is caused in our mind by God, the supreme spirit ( objective idealism).

Hume asks which of these hypotheses is correct. To do this, we need to compare these types of perceptions. But we chained within the boundaries of our perception and we will never know what is behind it. This means that the question of what is the source of sensation is a fundamentally insoluble question.. Anything is possible, but we will never be able to verify it. There is no evidence of the existence of the world. It can neither be proven nor disproved.

In 1876 Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term agnosticism to indicate such a position. Sometimes the false impression is created that Hume asserts the absolute impossibility of knowledge, but this is not entirely true. Content consciousness we know, which means the world is known in consciousness. That is we know the world that appears in our minds, but we will never know the essence of the world, we can only know phenomena. This direction is called phenomenalism. Most theories of modern science are built on this basis. Western philosophy, asserting undecidability fundamental question of philosophy. Cause-and-effect relationships in Hume's theory are the result of our habit. And a person is a bundle of perceptions. Man's mistake is to believe that every occurrence of A will entail B.

The basis morality Hume saw in moral feeling, but he denied free will, believing that all our actions are conditioned affects.

3. Another representative of English empiricism was Francis Bacon(1561-1626). Science, according to Bacon, should give man power over nature, increase his power and improve his life. From this point of view, he criticized scholasticism and its syllogistic deductive method, to which he opposed appeal to experience and processing it by induction, emphasizing the significance of the experiment. Emphasizing the importance of the method allowed Bacon to put forward an important principle for pedagogy, according to which the goal of education is not the accumulation of the greatest possible amount of knowledge, but ability to use methods their acquisitions. Bacon divided all existing and possible sciences according to the three abilities of the human mind: history corresponds to memory, poetry to imagination, philosophy to reason, which includes the doctrine of God, nature and man.

Bacon considered the reason for the delusion of reason to be false ideas - “ghosts” or “idols”, of four types: “ghosts of the race” (idola tribus), “ghosts of the cave” (idola specus), “ghosts of the market” (idola fori) and “ghosts of the theater”. "(idola theatri).

"New Organon" (Francis Bacon)

Idols and false notions, which have already captivated the human mind and

deep in him strengthened, so control the minds of people that they make it difficult to enter

truth, but even if entry is allowed and granted, they will again

will block the path during the very renewal of sciences and will hinder it if

only people who are warned will not arm themselves against them, as far as possible.

There are four kinds of idols that besiege the minds of people. For

In order to study them, let's give them names. Let's call the first type idols of the race,

second -- idols of the cave, third -- idols of the square and the fourth -- idols

theater.

Idols of the family find the basis in human nature itself, in a tribe or

the very kind of people, for it is false to assert that a person’s feelings are the measure

things. On the contrary, all perceptions of both the senses and the mind are at rest

on human analogies, and not on the analogy of the world. The human mind becomes like

uneven mirror, which, mixing its nature with the nature of things,

reflects things in a distorted and disfigured form.

Idols of the Cave essence individual misconceptions. After all,

each, in addition to the errors inherent in the human race, there is its own special

cave, which weakens and distorts the light of nature. Does this happen either from

special born properties each, or from education and conversations with others,

due to the difference in impressions depending on whether souls receive them

biased and predisposed, or cold-blooded and calm souls, or

other reasons. So the spirit of a person, depending on how it is located in

individual people, there is a thing that is changeable, unstable and, as it were, random.

This is why Heraclitus correctly said that people seek knowledge in small worlds, and

not in the big or common world.

There are also idols that appear as if due to mutual

connectedness and communities of people. We call these idols meaning

the communication and companionship of people that gives rise to them, idols of the square. People

united by speech. The words are set according to the understanding of the crowd.

Therefore, the bad and absurd establishment of words surprisingly besieges

intelligence. Definitions and explanations with which we are accustomed to arm ourselves and protect

themselves learned people do not help the cause in any way. Words are downright violent

reason, confuse everything and lead people to empty and countless disputes and

interpretations.

Finally, there are idols that have entered the souls of people from different

tenets of philosophy, as well as from the perverse laws of evidence. them we

we call theater idols for we believe that, how many are accepted or

invented philosophical systems, so many comedies were staged and performed,

representing fictional and artificial worlds. We say this not only

about philosophical systems that exist now or once existed,

since tales of this kind could be folded and composed in multitude;

after all, in general, very various errors There are almost the same reasons. At

By this we mean here not only general philosophical teachings, but also

numerous principles and axioms of the sciences that gained force as a result of

tradition, faith and carelessness. However, each of these kinds of idols should be

in more detail and definitely say separately, in order to warn the mind

person.

The human mind, due to its inclination, easily assumes in things

there is more order and uniformity than is found. And while much in

nature is unique and has no similarity at all, it comes up with

parallels, correspondences and relationships that do not exist. Hence the rumors that in

in heaven everything moves in perfect circles.

Text 2.

Questions:

What is irrationalism? How does it differ from empiricism and realism?

What methods are suitable for knowing a person, according to Kierkegaard?

What is the main problem Kierkegaard poses?

What does Schopenhauer mean by the concept of “will”, “intuition”?

Irrationalism- designation of currents in philosophy, which, in contrast rationalism, limit or deny opportunities reason in progress knowledge and make something irrational the basis of their worldview, bringing to the fore will(voluntarism), direct contemplation, feeling, intuition(intuitionism), mystical "insight", imagination, instinct, "unconscious" etc.

Irrationalistic movements consciously opposed themselves to natural scientific knowledge with its dominant rationalism - they, generally speaking, did not reject science and its practical significance for human life, but refused to see in it an adequate way of understanding the world around us and the person himself. One of the first philosophers, whose activity marked a turn from classical to modern philosophy, one of the founders of irrationalism of the 19th century was Søren KIERKEGARD- Danish philosopher, theologian and writer. S. Kiergegaard brings to the fore the problem of man and believes that no scientific rational methods are suitable for understanding man. It is only possible through self-reflection and feelings. Thus, man and his existence become for Kierkegaard, and then for a very broad philosophical movement, the subject of a very special extra-scientific, irrational type of knowledge, as far as it is generally considered possible. Man goes beyond the boundaries of science as something absolutely inaccessible to it. General theoretical considerations and polemics with rationalism in Kierkegaard are associated with his main problem- problem individual salvation. In solving this problem, he considers the various levels of existence or stages at which existence can exist - the aesthetic, ethical and religious levels. On aesthetic stage a person lives guided by feelings. The main thing at this stage is pleasure in life, the motto is “break the day!” A person can spend their entire life at this stage. But often, existing at the aesthetic stage, a person is faced with the despair of the meaninglessness of such a life. Then a person can move through the experience of despair to ethical stage when his actions are guided by reason and a sense of duty. At the ethical stage, the aesthetic does not disappear without a trace, but there is a constant oscillation between the aesthetic and the ethical. Eventually the person may come to realize the limitations of both the aesthetic and the ethical way of life, again experiencing despair. Then a breakthrough can occur discretely spiritual stage, where a person is guided by the heart, by faith, which is not subject to either sensuality or reason. U Arthur Schopenhauer, who, along with Kierkegaard, is the founder of irrationalism of the 19th century, the basis and life-giving principle of everything is not the cognitive ability and activity of man, but in about l I like a blind, unconscious life force. Schopenhauer proposes to synthesize rational and intuitive thinking, since these are unified components of human cognition. In addition to external experience and rational knowledge based on it, there is internal experience, and intuitive knowledge arose earlier logical, so reason must be based on intuition and must be supplemented by it.

What does the world appear to us in intuition? Along with all the laws of nature and public life, behind them, we perceive the world, first of all, as a kind of unity, which has a peculiarity: both the world as a whole and any of its fragments, processes, particles, no matter what laws they obey - all of them are characterized by eternal and constant movement and change, that is, eternal vibration (constant movement), which Schopenhauer calls "world will". The world will is a certain force, a certain movement that creates all things and processes. Sometimes, in some cases that are incomprehensible to us, these processes acquire a directed, sequential character. This happens when the will appears before the eye of knowledge. So, depending on the degree of consciousness, we fix four main stages of manifestation of the “world will”: forces of nature, flora, the animal kingdom and, in fact, man, the only one of all gifted with the ability to abstract representation in concepts:

“The main property of the world will is that it is not directed towards anything... there is no ultimate goal, that is, there is no point."

Thus, in “homo sapiens,” in homo sapiens, reason ceased to be considered his generic essence; it became an unreasonable will, and reason began to play a secondary, auxiliary role. Life, vitality, volitional tension - this is what came to the fore, pushing intellect and rationality into the background. Will- this is the highest cosmic principle that underlies the universe. Will - the will to live, the desire. Science, according to Schopenhauer, can never achieve an ultimate goal, but there is a sphere that considers “the only real essence of the world” - this art. Schopenhauer says that “the ordinary man, this manufactured commodity of nature” is incapable of disinterested contemplation in the same way as the scientist, and only a genius is capable of this. Art is the creation of genius, and genius is possible only in art. Art reproduces eternal ideas comprehended by pure contemplation. According to Schopenhauer, the highest of the arts is music, whose goal is no longer the reproduction of ideas, but the direct reflection of the will itself.

What does empirical concept mean?

Empiricism in philosophy is a system of obtaining knowledge through experiments and observations. The main difference between the empirical view is that the sensory apparatus plays a dominant role, and the mind is an insignificant component of the set. Theoretical laws, statements obtained rationally, are relegated to the background. Empirical science was formed by the moderate and radical schools.

People holding moderate views equally assessed the role of sensory contemplation and mental abilities. They believed that speech, memory, hearing, that is, the elements of the mind are given to us from birth. Adherents of the other side added that in addition to intelligence, an important role in cognitive activity plays a thought process.

Empirical perception of reality is often compared with other dissimilar areas:

• nativism (says that all the information we have is given at birth);
• (refutes the definition of empiricism and says that it is the mind that brings the necessary information to the owner).

The progenitor of the scientific movement in question is considered to be F. Bacon. Throughout his life, he strove to provide philosophy with a worthy place among the honorable sciences. Practical, scientific material, according to him, is the most valuable and unique in every person.

According to Baconian theory, with the help of the 5 basic senses you can comprehend all the secrets of the surrounding universe, penetrate into every corner of it and form your own views and beliefs. The scientist considered all other teaching methods to be ineffective.

Before adopting something new, you need to clear your head of past prejudices and penalties. As Bacon said, clarity of mind is hindered by 4 ghostly idols of error:

• Ghosts of the tribe - they are inherent in all living beings. Due to the features human body his intellect, like a crooked mirror, distorts the real nature of things and makes it impossible to soberly assess what is happening.
• Cave idols symbolize the beliefs of a person living in his own closed world (cave). As a result of his narrow outlook and established foundations, he has his own unshakable opinion.
• Market ghosts are formed under the influence of other people's words on the individual's intellect. For example, made-up arguments can serve to spread false information.
• Theatrical idols arise as a result of blind acceptance of theories, rules, axioms.

According to Francis, only by eradicating all four idols will we be able to thoroughly and fully understand the nature of the surrounding things.

History of origin and development

The doctrine of a theoretical-scientific way of understanding the world arose at the beginning of the 17th century. This period marked the heyday of the New Scientific Age. The main differences of this period:

a) regular terms were derived from experience and observations;

b) there was an inextricable connection between nature and numbers;

c) practical importance acquired the greatest price.

Initially, the object of scientific theory was Galilean mechanics, then science gradually improved, acquired new concepts, beliefs, and axioms. By the mid-19th century, Mach, a talented admirer of empiricism, gave it a radical character. After the death of Descartes, dominance until scientific philosophy the end has come. At the same time they were born

3 definitions of European trend

1. – science that said that all natural and cosmic phenomena are explained physical language. Matter, its properties and manifestations form the main core in the universe.

2. – a science in epistemology, where all reliable phenomena can be obtained only from observations.

3. Empiricism is the theory that all knowledge comes from experimental observations.
The three doctrines existing at that time laid the foundation for the emergence of scientific philosophy. The greatest influence among them was empiricism. The main goal of the study of empiricists was the human mind, its enrichment and establishment of more advanced stage education.

What divisions existed?

There were two forms of empiricism:

1. Logical – consisted in the perception of physical phenomena through the senses. The term arose in the early 30s of the 19th century. It was continued from the similar science of positivism. The most significant representatives of the movement were Carnap, Feigel, Hempel, Frank. Supporters logical theory expressed an independent theory of the “philosophical revolution”. It meant the creation of a new, unique philosophy and was based on the scientific knowledge of its creators. It existed until 1960 and was ultimately supplanted by post-positivism.

2. Mathematical form - consisted of a set of mathematical and scientific concepts generated by experience and having an abstract form. As Aristotle originally interpreted, mathematical forms are abstractions of things and contain only those properties of them that are associated with numbers and shapes. Such outstanding scientists as Lobachevsky, Bacon, Newton, Riemann adhered to mathematical views. Subsequently it became known: not all objects in mathematics can be in the form of abstractions ( shining example therefore - the appearance of imaginary irrational numbers). IN modern world m.e. is a method of equalizing mathematics and experimental knowledge through a unified methodological basis.

To put it briefly, empiricism can be characterized by the following beautiful expression:
“The soul and mind of man are a pure, open canvas, and nature great artist. Drawing fancy shapes existence, it enriches our essence with the daily joy of discovery and saturates the mind with valuable knowledge.”

Empiricism does not exclude the importance of sensory perception for the process of cognition, but insists on a close union of senses and reason. This philosophical concept sees the basis of knowledge and the criterion of truth in experience.

ê Francis Bacon (1561-1626)- English philosopher, the founder of empiricism.

In his research, he drew attention to the need for observations and experiments to discover the truth. Bacon emphasizes that science serves life and practice. He considered the highest goal of science to be the dominance of man over nature, which is possible only through submission to the laws of nature. A scientist, according to Bacon, must move in his research from the observation of individual facts to broad generalizations, that is, use the inductive method of knowledge. Bacon developed a new understanding of the tasks of science and introduced the methodology of experimental natural science. By following this methodology, you can create many scientific discoveries, it must be taken into account that experience can provide reliable knowledge only when consciousness is free from false judgments. Do not refer to any authorities - this is the principle of modern science.

Bacon contrasted reasoning about God with the doctrine of “natural” philosophy, which is based on experimental consciousness. Bacon argued that sensory experience reflects in knowledge only objectively existing things. In empiricism, rational-cognitive activity is reduced to various combinations of the material that is given in experience, and is interpreted as adding nothing to the content of knowledge. Here empiricists were faced with insoluble difficulties in isolating the outgoing components of experience and reconstructing on this basis all types and forms of consciousness. To explain what is actually happening cognitive process empiricists were forced to go beyond sensory data and consider them along with the characteristics of consciousness (such as memory, active functioning of the mind) and logical operations (inductive generalization), turn to the categories of logic and mathematics to describe experimental data as a means of constructing theoretical knowledge. Attempts by empiricists to substantiate induction on a purely empirical basis and to present logic and mathematics as a simple inductive generalization of sensory experience failed completely.

ê John Locke (1632-1704)- English philosopher .

He was an opponent of the subordination of knowledge to revelation and argued that faith cannot have the power of authority in the face of clear and obvious experimental data. At the same time, Locke wrote: “We can know with certainty that God exists... He has given us the faculties with which our minds are endowed, and thereby left a testimony of Himself... God has abundantly provided us with the means of discovering and knowing Him, as far as it is extremely important for the purpose of our existence and for our happiness.

Rejecting the view of innate ideas, Locke believed that we draw all our knowledge from experience. People are not born with ready-made ideas. The head of a newborn is a “blank slate” on which life draws its patterns - knowledge. Locke argued that if ideas were innate, they would be known alike to child and adult, to idiot and to idiot. to a normal person. “There is nothing in the mind that was not previously in sensation” - this is Locke’s main thesis. Sensations are obtained as a result of the action of external things on our senses. This is what external experience consists of. Internal experience(reflection) is the observation of the mind over its activities and the ways of its manifestation. At the same time, Locke still admits that the mind is inherent in a certain spontaneous force, independent of experience, that reflection, in addition to external experience, gives rise to ideas of existence, time, and number. Denying innate ideas as extra-experimental and pre-experimental knowledge, Locke recognized the presence in the mind of certain inclinations, or a predisposition to any activity.

He identified three types of knowledge: initial (sensual, immediate), giving knowledge of individual things; demonstrative knowledge through inference, for example, through comparison and relation of concepts; highest form- intuitive knowledge, that is direct assessment the mind of the correspondence and inconsistency of ideas to each other.

ê George Berkeley (1685-1753)- the most significant representative of English empiricism.

Berkeley believed that the existence of secondary and primary qualities of objects is due to our perception. He believed that all qualities of objects are secondary, believing that primary qualities have the same character as secondary ones, because qualities such as extension are not objective, but depend on our perception and consciousness. Thus, the size of objects is not something objective, but is determined by the fact that the object appears to us either large or small. In other words, the size of objects is the result of our experimental conclusion, and is based on the senses.

Berkeley reasoned in the same way when considering the concept of matter. He believed that the existence of abstract general ideas is impossible, since during perception a specific impression, a specific image arises in our mind, but there should not be any general idea. If we perceive a triangle, then it is a concrete triangle, and not some abstract one that does not have specific features. In the same way, according to Berkeley, it is impossible to form abstract general ideas of man, movement, etc.

Thus, he did not recognize the existence of the concept of matter as an abstract idea, matter as such.

From these arguments he moved on to deny the objective existence of things. Since the existence of the qualities of things is conditioned by our perception, and substance is the bearer of properties, qualities, it means that all things and objects of the surrounding world that are formed from properties are only perceptions of our senses. For Berkeley, to be is to be perceived (esse est percipi).

Berkeley also argues that things continue to exist because at the moment when we do not perceive them, another person perceives them. Thus, Berkeley, on the one hand, claims that things, or ideas, in his terminology, do not exist, on the other hand, that they continue to exist in our thought.

Empiricism - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Empiricism" 2017, 2018.