Depending on experience foreign economic activity by the manufacturer of export products, the nature of the relationship between him and the intermediary organization, as well as the functions performed by the intermediary, several types of trade and intermediary operations are distinguished: brokerage, representative, commission, agency operations for the resale of goods. Moreover, some intermediaries provide services only to facilitate the conclusion of transactions, i.e. They are not actually involved in the sale of goods. These intermediaries include brokers, fiduciaries and commission agents, who are often called resellers, as opposed to sales intermediaries, which include sales agents, consignors, distributors and jobbers.

28.1. Intermediaries in foreign economic activity

Depending on their experience in foreign economic activity, as well as in conducting commercial negotiations, Russian entrepreneurs can conduct them independently or through trade intermediaries. Simple intermediaries are turned to when there is no information about any market and possible transactions on it. The role of simple intermediaries (brokers) can be individuals or legal entities who facilitate the conclusion of contracts, but do not conduct negotiations, and do not take part in transactions with my name and capital! The broker looks for an interested buyer and matches him with the seller. After signing a contract, negotiations on which take place without the participation of an intermediary, the latter receives a remuneration, the amount of which is pre-agreed in the agency agreement. At the same time, the broker does not have the right to represent the interests of both parties in one transaction (Fig. 28.1).

Trusted intermediaries. In European countries, the most common practice is to involve companies and individuals in mediation to process transactions on behalf and at the expense of principals. In commercial representation agreements, the intermediary undertakes, on behalf and at the expense of the seller (or buyer), to conclude one or more transactions with a third party for a certain fee. Such intermediaries are turned to when the seller (buyer) does not have sufficient experience in conducting commercial negotiations. Before negotiations, the intermediary agrees with the principal on all essential terms of the contract and has no right to change them. After signing the contract, the intermediary receives a reward and does not participate in the transaction in the future (Fig. 28.2).

Commission agents. Commission agreements have found extremely wide application in international trade. Commission agents look for partners, sign contracts with them on their own behalf, but at the expense of the seller or buyer (principals), who bear commercial risks. Such intermediaries are approached to carry out the transaction in full at the expense of the principal, including searching for a counterparty, conducting business negotiations and signing a contract on their own behalf (Fig. 28.3).

In real life, it happens that payments for goods are sometimes delayed or not received. In this case, it is necessary to find out the reason. This may be due to the fact that the goods are not selling (for this reason, the consignor may even go bankrupt). But there are also dishonest intermediaries. To protect against this, you should take out a bank guarantee for the full cost of the goods or for the supplied part, but you should monitor the receipt of payments and, if necessary, seize the goods from the consignor and cover the balance of outstanding payments using the bank guarantee.
In order to increase the reliability of the sale of goods, along with simple consignment, more complex types are used.
Partially returnable consignment provides for the purchase by the consignor, after a specified period, of a part of the unsold goods, which is agreed upon in advance (usually up to 20% of the volume of goods supplied). But in this case, the remuneration to the consignor is no longer 8%, but somewhat more - approximately 11% of the amount of goods sold.
A completely irrevocable consignment deprives the consignor of the right to return unsold goods, which he is obliged to buy after a specified period. But at the same time, the reward increases to 15% or even more of the goods sold. If the volume of unsold goods is significant, then the parties analyze the reasons for the low competitiveness of the product and immediately take measures to improve it.
If it is impossible to improve sales conditions and does not want to spoil relations with the intermediary, the consignor often agrees to return the goods even under the condition of irrevocable consignment. At the same time, he incurs losses of up to 25% of the cost of the goods (approximately 10% - round-trip transportation and 15% - customs duties). It is considered that a return is appropriate if the discount in the price of the goods required for its sale exceeds at least twice the cost of its return and customs taxation.
If the sale of the goods is sufficiently successful, the consignor can increase export prices, but this annuls the consignor’s obligations regarding the irrevocability of the goods. The right to actively influence prices must be stipulated in the consignment agreement. The consignee researches the market, provides advertising and pre-sale services, and creates a network maintenance, provides goods with warehouses. Therefore, it is always necessary to maintain good business relations with the consignee.
Practice shows that the bulk of international trade is carried out by independent firms engaged in the resale of goods.
Distributors - firms that carry out sales on the basis of wholesale purchases from large industrial firms - produce finished products (Fig. 28.6). As a rule, these are relatively large companies with their own warehouses and establishing long-term contractual relationships with industrialists. Distributors are distinguished by the fact that they themselves, on their own behalf and at their own expense, enter into sales contracts with exporters and importers. At the same time, long-term cooperation relationships are established with exporters on the basis of agreements containing a set of mutual rights and obligations that go beyond the scope of ordinary sales contracts.

Agreements with distributors determine the list of goods sold, the territory of their sale, obligations for annual volumes sales of goods, necessary marketing research, maintenance of warehouses, pre-sale service, creation of a stable sales network. The latter is usually created by other independent companies, with which distributors enter into appropriate agreements.
Exporters constantly monitor the status of warehouse stocks in all parts of the distribution network, the selling prices of goods, and monitor financial condition distributor. Distributors have greater commercial independence than agents, since they act on the market on their own behalf, bear all the risks associated with damage and loss of goods, are themselves responsible for the risks of loans provided to customers, and can set selling prices for goods themselves.
In agreements with marketing intermediaries, the exporter may grant the intermediary a non-exclusive, exclusive (monopoly) or preferential right to sell its goods.
Non-exclusive right to sell. In this case, the agreement between the exporter and the intermediary includes such items as product range; the territory in which the intermediary operates; duration of the agreement; contract ID (order, commission, consignment, purchase and sale). Intermediaries are given the right to sell a certain range of goods in a specified territory for a specified period of time, but the seller reserves the right to independently (or through other intermediaries) sell the same goods in the same territory without any payment to the intermediary with a non-exclusive right to sell remuneration or compensation.
The exclusive (monopoly) right of sale deprives the exporter of the opportunity to sell goods through other intermediaries or independently. This right stimulates the intermediary, since the amount of profit he receives directly depends on his activity. In this case, however, excessive monopolization of the market for the exported product may occur, and if the intermediary is not interested in selling the goods due to their low competitiveness, the market will be practically closed to the exporter until the end of the agreement. To avoid such a danger, exporters include in the agreement the obligations of intermediaries to sell specified quantities of goods within a specified period of time and the right of the exporter, if the intermediary fails to fulfill them, to cancel this agreement or transfer it to other working conditions, for example, to the conditions of a non-exclusive right of sale. To prevent the monopoly intermediary from reorienting itself to working with the exporter’s competitors, the agreement must include the intermediary’s obligation not to represent other suppliers of similar goods in the contract territory.
The preemptive right of sale, or “right of first hand,” provides for an agreement under which the exporter is obliged to first offer the goods to the intermediary and only after his refusal to sell this product in the contract territory independently or through other intermediaries without paying remuneration to the intermediary “with the right of first hand.” hands". The intermediary must formalize the refusal to sell in writing. The agreement must list the reasons why intermediaries have the right to refuse to sell goods (unsatisfactory technical specifications, quality, delivery times, prices and terms of payment, etc.).
Typically, intermediaries, even if they refuse to sell, insist on the obligation of exporters not to sell goods in the contract territory on more favorable commercial terms than those offered to them. Under these conditions, the danger of blocking the market by another intermediary is eliminated. In international business practice, agreements with different sales rights may be signed with the same intermediary for different goods.
Intermediaries do not produce anything themselves, so all their expenses can only be covered from the fees paid by sellers or buyers.

28.2. International trade in engineering and consulting services - engineering

International engineering is the activity of providing a range of services of a production, commercial, scientific and technical nature, provided both by specialized engineering and consulting firms, and by industrial, construction and other companies. Engineering can be defined as a set of intellectual activities that have their own ultimate goal obtaining the best results from capital investments or other costs associated with the implementation of projects for various purposes, through the most rational selection and effective use of material, labor, technological and financial resources in their unity and interrelation, as well as methods of organization and management, based on advanced scientific technical achievements and taking into account the specific conditions and factors of project implementation.
In modern international practice, two categories of firms performing “engineering” type work have already been identified: specialized firms (providing engineering services is the main area of their activity) and industrial firms (combining the provision of engineering services with production activities).
Depending on the type of services provided, specialized engineering firms are divided into two groups: engineering-consulting and engineering-construction.
Engineering consulting firms provide technical services in the form of consultations. At the same time, they themselves are not involved in either production or construction. The scope of their activities is extremely wide. This includes civil construction (ports, airfields, highways, mines, urban construction), and industrial facilities using specific technological processes.
Engineering and construction firms usually provide a full range of engineering and technical services, including facility design, equipment supply, installation, commissioning and commissioning of equipment. These companies quite often take on the function of the general contractor of the facility, involving engineering and construction companies as subsuppliers.
Industrial firms belong to the second category of firms that perform engineering-type work. They are usually divided into design companies and equipment manufacturing companies for specific industries.
Design companies, in an effort to preserve production secrets, carry out technological design to expand or create new production based on their existing patents and know-how, and contractors are used to perform the remaining engineering and consulting work.
For equipment manufacturing companies, performing engineering-type work is a means of increasing sales of their main products. As a rule, we are talking about the design of large industrial installations, for which the equipment is manufactured by the same company.
Consultative engineering is the most common type of engineering. This is due to the following circumstances. Firstly, with the great potential significance of intellectual assistance during the construction of a facility, its ability to significantly increase the efficiency of all work performed. Secondly, with the “flexibility” of consultative engineering, i.e. the possibility of its use both for the project as a whole and in relation to its part, both when performing construction work and work on the technical equipment of the facility through the customer’s own efforts, and in the case of them being carried out by other contractors, including from abroad.
A consulting engineering contract governs the relationship between two parties—the client and the consultant. The establishment of this relationship is preceded by the selection of a specific consultant by a potential customer. This is an extremely important pre-contractual stage, which is due to the specifics of engineering as an organizational form of international economic relations.
When choosing a consultant, the deciding factors should be his professional experience and business reputation. In this regard, it should be noted that there are two reputable, generally recognized international trade unions of engineering consulting firms, membership in which is a guarantee of the quality of subsequent fulfillment of contractual obligations: the European Committee of Engineering Consulting Firms and the International Federation of Consulting Engineers. In addition, information obtained by the customer about potential consultants should, if possible, be carefully verified through contacts with their previous customers.
The nature of the services provided by the consultant is largely determined by the method of implementation of the project chosen by the customer. In international practice, four main methods of project implementation are used: conventional, in-house, project management, and turnkey project implementation method.
The usual method of project implementation means that the customer has decided to involve contractors for the construction of the facility and, accordingly, involves the use of the services of a consultant in preparing the technical specifications of the project and the program for its execution; evaluation of applications for contracts from the general contractor and contractors for the execution of equipment supply works; monitoring the implementation of the project.
In addition, in this case, the consultant is sometimes given the right to act as an authorized representative of the customer in negotiations with contractors, and sometimes directly enter into contracts with them on behalf of the customer in strict accordance, however, with his instructions.
The method of in-house project implementation is used when the customer has made a decision with his own on our own carry out general design, project management, and sometimes the construction itself. As a consequence, this method involves minimal use of the services of a consultant. The role of the latter is limited here only to providing intellectual assistance on certain aspects of the project work, in relation to which the customer’s staff does not have the knowledge necessary knowledge or experience.
The “project management” method provides that the consultant acts as a customer representative and in this role negotiates and prepares relevant contracts with all organizations involved in the construction of the facility and its technical equipment, and also directly manages the construction work. In addition to these functions, the consultant also provides intellectual assistance on issues of drawing up a work program, design, logistics, commissioning of the facility and project financing.
The turnkey project implementation method involves concluding an agreement with one of the companies for the development of a project and construction of a facility ready for operation and with a certain share of responsibility for its subsequent effective operation. With this method, the main functions of the consultant are to assist the customer in developing his final requirements for the facility and evaluating the contractor's proposals.
Let's take revenge general principles, which are recommended to guide the determination of the consultant's obligations.
The first principle is that the consultant's obligations should be based on the client's requirements. The initial and very important point here is to clearly and as completely as possible present these requirements to the future consultant.
The second principle states that the consultant's obligations to provide services should be structured in such a way that the amount of work performed, the time spent on it by the consultant and the latter's expense invoice can be reconciled, both among themselves and in relation to the requirements. customer. This, in turn, presupposes clarity in indicating the consultant’s obligations, for which work schedules and their details are often provided in appendices to the contract.
Finally, the third principle is that the consultant’s responsibilities should not override the rights of the client. The implementation of this principle is ensured by the fact that the contract clearly distinguishes between three groups of issues arising in connection with the provision of services by the consultant: issues that the consultant has the right to resolve independently; issues the solution of which requires formal approval of the customer, and issues resolved in consultation with the customer.
The provisions of the contract regarding non-fulfillment of contractual obligations and the associated consequences are of utmost importance to both parties. The breaching party is liable for failure to perform the contract, and this liability may have serious financial or other consequences. In some circumstances, the consequences for the breaching party may be either limited or eliminated.
Contracting activities within consortia. Often, when it comes to the construction of large facilities, firms providing engineering services form temporary or long-term consortia, which include both national and foreign companies. Funding for such consortia is usually provided by banks, establishing a connection with the general contractor, who is fully responsible for the activities of the entire consortium.
Consortia are temporary unions of economically separate enterprises, which in this context are created to increase the technical and commercial competitiveness of their products. Equipment suppliers and engineering companies often form consortiums to better secure relevant orders. Consortia receive such orders either as a result of direct negotiations with customers or through international tenders. Consortiums make it possible to reduce delivery times by dividing a large order among several suppliers.
The initiator of the creation of a consortium is usually an engineering firm, which invites other firms to join the consortium after conducting preliminary bilateral consultations with them. By general agreement, a leader of the consortium is appointed, who takes upon himself all organizational work, represents the interests of the consortium before the customer, strictly within the powers given to him. For this work, the partners pay the leading company a remuneration in proportion to the share of each participant in the total amount of obligations to the customer.
Members of the consortium are economically independent and independent, but when preparing a joint proposal, members of the consortium, under the leadership of the leader, mutually agree on prices, terms of loans and settlements, and other commercial conditions. Moreover, by mutual agreement, the members of the consortium bear joint responsibility for the fulfillment of contractual obligations by any of the partners. Members of the consortium determine among themselves the degree of responsibility of each partner in case of violation of the terms of the contract and distribute shares of financial responsibility accordingly.
The contracting activity of engineering firms is expressed in the fact that they take on the role of general suppliers and general contractors in the supply of complete equipment and in the construction of facilities. Although engineering firms do not produce equipment or perform construction and installation work, they sign contracts on their own behalf with customers for the construction of industrial facilities.
Contracting activities of engineering firms as part of consortia involve the conclusion and execution of a number of interrelated agreements:
for the supply and installation of industrial equipment and for construction and engineering work;
a set of contracts providing for both the performance of construction and engineering work, and the supply and installation of industrial equipment. In this case, the engineering company, as the general contractor, assumes responsibility for the entire range of supplies or work, although it may transfer part of the supply or work to other participants - subsuppliers or subcontractors;
turnkey agreement, stipulating that the general contractor undertakes full responsibility for the construction of an industrial facility.
During construction industrial complex overseas, turnkey contracts often provide that the general contractor/engineering firm makes available to its subcontractors the auxiliary labor required for construction, the labor involved in the operation of the facility, and the raw materials, services and other supplies needed for testing related to the acceptance of the object and its operation during the warranty period. The general contractor, represented by an engineering company, “transfers the facility ready for operation into the hands of the customer,” and also provides technical documentation and instructions regarding the operation of the commissioned facility. Sometimes the contract specifies that the contractor will provide technical assistance for initial operation, personnel training, or other industrial cooperation.
Due to the complexity of the problem of settlements between the parties in an international agreement for the construction of industrial facilities, exceptionally great attention is paid to determining the procedure for settlements. There are different methods of setting fees in a construction contract or long-term contract. Three of them can be mentioned: the lump sum method, the reimbursement method and the average price. Lump sum method (a fixed amount paid in one certain time) is quite common because it introduces an element of certainty into the price mechanism, but in long-term contracts it can often create large imbalances unless complex mechanisms for regulation and price revision are included in the contract. The cost recovery method requires the contractor to provide the customer with documentation of production costs, to which is added the agreed remuneration, which is the contractor’s profit. This method, unfortunately, lacks an element of certainty (reliability). Consequently, the customer bears all the risk of increased construction costs.
Under the average price method, the parties negotiate a tariff for a construction project, and the total price payable depends on the number of construction projects. The tariff for a construction project must include an increase to reflect the contractor's income. A construction project can be designed on a materials basis, such as cement for concrete, or on a labor basis, such as the labor required for a particular job. Naturally, this method is very selective and cannot be applied to all types of construction or long-term contracts without exception.
An important point The contract also includes a condition for the occurrence of force majeure, as well as such circumstances as significant changes in markets, fluctuations in prices for goods, fundamental changes in national legislation, technology, etc.
As experience shows, the deterioration of conditions in the international construction markets, which caused a drop in the volume of contracts of large contracting firms, was not accompanied by a decrease in the export of engineering services. Conditions on the international engineering market in decisive degree depends on the state of demand from importing countries, especially developing countries, for vehicles or other types capital construction. IN recent years There is an accelerated development of the export of engineering services in such industries as mining, oil refining, chemistry and petrochemicals, and the production of electronic computer equipment. At the same time, engineering is losing its leading role in road construction and the construction of other infrastructure facilities. The structure of the international market for engineering services" increasingly corresponds to the modern needs of scientific and technological progress, and the role of industrial developed countries as importers increases.

Basic terms and definitions

Consignee- an intermediary organization that takes goods from the manufacturer for sale for a certain period of time for an agreed fee.
Distributor- an intermediary organization that purchases goods from the manufacturer at a negotiated price (lower than the market price) and sells it on the sales market at a price that develops in the market due to a certain ratio of supply and demand.
International engineering— activities to provide a range of services of a production, commercial, scientific and technical nature, provided by specialized engineering and consulting firms.
Consortia— temporary unions of economically separate enterprises created to increase the technical and commercial competitiveness of products.

Questions for self-control

What are the advantages of selling goods through intermediaries?
What is the difference between the work of a consignor and the work of a sales agent?
What are the advantages of selling goods through distributors compared to selling goods through consignors?
Tell us about the types of consignment agreements and the conditions for their conclusion.
What rights of sale of goods can an exporter offer to consignors and distributors?
Name the methods of remuneration for intermediaries used in foreign economic activity.
What types of services do engineering firms provide?
What is the role of engineering firms in consortiums when executing contracting transactions?

Literature
Gerchikova I.N. Marketing and international business. M.: Vneshtorgizdat, 1990.
How to sell goods on the foreign market: Directory. M.: Thought,
1995.
Fundamentals of foreign economic knowledge/Ed. prof. I.P. Faminsky. M.: International relations, 1994.
Popov ST. Foreign economic activity of the company. M.: Os-89, 2001.

The second group of foreign trade participants consists of all kinds of associations and organizations, which, unlike representatives of the first group, are not producers and owners of export products, but only provide foreign trade operations in the foreign market on behalf of producers.

Specialized foreign economic organizations (FO) of the Ministry of Trade of the Russian Federation (MFRF). These VOs serve wind farms at the state level, providing commercial and other operations in the foreign market under the terms of intergovernmental agreements, including exports through foreign companies under licenses from the Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation, special (critical) imports under individual government decisions. In addition, they carry out export-import operations in the interests of associations and organizations of the industrial complex on the terms of a commission or commission agreement, provide intermediary, consulting and other services related to foreign economic activity to various production structures, foreign firms and citizens, government and public organizations on issues of international standardization and criteria for the competitiveness of products on the world market.

The number of such specialized intermediaries includes 22 VOs - Vneshstroyimport, Zarubezhekonomservis, Promsyreim-port, Novoexport, etc.

Industry foreign economic associations (VEO). VEOs have been created in sectoral industrial ministries. Their main goals are to promote the development of foreign economic activity of enterprises and industry associations, to find new forms of cooperation with foreign partners on the basis of direct connections, joint entrepreneurship, etc.

56 Chapter 2. Subjects of foreign economic activity

The subject of VEO activities is determined by: operations for the export of products produced by enterprises in the industry, and import purchases within the limits of their foreign currency; activities for organizing maintenance of equipment supplied for export, holding specialized exhibitions, international meetings and symposiums with representatives of related companies in their country and abroad; information and advertising work in order to expand export-import supplies, publication of promotional products; ensuring foreign trade transportation and storage of goods.

VEO includes specialized foreign trade firms (WTF), not being, as a rule, legal entities, but having the right to conclude foreign trade transactions and business agreements on its behalf with suppliers of goods and services for export and customers of import supplies. For example, the foreign trade turnover of VEO Mashpriborintorg exceeds 1.5 million rubles. per year, its export represents the total production of more than 150 Russian production associations, factories, research institutes, and import supplies serve over 2 thousand customers - participants in foreign trade activities.

Mixed Societies (MS). Such companies are created by producers of export products abroad with the participation, as a rule, of large funds Russian enterprises-exporters and their foreign partners.

The main function of the CO should be considered trade and sales, including trade in scientific and technical knowledge. In addition, they are engaged in pre-sales activities (refinement and maintenance of export mechanical products); production, associated, for example, with the extraction and processing of raw materials; provision of services - banking, freight forwarding, engineering (preparation, assembly, adjustment of units, mechanisms and technological lines, their warranty service). The range of goods with which mixed companies work is quite wide: machinery and equipment, instruments, consumer goods and food products, raw materials (timber, lumber, oil, petroleum products).

By creating joint ventures abroad, Russian manufacturers pursue a very important goal - to promote the expansion of domestic exports (up to 30% of the products of large exporters are sold through them), improve its structure and increase the efficiency

ty foreign trade transactions; strengthening in foreign markets and securing key positions in certain areas of the countries where they are established, through participation in foreign firms and companies through the acquisition of part of their shares.

The basis for scientific and technical cooperation between the Institute of Protein of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the American venture firm Sierra Ventures, which has a fund of $100 million, was the success of domestic fundamental science in the field of extracellular synthesis, which made it possible to obtain a 15% share in capital and representation on the company's board. And as a contribution to the authorized capital of the formed JV "Ribogen Inc." licenses for patents and know-how were counted, as well as the participation of Russian scientists in consultations and transfer of results basic research for further development and development latest technologies. In another mixed company, Ribonik, the share of the Russian side was already 49%.

In addition to the above goals, mixed companies allow exporters to obtain a number of other advantages. By receiving through the CO more complete and objective information about the sales market, its needs, and the degree of competitiveness, the exporter can carry out operational control for the promotion of their products, timely and correctly respond to market fluctuations, choose appropriate forms and methods of trading.

An example of a joint venture can also be a large specialized intermediary company with the participation of Russian and French capital, established in Paris back in 1992 as the Russian-French House of Trade and Economic Cooperation - RTD-France. Its founders were, on the Russian side, the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations (now the RF MT), joint-stock companies Prodintorg and Exportkhleb, VEO Raznoimport, Promsyreimport, Soyuznefteexport, Techno-export, VO Legpromexport, Gazexport. and several manufacturing enterprises. The French founders are: well-known companies and banks such as Peshine, Kopeshine, Uzinor-Sasilor, Temis, Crédit Lyonnais, Eurobank, Sogo and Prodinter.

The main goals of the RTD-France JV: assistance in the implementation of export-import transactions between the two countries; participation in the implementation of Russian state foreign economic programs; provision of various types of services to Russian and French enterprises, including the implementation of contracts; promotion in various forms to the French market of technologies and products of Russian enterprises, including conversion ones.

58 Chapter 2. Subjects of foreign economic activity

Being interested in expanding exports and its competitiveness, JIs form their own material and technical base abroad and provide training for local specialists for technical maintenance of their products. Through a joint venture, it is possible to carry out leasing, carry out in the importer’s country not only subsequent assembly, but also modification of export products, transport operations, trade in licenses, and also deploy targeted advertising. Finally, with the help of COs, it is possible to sell products to third countries and ensure import purchases without paying commissions to intermediaries and agents, while simultaneously negotiating more favorable prices. The creation of joint ventures abroad for Russian exporters often becomes practically the only effective way to enter the foreign markets of developed countries.

The choice of organizational and legal forms of mixed companies is determined Civil Code Russian Federation, however, as foreign companies they are created and operate in accordance with the legislation of the country of location. In particular, according to the laws of most developed Western countries, the profits of mixed companies are subject to high taxes - up to 50-60%. In addition, they are subject to other types of taxes.

The Russian practice of forming joint ventures in the system of state foreign trade structures dates back to the 20s, when they were created in Austria (Rusavtorg), in England (Russian Forestry Agency, Dvinolesexport, Russangloles, Rusoorbit) , “Russian Bristle Society”), in Holland (“Russhollandoles”), in Norway (“Russnorvegles”), in the USA (“Amtorg”), as well as in Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan. Currently, the vast majority of JIs (more than 77%) are located in Germany, Finland, Italy, the USA, Great Britain, Belgium, gradually covering, however, the territory of newly industrialized countries - Brazil, Argentina, and Southeast Asia.

To date, the number of COs abroad has exceeded 300, having increased by 58.7% compared to 1990, with a predominance of production, scientific and technical functions.

Trading houses. As noted above, the second group of participants in foreign economic activity includes trading houses, which were first mentioned in domestic legislation as a new organizational form of foreign economic activity in 1988 in connection with its further development. The concept of “trading house” in Russia has not yet been strictly defined.

1. Profile of activities of foreign economic activity subjects

defined, and under this type a small number of trade and intermediary institutions of various types and profiles operate, registering as trade cooperatives, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), open and closed joint-stock companies. Many large financial and industrial groups have created trading intermediaries, also called “trading houses” - “Vostok”, “Mik-Rodin”. For example, at one time the founders of the international trading house “Stolitsa” with an authorized capital of 180 thousand rubles. steel Russian Commodity and Raw Materials Exchange, Moscow Stock Exchange, All-Russian Real Estate Exchange, regional associations of foreign economic cooperation, insurance companies and transport and warehouse organizations.

In international practice, trading houses are firms or companies that are associations of various kinds of foreign trade, manufacturing, transport, warehouse, research, information, as well as banking and insurance organizations that are part of them on a voluntary basis and carry out their activities as at home and abroad. Thus, they are universal trade and production structures.

In international practice, the most important features that make it possible to classify a particular firm or company as a trading house are:

1. Carrying out exports on one’s own behalf and at one’s own expense
tailor barter and other foreign trade transactions
wide product range.

2. Active financial and production activity,
including investment in production, acquisition
enterprises in full ownership, rental of equipment
tions, provision of loans, creation of new industries.

3. Implementation on a significant scale of internal wholesale and retail trade and providing related services to clients at home and abroad in the field of insurance, service and repair, product warehousing, consultations, etc.

4. Availability of a network of foreign branches, representative offices and mixed companies of production, trade and other profiles.

5. The use, along with traditional foreign trade operations, of other forms of foreign economic activity - investment cooperation with foreign partners in the construction of various facilities on their territory, the provision of engineering services.

60 Chapter 2. Subjects of foreign economic activity

In world practice, trading houses have been known for a long time. For the first time, large diversified foreign trade firms arose in late XIX V. in Japan under the name "sōgo-seshya", which currently account for 45% of Japan's exports and 77% of its imports.

Japanese trading houses, which are multifunctional companies, are the core element of the country's foreign trade system. They perform trade and intermediary functions, export-import operations, transport, forwarding and insurance operations, are engaged in trade in the domestic market, technical service and marketing. The network of Japanese trading houses is located in Western Europe and Southeast Asia. IN lately their branches also appeared in Russia (in Moscow and Yekaterinburg).

Close to trading houses, but with less universalization (selling their own national products), trading companies. The first such companies were created at the turn of the 60-70s. in Brazil using the experience of Japanese trading houses. They have great financial capabilities and marketing techniques of large industrial enterprises or exporting firms, have constant extensive business contacts abroad for large-scale foreign trade operations in the foreign market with traditional goods (coffee, cocoa beans, sugar), realizing over 1/3 of the country’s exports.

The main functions of trading companies are the selection of “market for goods and goods for market”, distribution channels, export prices, terms of sale, provision of credit to the buyer, transportation, chartering of ships and paperwork. Among other functions, an important place is occupied by the study of world markets and modern methods marketing, identifying alternative sales channels, collecting information about competitors, finding new forms of trade in traditional markets, promoting non-traditional Brazilian exports of goods (machinery products), providing after-sales services to foreign buyers and developing the export of engineering services.

In Russia, to date, trading houses as large commercial and industrial groups of the conglomeration type have not yet been created, which is largely due to the lack of legal regulation of the procedure for their formation and functioning, as well as

1. Profile of activities of foreign economic activity subjects

standard constituent documents. In addition, the problem is the lack economic conditions to form a strong financial base as one of the main prerequisites effective activities trading houses through cooperation with commercial banks and the creation of an authorized capital through contributions from the founding shareholders, as well as in resolving the issue of providing VEO with the opportunity to invest in the production of competitive products.

It seems promising to create trading houses in the field of foreign economic activity on the basis of large specialized foreign economic organizations of the RF MT system, which have sufficient professional experience in the foreign market, have an extensive foreign network (representative offices, branches, mixed companies) and transport communications. Such trading houses, along with the main foreign trade organization, should include banks, production structures, intermediary, brokerage and research organizations.

Some foreign economic organizations are essentially already on the path of becoming trading houses, but they are hampered by the lack of a powerful material, technical and financial base. For example, VEO Selkhozpromexport not only carries out export-import activities and provides intermediary, consulting and information services to Russian and foreign representatives, but is also engaged in the design, construction, reconstruction and operation of agricultural facilities, water, fisheries and forestry enterprises in Russia and abroad.

Russian trading houses are currently represented only by specialized brand stores that trade and provide services for foreign currency, while foreign trading houses - Japanese and British (Roditi) - are expanding into the Russian market.

Promoting organizations

The third group of foreign trade participants is represented by supporting organizations. The profile of their activities is the provision of various types of services and consulting and methodological assistance in ensuring access to foreign markets, searching for a foreign partner, organizing exhibitions, fairs and advertising, conducting an examination,

62 Chapter 2. Subjects of foreign economic activity

registration of financial settlement and currency and credit transactions, as well as foreign trade transport transportation.

Association for Foreign Economic Cooperation (ABC). Associations for cooperation with foreign countries quite numerous. They unite on a constituent basis with equity participation government, commercial and other structures that offer a wide range of foreign trade services, primarily to beginning exporters. Both of them together account for more than 5% total number participants in foreign economic activity of Russia.

The main tasks of ABC are as follows.

1. Providing practical assistance to foreign trade participants in matters
comprehensive study of world commodity markets, legal
ensuring foreign trade transactions, creating advertising for their own
military products and develop recommendations on the possibility of
increasing the competitiveness of manufactured goods, their quality
quality, packaging tailored to the requirements of specific
external commodity markets, as well as assistance in preparing and
claim by foreign partners.

2. Providing practical assistance in mastering new forms and areas of foreign economic and scientific and technical cooperation, including an agreement on the creation of a joint venture, the development of production cooperation and specialization, as well as trade and intermediary services, including the search and formation of a network of consumers of imported products on the Russian market .

3. Conducting seminars and conferences or providing regular consultations for participants in foreign trade activities on legal issues, advertising, and marketing.

4. Publication of reference books, collections and bulletins, including legislative acts, scientific and methodological literature on foreign economic activity and advertising materials.

One of these associations is “Centaur”, whose main activity is trade and intermediary in ensuring import supplies to the Russian market of more than 3 thousand types of goods (audio, video and household appliances, cars, clothing). The annual turnover of members of the Association exceeded $1 million, which became possible largely thanks to a wide distribution network (more than 50 small wholesale warehouses).

The Centaur association includes 12 Russian legal entities (Service-K, Phobos, Avtostar, etc.) and three foreign ones, its total

1. Profile of activities of foreign economic activity subjects

The members are 15 companies and 60 joint stock companies. This - trading companies and trading houses and a large warehouse.

"Centaur" provides about 20 types of services, such as legal drafting of contracts, customs clearance of cargo, forwarding and transport services, warehouse services, security, advertising campaigns, etc.

There are several ABC groups in Russia, which were formed according to a number of characteristic features- country, sector, regional and by type of representative participants. The largest number of such associations was formed with traditional Russian partners: Germany, Italy, India, Finland, as well as with Arab countries (“Asarab”), states of the Asia-Pacific region (in Far East), northwestern countries (for the development of resources of the Kola Peninsula). ABC of an industry nature are mostly created in the field of medicine (Rosintermed), construction and architecture (Ros-Stroyimpex), science, culture and the agro-industrial complex.

Among the representative participants, one can single out associations of exporters, cooperators, joint ventures, etc. The most significant of them is ABC of exporters at the Russian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (CCI), which represents the interests of large and stable exporting manufacturers. Within its framework there are three sections: quality of export products, marketing, small and medium-sized enterprises.

International organizations. The activities of international organizations - non-governmental voluntary associations - are of a specific nature. It is closely related to foreign trade activities and scientific and technical cooperation in certain areas and sectors of activity with the participation of simultaneously representatives of different countries, specialized firms and organizations and the dissemination of the experience of this cooperation.

Depending on their experience in foreign economic activity, as well as in conducting commercial negotiations, Russian entrepreneurs can conduct them independently or through trade intermediaries.

Simple intermediaries are turned to when there is no information about any market and possible transactions on it. The role of simple intermediaries (brokers) can be individuals or legal entities who facilitate the conclusion of contracts, but do not conduct negotiations and do not take part in transactions with their name and capital.

The broker looks for an interested buyer and puts him in touch with the seller. After signing a contract, negotiations on which take place without the participation of an intermediary, the latter receives a remuneration, the amount of which is pre-agreed in the agency agreement. At the same time, the broker does not have the right to represent the interests of both parties in one transaction (Fig. 28.1).

Rice. 28.2. Scheme of actions of an authorized intermediary

Commission agents. Commission agreements have found extremely wide application in international trade. Commission agents look for partners, sign contracts with them on their own behalf, but at the expense of the seller or buyer (principals), who bear commercial risks. Such intermediaries are approached to carry out the transaction in full at the expense of the principal, including searching for a counterparty, conducting business negotiations and signing a contract on their own behalf (Fig. 28.3).

Rice. 28.3. Commission agent's action plan

Commission agreements contain the powers of the commission agents regarding commercial and technical conditions, as well as the obligation to agree with the principals on the main terms of the contracts (quantity of goods, delivery dates, prices, loan terms).

Commission agreements may include additional obligations of commission agents to provide any other services to the principals (market research, advertising, technical maintenance, etc.). Commission agents advance funds for these services, all their expenses are reimbursed by the principals. Commission agents, as a rule, are not responsible for the fulfillment of payment obligations by principals, except in cases where such responsibility is provided for in commission agreements.

Commission agreements provide for the methods, amounts and procedure for paying commission agents remuneration, which covers the expenses incurred and ensures that they receive a profit. A commission agreement may contain a del credere clause. In this case, the commission agent assumes responsibility for the fulfillment of obligations by third parties with whom he entered into a transaction at the expense of the principal. Thus, the commission agent guarantees that the third party will fulfill its contractual obligations, otherwise the commission agent will compensate the principal for any damage incurred.

Sales intermediaries. The involvement of intermediaries helps to increase the efficiency of foreign trade operations, despite the payment of remuneration to intermediaries. Intermediaries increase the efficiency and efficiency of operations by trading in a relatively narrow market segment that is well studied by them; reducing distribution costs; reduction of delivery times; pre-sales service and technical after-sales service; often making advances to exporters by investing their own capital in the creation and operation of a sales network; providing the exporter with the necessary information about the level of quality and competitiveness of goods in this market segment.

Involving trade intermediaries does not make sense if they do not provide additional profits compared to those that exporters receive when selling goods independently. Such intermediaries are usually contacted when market conditions are favorable in order to “extend the counter.”

A special agency agreement is concluded between the exporter and the sales agent (Fig. 28.4), which gives broad powers to the latter, but at the same time introduces certain restrictions, since the agents act at the expense of the exporters. Limit powers mainly relate to contract prices, credit and payment terms, delivery times, guarantees and liability. The agent's responsibilities may also include researching sales markets, advertising, maintaining product warehouses, organizing pre-sale service and technical maintenance.

Agents must insure goods in warehouses. No employment relationship is established between exporters and agents, otherwise the intermediaries would become employees of the exporting firm. Therefore, the remuneration paid to the agent, strictly speaking, is not his salary; it only reimburses him for the expenses incurred and ensures the receipt of the planned profit.

Rice. 28.4. Sales agent action plan

They sell mainly consumer goods, as well as machinery and equipment, on consignment terms. The bulk of products are sold under such agreements (for example, watches, tractors, cars, machine tools, electric motors, etc.). Under these conditions, the exporter (consignor) supplies the intermediary (consignee) with goods to his warehouse for sale on the market within a certain period (usually up to one year). The consignor pays the exporter as the goods are sold according to the agreed schedule (usually once a month or quarter) (Fig. 28.5). Essentially, the exporter credits the intermediary for average term sales of goods. The remuneration, as practice shows, is about 8% of the amount of goods sold.

Rice. 28.5. Consignee's action plan

In order to increase the reliability of the sale of goods, along with simple consignment, more complex types are used.

Partially returnable consignment provides for the purchase by the consignor, after a specified period, of a part of the unsold goods, which is agreed upon in advance (usually up to 20% of the volume of goods supplied). But in this case, the remuneration to the consignor is no longer 8%, but somewhat more - approximately 11% of the amount of goods sold.

A completely irrevocable consignment deprives the consignor of the right to return unsold goods, which, after a specified period, he is obliged to buy. But at the same time, the reward increases to 15% or even more of the goods sold. If the volume of unsold goods is significant, then the parties analyze the reasons for the low competitiveness of the product and immediately take measures to improve it.

If it is impossible to improve sales conditions and does not want to spoil relations with the intermediary, the consignor often agrees to return the goods even under the condition of irrevocable consignment. At the same time, he incurs losses of up to 25% of the cost of the goods (approximately 10% - round-trip transportation and 15% - customs duties). It is considered that a return is appropriate if the discount in the price of the goods required for its sale exceeds at least twice the cost of its return and customs taxation.

If the sale of the goods is sufficiently successful, the consignor can increase export prices, but this annuls the consignor’s obligations regarding the irrevocability of the goods. The right to actively influence prices must be stipulated in the consignment agreement. The consignor researches the market, provides advertising and pre-sale services, creates a technical service network, and provides goods with warehouses. Therefore, it is always necessary to maintain good business relations with the consignee.

Practice shows that the bulk of international trade is carried out by independent firms engaged in the resale of goods.

Distributors are firms that carry out sales on the basis of wholesale purchases from large industrial firms - manufacturers of finished products (Fig. 28.6). As a rule, these are relatively large companies,

having their own warehouses and establishing long-term contractual relationships with industrialists. Distributors are distinguished by the fact that they enter into contracts themselves, on their own behalf and at their own expense. purchase and sale with exporters and importers. At the same time, long-term cooperation relationships are established with exporters on the basis of agreements containing a set of mutual rights and obligations that go beyond the scope of ordinary sales contracts.

Rice. 28.6. Distributor action plan

Agreements with distributors determine the list of goods sold, the territory for their sale, obligations for annual sales volumes of goods, the necessary marketing research, maintenance of warehouses, pre-sale service, and the creation of a stable sales network. The latter is usually created by other independent companies, with which distributors enter into appropriate agreements.

Exporters constantly monitor the status of warehouse stocks in all parts of the distribution network, the selling prices of goods, and monitor the financial condition of the distributor. Distributors have greater commercial independence than agents, since they act on the market on their own behalf, bear all the risks associated with damage and loss of goods, are themselves responsible for the risks of loans provided to customers, and can set selling prices for goods themselves.

In agreements with marketing intermediaries, the exporter may grant the intermediary a non-exclusive, exclusive (monopoly) or preferential right to sell its goods.

Non-exclusive right to sell. In this case, the agreement between the exporter and the intermediary includes such items as product range; the territory in which the intermediary operates; duration of the agreement;

type of agreement (order, commission, consignment, purchase and sale). Intermediaries are given the right to sell a certain range of goods in a specified territory for a specified period of time, but the seller reserves the right to independently (or through other intermediaries) sell the same goods in the same territory without any payment to the intermediary with a non-exclusive right to sell remuneration or compensation.

The exclusive (monopoly) right of sale deprives the exporter of the opportunity to sell goods through other intermediaries or independently. This right stimulates the intermediary, since the amount of profit he receives directly depends on his activity. In this case, however, excessive monopolization of the market for the exported product may occur, and if the intermediary is not interested in selling the goods due to their low competitiveness, the market will be practically closed to the exporter until the end of the agreement. To avoid such a danger, exporters include in the agreement the obligations of intermediaries to sell specified quantities of goods within a specified period of time and the right of the exporter, if the intermediary fails to fulfill them, to cancel this agreement or transfer it to other working conditions, for example, to the conditions of a non-exclusive right of sale. To prevent the monopoly intermediary from reorienting itself to working with the exporter’s competitors, the agreement must include the intermediary’s obligation not to represent other suppliers of similar goods in the contract territory.

The preemptive right of sale, or “right of first hand,” provides for an agreement under which the exporter is obliged to first offer the goods to the intermediary and only after his refusal to sell this product in the contract territory independently or through other intermediaries without paying remuneration to the intermediary “with the right of first hand.” hands". The intermediary must formalize the refusal to sell in writing. The agreement must list the reasons why intermediaries have the right to refuse to sell goods (unsatisfactory technical characteristics, quality, delivery times, prices and terms of payment, etc.).

Typically, intermediaries, even if they refuse to sell, insist on the obligation of exporters not to sell goods in the contract territory on more favorable commercial terms than those offered to them. Under these conditions, the danger of blocking the market by another intermediary is eliminated. In international business practice, agreements with different sales rights may be signed with the same intermediary for different goods.

Intermediaries do not produce anything themselves, so all their expenses can only be covered from the fees paid by sellers or buyers.

The role of intermediaries in foreign economic activity.

In international practice, intermediary activity refers to the implementation of foreign trade transactions by firms and organizations, as well as individuals independent of producers and buyers of these goods.

Enterprises can enter the foreign market directly, i.e. independently carry out the entire range of activities related to the promotion and sale of goods on the foreign market. But in this case, the enterprise spends a lot of money, since it is necessary to have its own sales and service departments, it takes time to organize sales, organize advertising, in addition, it is necessary to have highly qualified employees with experience and connections in the foreign market.

There are advantages to using intermediaries that must be taken into account when conducting foreign trade transactions. The intermediary specializes in promoting goods on the foreign market, so he has commercial experience, connections in the foreign market, owns information, and, as a rule, has his own sales and service department.

Specialized firms, organizations and individuals. There is a certain classification of the main types of intermediaries, based on the specifics of the activity, the scope of powers and rights granted to various types of intermediaries.

1. The most common type of intermediaries are brokers. These are simple intermediaries who mainly perform the functions of “pandering”, i.e. bring together the seller and the buyer, and act on the market only at the expense, on behalf and on behalf of the seller or buyer. One broker can also simultaneously carry out orders for the seller and the buyer. For his work, the broker receives a special brokerage remuneration (courtage). The remuneration amount ranges from 0.25% to 2-3%.

2. Sales agents are intermediaries acting on the foreign market on behalf and at the expense of the seller. An agency agreement is signed between the parties. The owner of the goods or the seller acts as a principal, the intermediary as an agent.

The agency agreement stipulates sales volumes for the year, the territory where the agent can operate, and the amount of remuneration. It can range from 7 to 13% of the transaction amount.

3. Intermediary consignor. The essence of consignment is that the exporter, called the consignee, transfers his goods to an intermediary consignor for a certain period of time for its subsequent sale.

4. Intermediaries and commission agents. They act on the foreign market on their own behalf, but at the expense and on behalf of the seller. In this case, the exporter or importer acts as a principal, and the intermediary acts as a commission agent.

Trading houses (or merchants, or sales agents). In this case, resale operations are carried out by intermediaries on their own behalf and at their own expense, i.e. a purchase and sale contract is concluded with the owner of the goods. In this case, the intermediary becomes the owner of the goods and resells it on his own behalf and at his own expense.

Foreign economic activity is an important factor in stabilizing the country’s economy. Currently, the main element of economic activity is the enterprise, at the level of which the main forms of foreign economic activity are implemented.

The main form of foreign economic activity of an enterprise is foreign trade activity, that is, the exchange of goods and services.

When carrying out a foreign trade transaction, it is necessary to carry out foreign trade contract– a document that should most fully reflect all the terms of the purchase and sale agreement between the seller (exporter) and the buyer (importer). In international trade practice, there are certain standards for drawing up a foreign trade contract.

When carrying out a foreign trade transaction important role plays a role in choosing the form of payment between the parties to the transaction. The main forms of payment are documentary collection (not often used) and open account (very rarely used). A documentary letter of credit and documentary collection provide the most complete guarantees of fulfillment of the terms of the contract for both the exporter and the importer.

The cost of delivering goods from the seller to the buyer is included in the price of the goods depending on how these costs are distributed between the seller and the buyer. In international trade practice, there are certain standards for the distribution of responsibilities of the seller and buyer for the delivery of the contract. These standards are reflected in the Incoterms 1990 document ( International rules on the interpretation of trade terms).

Rental block

In the practice of MT, there are 2 methods of carrying out foreign economic transactions: direct and indirect.

The direct method involves the direct sale of goods by the seller-manufacturer to the buyer-consumer.

The indirect method involves selling goods through an intermediary.

A significant part of foreign trade transactions is carried out through intermediaries. Intermediary firms are usually used when an enterprise enters a new market with its products, or when offering a new product. Thus, the manufacturer, firstly, gets the opportunity to reduce its costs, because someone else's distribution network is used. Secondly, speed up the receipt of funds for the goods and, thirdly, using an intermediary who knows the market, ensure that you further consolidate your position in this market with a good price level. Intermediaries also undertake market research, which also reduces costs.

Using an intermediary also has disadvantages:

1) he does not receive complete information about the consumer’s requirements for the product, about the true volumes consumer market

2) the manufacturer is forced to transfer part of the profit to an intermediary

3) the consumer does not know the true identity of the manufacturer.

Types of intermediaries in foreign trade

1. Agents act for the benefit and on behalf of another person - the principal.

The main task of the agent is to search, establish and ensure business contact, direct or indirect, between the principal and a third party. The agent performs the work of collecting information about the solvency of a potential consumer and information about the state of the market.

2. Simple intermediaries perform the function of facilitating the sale of goods and concluding a transaction on behalf of and for CHECK client. The intermediary does not become the owner of the goods and does not legally bear any responsibility for the goods.

3. BROKERS– intermediaries working on the stock exchange. Agricultural goods and raw materials are sold through a broker. The broker sells and buys goods for a certain fee (% of the lot volume), and may additionally receive an incentive bonus for selling goods at a higher price, as specified in the agreement, or buying goods at a lower price. 4. Attorneys or agents for sale/purchase - on the basis of a contract of agency signed with the seller or buyer (principal) on behalf of and for CHECK the principal enters into transactions for the purchase and sale of goods. The agency agreement usually provides for the powers and obligations of the attorney for the transaction.

5. Commission agents represent the interests of the principal and act on their own behalf in transactions. Based on the commission agreement, they receive the right to dispose of the goods, while the seller (committent) undertakes to pay a commission to the commission agent in the form of a specified % of the transaction amount.

The transaction commissioner acts for CHECK principal, while the agreement between the commission agent and a third party is an ordinary purchase and sale agreement, because the commission agent acts on his own behalf, but for CHECK committent.

6. Auctioneers are intermediaries operating at international auctions. Some types of agricultural goods, art objects, and real estate are sold through the auction trade. Auctioneers receive a remuneration in a predetermined amount, but can also receive a bonus when selling/purchasing goods on more favorable terms.

7. Consignees act on the basis of a consignment agreement, according to which the consignee-exporter, the manufacturer of the goods, transfers the goods to the consignor for sale within a certain period; as the goods are sold from the consignor's warehouse, payments are made to the consignor; unsold goods are returned to the exporter or the term of the contract may be extended

8. An intermediary factor works with a specific product (agricultural products, raw materials), acts in favor of the principal on its own behalf and is the owner of the goods sold or documents of ownership.

9. Agent del credere is an intermediary who assumes obligations to compensate for the losses of the principal for an increased fee. Its role is most often played by banks, which guarantee receipt of payments in the event of an insolvent buyer.

10. Distributors are intermediaries who purchase and sell goods on their own behalf and at their own expense. Income is made up of the difference between the purchase price and the sale price. Distributors act independently of the supplier and implement an independent pricing policy.

11. Forwarders are engaged in providing services for the delivery of goods from the sender to the consignee. According to the agreement, forwarders are responsible for the safety of the cargo, but are not its owner. The forwarder is obliged to facilitate customs clearance of the cargo.

12. Dealer is an intermediary who sells goods on his own behalf and for his own CHECK; in duties m.b. it is envisaged to carry out an agreed pricing policy with the manufacturer, while the dealer can receive the goods on credit from the manufacturer, the dealer does not provide pre-sale and after-sale service for the goods - this is done by the seller.

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This topic belongs to the section:

Foreign economic activity

Foreign economic activity (FEA) - form entrepreneurial activity. Russia's strategy in foreign economic activity. International trade MT. Collaborative international entrepreneurship.

This material includes sections:

Types and forms, subjects and objects of foreign economic activity

Essence, forms and conditions for the development of foreign economic activity. The need for foreign economic activity

Problems of Russia's integration into the system of world economic relations

Problems of trade between a foreign partner and a Russian one

State regulation of foreign trade activities in the Russian Federation

Types of countertrade in foreign economic activity of an enterprise

International auctions, equipment, types

Exchange trading, types, techniques

International rental, types, features

International fairs and exhibitions in the activities of enterprises

Stages of preparation for participation in international exhibitions and fairs

Choosing a foreign partner: methodology, factors

Market indicators, significance for assessing a foreign company

Pre-contract work of the enterprise

The essence and forms of organizing foreign economic activity management at an enterprise

Management structures of foreign economic activity of enterprises and functional responsibilities of their specialists

Planning of foreign trade activities of an enterprise

Risks in the foreign economic activity of an enterprise

Essence, elements of the enterprise’s foreign economic activity marketing complex

The use of trade intermediaries in foreign trade activities, their types

Features of the activities of enterprises in SEZs and offshore zones

Methods of foreign trade pricing and their characteristics

International payments by bank transfers in foreign trade activities of enterprises, document flow diagram, regulatory documents

International payments by letters of credit in foreign economic activity of enterprises, document flow diagram, regulatory documents

International settlements for collection in foreign trade activities of enterprises, document flow diagram, regulatory documents

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