Linguistic features of a literary text and their influence on translation. Linguistic features

Lexical

The special dictionary of the main lexical fund is naturally represented by terminology, which, in addition to the actual nominative terminological layer (expressed, as a rule, by nouns), contains terminative words expressed by other significant parts of speech (terms - verbs, adjectives, adverbs), as well as prepositional case constructions that functionally perform the same role as terms. These are original templates, blanks for specific nominations such as “in... mode” (in automatic mode), “in... execution” (in northern execution).

The periphery of vocabulary consists of those linguistic means that are often present in special speech (texts) as individual authorial features.

In a complex and multidimensional system of verbal means, fairly autonomous functional layers are distinguished. The top consists of general scientific terms intended to express categories and concepts that are fundamentally and productively applicable to all areas of scientific knowledge, combining in their composition the nominations of logical and philosophical categories that have epistemological universality, as well as categories and concepts of a new type that arose as a result of mathematization and cybernetization, - electronization, informatization of science, as a result of integration processes and the latest research methods. These are, for example, a system, element, structure, function, model, paradigm, information, control, program, reliability, adaptation, method, factor, etc.

General scientific means of expression ultimately serve as the basis for the search for means of theorizing science, universalizing scientific means, and thereby universalizing special language as a whole.

We can note some rather linguistically external characteristics of general scientific terms that are revealed when they function in specialized literature and in specialized speech. First of all, being part of the universal means of expression, general scientific terms not only do not lose, but, on the contrary, require specification when used in individual fields of knowledge. Thus, the ability of terms (concepts) to generate derivatives is realized. Wed: information and social information, economic information, scientific and technical information, production information, biological information, genetic information, measurement information, etc. An essential and traditional feature of general scientific terms (concepts) is also considered to be their tendency to be “conjugated in pairs” ": abstract and concrete, necessity and chance, possibility and reality, cause and effect, quality and quantity, structure and function, evolution and revolution, analysis and synthesis, on the basis of which more complex complexes develop: content - form - structure - function ; possibility - reality - necessity, etc.

Derivational

Among the areas that expand the base of nominations in the field of special vocabulary is the formation of eponymous names (derived from proper names), which have been introduced extremely actively in recent years. These formations evoke contradictory attitudes: some do not approve of them, considering them semantically defective, while others welcome them, due to the fact that eponymization is the only way to perpetuate a proper name in a term.

An equally obvious sign of term formation is the tendency towards maximum condensation of verbal material in nominations, as a rule, subject concepts by means of various kinds of complex abbreviated formations, which result in word-like names: tokamak (created on the basis of the phrase “current chamber with a combination of magnetic and electric fields”) , cubic zirconia (the name of a class of heat-resistant materials, created by means of the suffix -it from the manufacturing base FIAN - an abbreviation of the Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences (USSR), countries (synthetic granite), vorsanite (pile thread), glass ceramic (silicate and metal), metoy (metal and concrete), ruberan (antiseptic roofing felt), etc.

The method of fusion, which is unproductive in general literary word formation, is quite often used to form terms - complex adjectives: evergreen, long-lasting, mercury-containing, water-containing, etc.

The actual terminological apparatus of the nomination is specifically scientific concepts, fundamentally based on the word-formation system of the literary language, is characterized by maximum specialization of the means of term creation, selection and consolidation of these specialized means both behind categories of concepts and areas of knowledge.

The development of a fairly specific set of term-formation means is facilitated by the desire for a similar formation of terms within the general category of concepts and especially within the same thematic group. These are, for example, the names of the concepts of quantum electronics: maser, laser, reser, gaser, phaser.

It is characteristic that a significant quantitative increase in neologism terms does not essentially lead to a significant increase in completely new lexemes and new term elements, since in the overwhelming majority of cases a new nomination is carried out on the basis of pre-existing linguistic material. There are reasons for this, which consist, as academician D.N. Shmelev noted, in the fact that “the material embodiment of our knowledge about the world is expressed not just in words, but in words, many of which (and potentially all) have the ability to convey one, but several meanings, i.e. alternately act as different units of nomination” Shmelev D.N. Introduction // Methods of nomination in the modern Russian language. - M., 1982.- P.5.. An example of this is many new terminological names such as: flexible technology, interactive mode, powder metallurgy, replacement therapy, contactless remote control, satellite construction, half-word (term of automated control systems), generation of computers, programming, programmer, program control, program module, dispatcher program, monitor program, self-healing program, etc.

Replenishment of the lexical material active in term formation occurs not only through borrowing from other living national languages(in this case, these borrowings become new lexemes for the borrowing language), but also through the transition of proper names into appellative vocabulary, which then becomes productive for new derivatives, for example: x-ray, x-ray apparatus, x-rays, roentgenogram, x-ray flaw detection, x-ray spectral analysis, x-ray structural analysis; ampere, ampere-scales, ampere-turn, ampere-hour, ammeter, amperometry; voltmeter, galvanoplasty, electroplating, voltage booster transformer, etc.

Phraseological

The free equivalent of a phraseological unit is an actual type of phrase in scientific speech, and has a special phraseological character. The area of greatest use of phraseological units is colloquial speech. In newspaper-journalistic and artistic speech phraseological units are less commonly used and function differently than in colloquial speech.

In the scientific style, figurative-expressive phraseological units are practically absent as normative forms that reflect the essence of the style. They can occasionally be used only as accompanying elements in polemical, journalistic, and popularizing parts of a scientific work. The reasons for this lie in their semantic lack of differentiation, lack of independence and vagueness of the meanings of the components, in the disorienting contradiction between the meaning of the whole and the sum of the meaning of the components, as well as in the usual vagueness and non-intelligence of the meaning of the whole in its dependence on the constitution.

This does not mean that in scientific speech there are no phraseological units at all and that there is no sign of phraseology at all. Firstly, there are general linguistic phraseological units of a conceptual nature: rational grain, cornerstone, find the key to the problem, etc. 2) There is the concept of “terminological phraseology”. It's about about special terminological concepts, the nominations of which have certain qualities of phraseological units. In addition to structural stability, which in itself is not a sign of phraseological units, they have a conditional metaphorical nature and non-identity of the meaning of the whole with the sum of the meaning of the components. The last two signs can act with more or less activity, so that the remnants of “phraseology” in these nominations can manifest themselves to a greater or lesser extent. Therefore, in such, for example, terminological phrases as: solar corona, catchphrase, demographic explosion, artistic fabric - we fully feel the figurative and metaphorical connotations accompanying the concept and, accordingly, elements of phraseology. But the abstract conceptual meaning dominates, the certainty of which is determined by the definition of the term.

In scientific speech, a distinction is made between atomic and molecular phrases. The activity of the attribute category, characteristic of scientific thinking and speech, causes the activity of form genitive case, and in other cases. Sign of this object can be expressed in the genitive case through another object: transformer coil, base area. The sign of action can be expressed in the genitive case through the subject (the coil rotates - rotation of the coil) or through a direct object (accelerating the technical re-equipment of the enterprise, accelerate the re-equipment, re-equip the enterprise). This explains the exceptional activity of the genitive case in scientific speech, especially as part of a noun phrase.

Another characteristic feature of a noun phrase in scientific speech is the activity of the forms of indirect-objective and adverbial control in its composition.

So, scientific speech at the level of phrases is characterized by the extreme passivity of phraseology itself and the activity of a special kind of loosely connected combination of a conceptual nature, normative - general linguistic in construction and more or less idiomatic for a non-specialist in content. The scientific style is characterized by the activity of multicomponent combinations, primarily nominative, and among them molecular, which represent the collapsed form of one or several sentences and thus provide greater semantic concentration. As a result of these transformations, the activity of the genitive case increases. As part of a phrase, homogeneous constructions acquire relative activity, however, without complicated configurations. In each sublanguage of science, with the general dominance of the principle of full-structure speech formation, processes of reduction of conceptual phrases occur slowly and within a limited framework, enhancing their “idiomaticity” outside the boundaries of a given sublanguage. Penetrating from scientific speech into newspaper-journalistic, colloquial, artistic, scientific-conceptual combinations usually lose their terminology and acquire new qualities from the adapter style.

Syntactic

The syntax of scientific speech has the following features:

? The dominance of the logical principle in the structure of the sentence;
? The dominance of the logical principle of speech construction at the levels of superphrasal unities;
? Functional conditionality of some formal and structural features of scientific speech.

At the same time, the most fully expressive of the specifics of the scientific style is the conceptual molecular phrase with predicative multivalence. This combination, on the one hand, is functionally equivalent to a word and can in principle be replaced by a word (cf.: artificial resin obtained by combining phenol with formaldehyde - bakelite). On the other hand, it potentially includes several subordinate clauses and can be expanded into a complex sentence (an artificial resin that is obtained when phenol is combined with formaldehyde). It wins in comparison with the word in that it does not require a new linguistic form, but is freely built on known lexical and grammatical material, in comparison with a complex sentence - in its compactness. Thus, in a sentence they actually operate not so much with individual words as with word complexes, which leads to a certain weakening of the level of a complex sentence. From here it becomes clear why in scientific speech, compared with other styles, a grammatically simple sentence turns out to be complicated in composition and connections, and complex sentences are not as numerous and not as complex in their basic architectonics as might be expected, given the complexity of the thing being expressed. content. Thus, it turns out that on average there are almost as many simple sentences in scientific speech as there are complex ones (49.7% and 50.3% according to M.N. Kozhina. See, for example: Stylistic Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language / Ed. . M.N. Kozhina. - M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2003. - 188 p.), moreover medium size a simple sentence is about 20 words, and a complex sentence is about 30. In addition, among complex sentences, sentences with one subordinate clause absolutely predominate (72.4%).

It turns out, therefore, that the syntactic organization of speech is subordinated to the task of sequential accumulation of information, which (as we will see later) is then collapsed, and this makes it possible for thinking to move from simple to complex, to dynamically operate with more and more capacious content units.

In complex sentences used in scientific texts, there are often compound subordinating conjunctions that are characteristic of book speech in general (due to the fact that; due to the fact that; due to the fact that; despite the fact that; meanwhile, then, as, etc.) , allowing more accurately than simple causal, concessional, temporary conjunctions to identify the relationships between the parts of a complex sentence.

To combine parts of the text, in particular, paragraphs that have a close logical connection with each other, words and combinations are used that indicate this connection: therefore, at the same time, first, then, thus, so, therefore, etc. By means of connecting parts of the text Introductory words and combinations also serve: firstly, secondly, finally, on the one hand, on the other hand, etc., indicating the sequence of presentation.

In general, syntactic structures in scientific speech are more complex and richer in lexical material than in literary prose.

From syntactic features Scientific style should note the tendency towards complex constructions. Such structures represent a convenient form of expressing a complex system of scientific concepts, establishing relationships between them, such as generic and specific concepts: cause and effect, evidence and conclusions, etc. For this purpose, sentences with homogeneous members and a generalizing word are often used: a broader, generic concept is revealed with the help of narrower species concepts.

Based on the possession or non-possession of this meaning, phrases are divided into:

1) phrases containing a predicate, or indicating by their formal composition an omitted predicate, or, finally, consisting of one predicate; all such phrases can be called sentences;
2) phrases containing two or more predicates or two or more phrases indicating by their formal composition omitted predicates, or consisting of only predicates; such phrases can be called complex wholes (a more common term is “complex sentence”);
3) phrases that do not contain a predicate and are not themselves predicates.

When constructing sentences, the authors’ tendency to use fewer verbs and more nouns is noticeable: in scientific literature, the names of concepts are more common, and the names of actions are less common. In particular, this affects the choice of the form of the predicate: instead of a verb, a verbal-nominal construction is used, consisting of a noun with the same root as the verb and another verb that has a weakened lexical meaning: testing of a new machine is being carried out (cf.: a new machine is being tested); calculating devices are used (cf.: calculating devices are used); What follows is a list of signs (cf.: the signs are listed below); there is an increase in temperature (cf.: temperature rises); growth occurs (cf.: grows); there is an increase (cf.: increases); make calculations (cf.: calculate).

Widely used in scientific works adjectives. Clarifying the content of a concept by indicating its various features and thereby performing a terminological function. For example, A.E. Fersman in the book “Entertaining Mineralogy” points out the many shades of green in which the stones are painted: golden green, emerald green, pale green, bluish green, dense green, grayish green, dirty -green, bluish-green, bright green, etc.

The language of science and technology also has a number of grammatical features. In the field of morphology, this is not the use of brighter variant forms, which corresponds to the principle of economy linguistic means.

There are two main types of dictionaries based on their content: encyclopedic and linguistic. The purpose of the description in a linguistic dictionary is to provide information not about the designated object itself, but about the linguistic unit (its meaning, compatibility, etc.), but the nature of the information provided by the dictionary varies depending on the type of linguistic dictionary.

The object of description of linguistic (language) dictionaries is linguistic units (words, word forms, morphemes). In such a dictionary, a word (word form, morpheme) can be characterized from different sides, depending on the goals, volume and tasks of the dictionary: from the side of semantic content, word formation, spelling, spelling, correct use.

Most people have to deal with only a few “classical” types of dictionaries: explanatory ones, which one turns to when wanting to find out the meaning of some (usually incomprehensible) word; bilingual; spelling and spelling, in which they inquire about how

correctly write or pronounce this or that word; and perhaps

etymological. In reality, the variety of dictionary types is much greater. Almost all of them are presented in the Russian lexicographical tradition and are accessible to the Russian reader.

The following linguistic dictionaries are distinguished:

From the point of view of vocabulary selection.

Thesaurus-type dictionaries

Dictionaries in which vocabulary is selected according to certain parameters

by area of use

colloquial

dialectal

terminological

poetic vocabulary

historical perspective

archaisms

historicisms

neologisms

origin

foreign words

internationalisms

characterization of word types

abbreviations

onomastic

occasionalisms

From the point of view of disclosing individual aspects (parameters) of the word

etymological

grammatical

spelling

orthoepic

dictionaries of function words

From the point of view of revealing systemic relationships between words

nesting

derivational

homonymous

paronymic dictionaries (plan of expressions)

synonymous, antonymic dictionaries (content plan).

from the point of view of the choice of unit of description

combinations

phraseological units

From the point of view of describing a separate diachronic section

historical

different eras of modern language

From a functional point of view

by frequency

frequency

rare words

by stylistic use

epithets

comparisons

expressive vocabulary

according to standard characteristics

difficulties

correctness

In the direction of presentation of the material

based on the form

reverse

based on content

ideographic

thematic

6. Concept, structure and marking system of the dictionary

Every dictionary is characterized by a certain concept concerning the type of volume of the dictionary and the development of various lexicographic parameters in it, i.e. selection of words and their aspects explained in the dictionary. The concept of a dictionary is either implicit in the structure of the dictionary itself or explained explicitly in the introductory article to it. The reflection of different lexicographic parameters in a particular dictionary is determined by the specifics of the language, the lexicographic tradition of the corresponding country, the type and purpose of the dictionary and the views of a given lexicographer.

When compiling a dictionary, the problem of selection arises, i.e. the relationship between the information given and the general knowledge of native speakers. In terms of volume and selection of processing units (nomenclature), a dictionary can be extensive (trying to cover the maximum number of units) and selective (limiting the selection depending on the volume and purpose of the dictionary). The selection of words and information about them are based on text analysis of oral speech samples that the lexicographer models from existing dictionaries and grammars, as well as on the compilers’ own linguistic experience.

The arrangement of words in the dictionary can come from the form (alphabetical nested mixed) or from the content (by common meanings - in ideographic and other dictionaries).

Linguistic dictionaries differ in the way they organize material. The most common is the alphabetical way of arranging words (this principle is presented in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language”, edited by D. I. Ushakov, etc.). The dictionary can be organized according to the nest principle, when one dictionary entry interprets not a word, but the entire word-formation nest ("Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dahl). “The Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov is built on a semi-clustered principle: those derived words “in which a new meaning is created only in connection with the belonging of the derived word to a different grammatical category compared to the generating word” are placed in one dictionary entry.

Dictionaries built according to alphabetical and nested principles interpret the meaning of a word in the direction “from word to concept.” There are dictionaries where the meaning is revealed in the reverse order (“from concept to word”): the words in them are grouped around a certain concept (dictionaries of synonyms, the dictionary “Lexical basis of the Russian language”, compiled by P. N. Denisov, V. V. Morkovkin, etc.)

In order to strengthen the principle of normativity in the assessment of linguistic facts in the Dictionary - in accordance with the types of heading units (see § 8) - a system of functional pome t, which is a kind of stylistic commentary.

First of all, these are marks that characterize the oral form of the modern Russian language:

decomposition(colloquial) - with words used in the process of casual, informal communication in both everyday and business settings;

up-down(colloquially reduced) - with words characterized by verbal negligence and rude or rude expression;

local(local) - with words characterized not only by their use in a certain territory, but also carrying something social in themselves, and therefore often signaling a sufficient stylistic decline and even being outside the literary norm;

people's poet(folk poetic) - with words associated with folk poetry and still retaining its flavor.

The listed marks are given either in the heading part of the dictionary entry (if they characterize the heading unit as a whole), or with its individual meanings and their shades. Professional vocabulary, used in speech by representatives of various professions, trades and crafts, is not marked in the form of a special mark: it is either equated to colloquial vocabulary, i.e. has a litter colloquial, or is accompanied by a special comment in parentheses at the end of the interpretation, thus being its component, for example: (in the speech of athletes), (in the speech of hunters), etc.

Special vocabulary, which is quite often found in the speech of specialists and is widely represented in the modern language due to the massive development of scientific and technical terminology, also does not have a separate label, but, like professional vocabulary, is accompanied by appropriate comments, for example: (in medicine), (in printing ), etc.

Any language can be divided into stylistic levels of use of certain words of this language, since the semantic coloring of a particular word is determined by its belonging to a certain layer of vocabulary. Contextual, or thematic, classification of words is closely related to the definition and delimitation of various contingents of words according to different areas of application of the language: words of general literature, specifically book or, conversely, familiar colloquial, slang, dialectal, poetic, scientific and technical in general and specific to individual specific branches of science and technology, etc. Within the thematic areas of vocabulary, it is important to note which words belong to a general literary model, which are specifically poetic, which are technical, etc. But language is a living substance that is constantly developing over time, and under its influence, acquiring more and more new ones means of expression. In this regard, it is sometimes difficult to clearly distinguish the sphere of use of a particular word, because words move from one sphere to another and can occupy a more or less uncertain position, but a fundamental distinction between words belonging to different spheres is necessary, since otherwise the system of vocabulary of a given language will be presented in a wrong way. The difficulties encountered in such a classification can be illustrated by the following example: the words dog dog and cat cat can, theoretically speaking, be considered as zoological terms. However, for speakers these are already ordinary words, the use of which in everyday conversation and other styles is quite normal. On the contrary, if we take the name of an extinct animal, for example, ichthyosaurus ichthyosaur, then it will act as an undoubted special term. Regarding words like elephant elephant and tiger tiger, then with such a classification they will apparently be located somewhere in the middle between commonly used words and special terms, and their exact place will largely depend on the degree general culture society. One can be sure, for example, that Old English words with meanings tiger And elephant, undoubtedly belonged to a purely special area of the vocabulary of Old English and were in no way generally used.

But we are primarily interested in the sphere to which words characteristic of everyday communication can be attributed. In this case, one should take into account the classification of words developed by L.S. Barkhudarov, which will allow us to determine the scope of the language of everyday communication. He divides words according to three main characteristics:

1. Stylistic characteristics of the word.

2. Word register.

3. Emotional coloring of the word.

In the first section, Barkhudarov identifies the stylistic characteristics of words, and the language of everyday communication is included in everyday colloquial sphere, i.e. these are words used in oral speech, in an “informal” situation, and they are not used, as a rule, in writing.

By word register L. S. Barkhudarov means certain conditions or situation of communication that determine the choice of certain linguistic units. That is, first of all, it is important here composition of participants in the communication process(certain words can only be defined when talking with close friends, relatives, etc., while other linguistic units are used mainly in communication with unfamiliar people or those higher in official or social status.). Secondly, the use of a particular word is determined by the conditions in which the process of linguistic communication takes place, i.e. When communicating with friends or relatives in an official setting, do not talk to them in the same way as in a home environment. Barkhudarov identifies 5 main registers: 1) familiar (blockhead, brat, crack);

2) casual (string bag, pump up, tipsy); 3) neutral (table, chair, person); 4) formal(dismiss, marriage, arrival); 5) sublime(path, taste, brow).

Accordingly, for this work, words related to the first, second, and also, to some extent, to the fifth register are of interest, since these words are included in that part of the vocabulary of a foreign language that can be called “non-equivalent”, although the vocabulary of the fifth register and is not household. Among these words there are often realities. Words belonging to the third and fourth register have equivalents in the TL and usually do not pose difficulties for translation.

The emotional connotation of a word means the emotional attitude of the speaker to the object or concept called by the word, and this attitude, in turn, can be either negative, positive, or neutral. Words with negative or positive emotional connotations are important for our work, since words such as sycophant, sing-along, rabble having a negative emotional connotation, or words with a positive emotional connotation such as doggie, closet, friend etc. can be classified as the language of everyday communication, and pose difficulties for translation.

Speaking about the language of everyday communication, first of all we should outline the area covered this concept- the language of everyday communication. In this case, we are primarily interested in vocabulary, as well as grammar and, first of all, syntax.

The language of everyday communication includes huge layers of vocabulary, which can be divided into three main levels.

Vocabulary that characterizes the characteristics of a particular era;

Vocabulary characterizing social relations;

Vocabulary characterizing cultural relations.

We can consider the above levels both synchronically and diachronically.

Each level requires more detailed consideration.

The first level includes such areas of everyday communication as clothing, food, household items, and communication.

The second level involves the classification of social relations existing in society. For example, children are parents, elder is younger, boss is subordinate, people belonging to the highest strata of society are people of low class.

The third level is customs, traditions, national holidays, rituals.

But not only vocabulary constitutes the sphere of the language of everyday communication. Speaking about this layer of language, one should also take into account grammar and, first of all, syntax, with the help of which the author can express the reduced color of communication and the brightly emotional coloring that is characteristic of the language of everyday communication.

So, for example, in the English language there are such syntactic constructions as elliptical sentences (E. g. Want to go with us?), the “let’s go” construction (E. g. There's a man wants to see you.), non-conjunctive subordinate clauses conditions (E. g. I see him, I "ll talk to him), etc. are clear indicators of a familiar and relaxed register.

Also, it should be noted that when translating literary texts containing realities or culturally determined phenomena directly related to the language of everyday communication, it is necessary to pay attention not only to translation techniques, but also to the stylistic analysis of such texts.

The word is a material given of artistic speech. Taking part in the creation of a synthetic image, the word becomes a form of the image. But at the same time, being an element, a component of this image, it acts as an element, a component of the content, as a primary verbal image. Through the word it is embodied, and the word creates the sensual clarity of the image. It is thanks to participation in the creation of an image that the artistic word becomes an aesthetic category.

Extraordinary transformations occur with an ordinary word of the national language as soon as it enters a literary text. On the one hand, it retains lexical, grammatical, phonetic, and valence properties; on the other hand, it acquires the qualities of an element of art.

Any autosemantic (full-valued) word of a developed language has, as A. A. Potebnya said, “proximate” and “further” meanings. In other words, the word has a conventionally fixed semantic structure, objectively registered in the dictionary and the same for all native speakers, and at the same time acts as a signal that generates purely individual associations, i.e. represents a certain associative structure, different for individuals. The first, which determines the meaning of the word, denotes a concept and is socially conscious and universal in nature, the second indicates the scope of the expressed concept, which changes depending on the complex of personal properties of the speaker (education, experience, etc.), and therefore has an individual character.

Speaking about the dual nature of the word, i.e. about the denotation and connotation that almost every word has, it is worth mentioning the concept updating, developed by representatives of the Prague School.

Update - such a use of linguistic means that attracts attention in itself and is perceived as unusual, devoid of automatism, deautomatized. Automation a linguistic unit in speech in this case is its use in one initial contextually predictable meaning, updating - its acquisition of additional connotation, i.e., violating the predictability of the contextual implementation of the original meanings, the language unit is necessarily updated and acquires additional capacity.

The actualization of the potential capabilities of a language unit occurs only in a specially organized context. One of the most common principles of such an organization is the principle of repetition.

Units of all levels of language can participate in actualization, although with to varying degrees completeness of coverage, frequency and functional load, which largely depends on the type and genre of the literary text.

Modern style highlights such concepts as usus And norm. Uzus- these are all possible elements of the language as a whole, and norm- only those elements of this language that are customary to be used in it.

The main source of imagery is lexical level. It is the word, in the entire complex of its formal and content characteristics, with its associative potentials, the ability to designate any shades of thought and feeling, that turns out to be the most labile unit for transmitting additional information.

It is important to note the fact that in everyday communication a person does not always use words related to the norm of the language, since the process of everyday communication itself involves the use of linguistic units with a reduced stylistic connotation and a pronounced emotional connotation.

We can find in the works of such scientists as I.R. Galperin and I.V. Arnold, etc., numerous detailed definitions of the levels of language, into which the layer of vocabulary that interests us can be included.

I. R. Galperin: “...the whole of the word stock of the English language as being divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer.

The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.”

“The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1. common colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professional words; 5. dialectal words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages.”(27, pp. 64-65).

The above classification quite clearly defines the level of language, which includes words that form a layer of everyday vocabulary and the language of everyday communication.

But we should forget that neutral level is the main source of words for both the literary and colloquial levels of the language, because this level does not have a special stylistic coloring in comparison with the latter.

Words belonging to the colloquial level always have a brighter emotional connotation than words of other levels, and it is because of this that colloquial words are often used for stylistic purposes to enhance the impression on the reader or listener.

I. V. Arnold in his book “Stylistics of the Modern English Language” talks about a new direction in modern stylistics - linguistylist. This direction was formed by the French scientist Charles Bally. Linguistics compares the national norm with special subsystems characteristic of different spheres of communication, called functional styles and dialects and studies the elements of language from the point of view of the ability to express and evoke emotions, additional associations and evaluation (28, p.79).

It is this branch of stylistics that is important when translating fiction, in which culturally determined phenomena associated with the sphere of the language of everyday communication are often encountered.

You should also take into account lexical stylistics, which in turn studies the stylistic functions of vocabulary and considers the interaction of direct and figurative meanings. Lexical stylistics studies the different components of the contextual meanings of words, and in particular their expressive, emotional and evaluative potential and their attribution to different functional and stylistic layers. Dialect words, terms, slang, colloquial words and expressions, neologisms, archaisms, foreign words, etc. are studied from the point of view of their interaction with different contextual conditions.

Above, the features of the language of everyday communication at the lexical level were outlined, and now we should pay attention to the style of colloquial speech, which, despite its occasional use, is very often used in fiction, but at the same time we should not forget that colloquial speech in the form in which it is presented in literature, is not identical to oral colloquial speech, since the tasks of the author, his own plans and visions of the work greatly influence colloquial speech. It is undergoing significant transformations.

The characteristic features of colloquial speech stem from the conditions of everyday communication. Speech is not premeditated, it involves direct two-way contact, and dialogue predominates. Additional expressive means are used (gesture, facial expressions, display, intonation). The situation serves as context. Availability feedback allows the speaker not to strive for greater accuracy and completeness of expression; he knows that if he is misunderstood, he will immediately notice it and can complement or explain what was said. This circumstance, as well as the stereotypic nature of situations, allows us to make do with a smaller vocabulary and use ambiguous words and words of broad semantics, as well as use clichés. And in syntax, make extensive use of incomplete sentences.

An equally important role in fiction when using the language of everyday communication in it is played by lexical content of vocabulary. Here, a special role belongs to expressive and stylistically colored vocabulary, primarily standard and reduced colloquial. Certain layers of it are used by socially or professionally limited groups of speakers, others do not have such restrictions. Reduced colloquial vocabulary includes vulgarisms.

But the concept of vulgarism is historically extremely variable. Moral and ethical standards Societies change, and with them the idea of the permissibility and impermissibility of certain expressions changes. For example, back at the beginning of the century, words such as damn, damned were either replaced by the euphemisms darn, darned, or truncated to the initial letter.

The use in fiction is also fundamentally unlimited. slang. Slang is a vernacular, the boundaries and composition of which are extremely changeable and fragile. The high emotionality of slang units, on the one hand, ensures their easy penetration into colloquial speech, and on the other hand, contributes to their rapid depreciation and obsolescence. Slang is constantly updated.

However, slang has its own core, which is much less susceptible to the influence of time. The artistic dialogue draws its main borrowings from its reserves. The introduction of slang into dialogue does not mean its complete switching only to colloquial vocabulary. A few units are enough to give the entire statement the necessary shade of familiarity and rudeness. A certain primitiveness of tastes and judgments, a low culture of communication.

E.g. I"m the first one saw her. Out at Santa Anita. She"s hanging around the track every day. I"m interested: professionally. I found out she"s some jock"s regular, she"s living with the shrimp. [T. Capote]. In this excerpt, the general impression of underdeveloped, reduced-spoken speech is created by a whole complex of means: truncation of syntactic structures, changes in verb tense, as well as some words of professional jargon and slang.

IN conversational style It is customary to distinguish three types: literary-colloquial, familiar-colloquial And vernacular. The last two also have regional features, as well as features depending on the gender and age of the speaker. Some scientists believe that vernacular cannot be considered a style, since style presupposes choice, and those who use vernacular have no choice and speak this way because they cannot speak otherwise. In reality, the situation is different: often people use colloquial speech with some interlocutors, but literary-conversational style with others. Thus, they use the colloquial forms ain"t, he don"t not because they do not know others, but because these forms are used by their friends or acquaintances. In another setting, they quite correctly use the forms isn't, aren't, doesn't.

Thus, the main feature of functional styles is not the choice, but the specificity of the sphere of use.

Based on the above facts, we come to the following conclusion: the level of conversational style includes words with a pronounced emotional connotation, which, in turn, create difficulties for translation, since the discrepancy between language units in the FL and TL on stylistic and connotative grounds gives rise to difficulties in the translation process related to the correct selection of the equivalent in the TL for a particular word denoting reality in the FL.

It is the language of everyday communication that is characterized by the fact that it is not the usual, but the occasional meanings of words that predominate in it, i.e. a word belonging, for example, to a neutral style acquires in the mouth of the speaker a completely new, pronounced meaning, often due to the context, in which it is used.

Speaking about the features of the language of everyday communication, one should also take into account the cultural factor influencing the formation of this layer of language, since the language of a people cannot develop and function in a break with the culture of this people. It is culture that determines the development of language, since it is part of culture and, therefore, forms all the main distinctive features of language, which are called realities or culturally determined phenomena.

So what is culture and why is it so important for translators?

Word culture has multiple meanings in all European languages, but one should still try to give the closest meaning of this word in relation to its anthropological or ethnographic meaning.

Culture- the totality of achievements of human society in industrial, social and spiritual life (11, p. 12). This definition is given by the academic dictionary of the Russian language.

Definition of the word culture in English: Culture- the way of life, especially general customs and beliefs of a particular group of people at a particular time.

In turn language- a mirror of culture, it reflects not only real world surrounding a person, not only the real conditions of his life, but also the social consciousness of the people, their mentality, national character, way of life, traditions, customs, morality, value system, attitude, vision of the world.

In other words language- treasury, pantry, treasury of culture. It stores cultural values - in vocabulary, in grammar, in idioms, in proverbs, sayings, in folklore, in fiction, in forms of written and oral speech.

Thus, children learn, along with language, the generalized cultural experience of previous generations, because with the help of language, the personality of a person, a native speaker, is formed, his vision of the world, mentality, and attitude towards people are formed.

At the end of this section, we come to the conclusion that the language of everyday communication, due to its specific features, differs significantly from literary or poetic language, and even being derived from the neutral level of language, it still has a number of features, which in turn are formed under influenced by the culture of a given people. And due to the above factors, the language of everyday communication creates difficulties for translation, because realities related to this layer of language do not have an equivalent in the TL. But to solve this problem, various translation techniques are used, ensuring not so much equivalence as the adequacy of this kind of cultural names, because When transferring realities from a foreign language to a TL, it is important not to preserve the form of a language unit, but its content, to make its meaning clear to the reader or listener who is a native speaker of the TL.

The next paragraph will be devoted to the problem of accuracy and adequacy in the translation of this kind of realities.

Modern official business (hereinafter OD) style is a functional variety of the Russian literary language used in the field public relations. Business speech serves as a means of communication between states, the state with individual and society as a whole; a means of communication between enterprises, institutions, organizations; a means of official communication between people in production and in the service sector. It is implemented in the texts of laws, orders, decrees, orders, agreements, acts, certificates, certificates, powers of attorney, in business correspondence institutions. The oral form of official business speech is represented by speeches and reports at meetings and conferences, judicial speech, office telephone conversations, and oral orders.

The general extralinguistic and actual linguistic features of this style include the following:

1) accuracy, detail of presentation;

2) standardization of presentation;

3) the obligatory-prescriptive nature of the presentation (voluntariness).

Indeed, the language of laws requires, first of all, accuracy, not allowing any discrepancies. The standardization of the presentation is manifested in the fact that the heterogeneous phenomena of life in a business style fit into a limited number of standard forms (questionnaire, certificate, instructions, statement, business letter, etc.). Business speech is impersonal, stereotypical, and lacks an emotional element. A specific property of business speech is the expression of will. Voluntariness in texts is expressed semantically (choice of words) and grammatically. So, in management documentation we constantly encounter the first person forms of the verb (I ask, I propose, I command, I congratulate), with modal forms, must (must, must, follows, is proposed).

LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF OFFICIAL BUSINESS STYLE

Vocabulary and phraseology. OD speech tends to be extremely generalized in semantic terms. OA speech gives preference to generic designations with broad and poor semantics, with a limited number of semantic features: premises (cf.: apartment, workshop, hangar, lobby, shelter, monastery, apartments), person (cf.: individual, person, man, girl, guy, small, owner, tenant, passerby), parent (cf.: mother , father, father, mother, ancestor).

Word formation and morphological features. The word-formation and morphological features of the OD style are inextricably linked with its general characteristics. Of the conjugated forms, the present tense forms are most often used (usually defined as the present of the prescription). The verb form does not denote a permanent or ordinary action, but an action that the law requires to be performed under certain conditions: "The accused is guaranteed the right to defense." When naming a person in the OD style, nouns are used that designate the person based on a characteristic determined by some action or attitude, which is intended to accurately indicate the “roles” of the participants in the situation: defendant, tenant, tenant, reader, guardian, adoptive parent, plaintiff, witness, etc. Nouns denoting positions and titles are used in the masculine form even when they refer to female persons: police officer Smirnov, defendant Proshina and the like. Among the word-formation models of nouns, verbal formations are widely represented, including na-nie, sometimes with a prefix and non-: non-compliance, non-recognition, decision, execution. Stringing nouns with the suffix -nie can be considered a clear sign of the OD style: “Preparation for a crime is the search and adaptation of means or instruments or the deliberate creation of conditions for the commission of crimes...” The OA style is rich in constructions with a verb that takes on purely grammatical functions. The number of verbs that act as grammatically supporting words and serve to express almost only grammatical meanings amounts to many dozens: conduct (campaigning, installation, observation, negotiations, preparation, searches, development, investigation...); give (consultation, appointment, justification, explanation, refutation, refusal, assessment, instruction, permission, clarification, order, recommendation, consent, instruction...); Extremely characteristic of official speech are the methods of composite word formation - stem and word composition, fusion, as a result of which in the lexicon of a business language two (or more) root formations are represented by a very extensive collection: marriage, crime, taxation, land use, passenger transportation, disability, tenant, cultural and entertainment, low-income. To an even greater extent, the need for semantically clear names is met by the phrase; the number of OA style names created in this way amounts to many thousands of units: vehicles, wages, official, confectionery, securities.

Syntax. Of the syntactic constructions that have the coloring of the OD style, we note phrases that include complex denominative prepositions: in part, along the line, on the subject, in order to avoid, as well as a combination with the preposition by, expressing a temporary meaning: upon return, upon reaching. Simple sentences in OA style they are often complicated by homogeneous members, the number of which can reach 8-10 or more, due to the need to exhaust the subject of the message. As in the scientific style, passive construction and complex sentences with a conjunctive connection of parts are widely used here, and complex sentences with a conditional clause occupy a large place. The syntax of the OD style is known for the use of complex combinations with several dependent components in the form of the genitive case (G.p.) without a preposition. Examples: To apply public pressure measures, for the purpose of wide publicity of the work of the Ministry of Higher Education...

Thus, the process of standardization of business speech covers all levels of language - vocabulary, morphology, and syntax. As a result, a stable speech stereotype is formed, perceived by speakers as a special, functionally oriented type of linguistic norming of texts, i.e. special functional style.

The coloring of the OD style is possessed, first of all, by the lexical and phraseological units of the language (notify, forward, plaintiff, protocol, housing rental, prosecutorial supervision, one-time allowance). The use of the name “bureaucracy” in relation to this vocabulary and phraseology in all cases seems unfair, since this name has a negative emotional connotation. It is more expedient to distinguish between two concepts and, accordingly, two terms: “vocabulary with the coloring of OD style” and “clericalism”. The first name reflects the place of the corresponding layer of vocabulary in the system of general literary language, its functional and stylistic coloring. The second name, "clericalism", refers to the same lexical units, but when they are used in speech with another stylistic coloring, for example, in colloquial speech, or in the language of a work of fiction. If they are used unintentionally, by accident, then their use should be regarded as a violation of the stylistic norm, as a speech error. The OA style itself, like the scientific one, is alien to emotional and expressive coloring.

A linguistic norm is a historically determined set of commonly used linguistic means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as the most suitable in a specific historical period. A special case of a language norm is a literary norm.

A literary norm is a norm that determines the exemplary use of linguistic means. A literary norm is distinguished by a number of properties: it is uniform and universally binding for all speakers of a given language; it is conservative and aimed at preserving the means and rules for their use accumulated in a given society by previous generations. At the same time, it is not static, but, firstly, changes over time and, secondly, provides for the dynamic interaction of different methods of linguistic expression depending on the conditions of communication.

According to their scope, literary language norms are divided into general (language norms) and specific (speech norms). General rules apply to any statements, and specific rules apply to works of certain types of literature, for example, poetic works, documents, etc.

The general norms include:

Orthoepic norms of oral speech, which are divided into phonetic (norms for pronouncing words and phrases) and prosodic (norms for constructing intonation), for example, stress in the word provision on the third syllable;

Morphological norms for word construction, for example, plural from the word officer - officers with emphasis on the third syllable;

Word formation norms, for example, the formation from a noun of the condition of the verb to condition with a sound and, accordingly, a letter O root, not condition;

Lexical norms for the use of words and set phrases in certain meanings, for example, the word iconic means “relating to a sign, having the function of a sign,” and the word significant means “having a significant meaning.”

Logical-syntactic norms for constructing phrases and sentences that regulate the correct semantic connection of the elements of statements.

Actually syntactic norms that regulate stable formal connections of words in phrases and sentences;

Spelling rules governing the spelling of words;

Punctuation rules that regulate the division of sentences and ensure a correct understanding of the structure of the statement.

Private norms include the rules for constructing documents, public speaking, scientific essays, letters, works of art, etc. Particular norms of prose speech include, for example, logical rules of argumentation, rules for constructing statements, periods and figures of speech.

In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:

1) norms of written and oral forms of speech;

2) norms of written speech;

3) norms of oral speech.

The norms common to oral and written speech include:

Lexical norms;

Grammar rules;

Stylistic norms.

Special norms of written speech are:

Spelling standards;

Punctuation standards.

Applicable only to oral speech:

Pronunciation standards;

Stress norms;

Intonation norms.

Norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and text construction. Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are norms that determine the correctness of choosing a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language. Lexical standards are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books. Grammar norms are divided into word-formation, morphological and syntactic. Derivational norms determine the order of combining parts of a word and forming new words. Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). Syntactic norms prescribe correct construction basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences. These norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, relating parts of a sentence to each other using the grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement. Stylistic norms determine the use of linguistic means in accordance with the laws of the genre, the features of the functional style and, more broadly, the purpose and conditions of communication. Spelling standards- these are the rules for naming words in writing. They include rules for designating sounds with letters, rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, rules for the use of capital letters and graphic abbreviations. Punctuation standards determine the use of punctuation marks. Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation.

Documented information must be presented as clearly, clearly and unambiguously as possible - this is the basic requirement of written business communication. Consequently, special requirements are imposed on the language means and style of presentation of information in the document:

unambiguousness of the words and terms used;

neutral tone of presentation;

compliance with lexical, grammatical, stylistic norms that ensure accuracy and clarity of presentation;

semantic sufficiency and conciseness of the text.

Failure to comply with these requirements, on the one hand, makes it difficult to work with documents, and on the other, deprives or reduces their legal and practical significance.

The semantic accuracy of a written statement is largely determined by the accuracy of word usage, that is, the use of words according to their meanings. A word in the text of a document should be used only in one meaning, accepted in official business writing. In this regard, difficulties in use can be caused by paronymous words (words that are similar in sound, related, words of the same root, but differ in meaning).

It is highly undesirable to use it in texts business documentation professionalism. Professionalisms arise in two cases: when a special field of activity does not have its own terminology (for example, hunting, fishing, crafts, etc.) and when the word becomes an unofficial substitute for the term (for example, transplantation instead of transplantation; gimbal instead of gimbal device, etc.). The scope of application of professionalisms is, as a rule, oral speech, their use in written business communication is a stylistic mistake.

When using terms in business documentation, it is necessary to ensure that the term is understandable to both the author and the addressee.

When using polysemantic terms, it should be taken into account that in each specific case they are used only in one of their meanings. If the same concept is denoted by several terms, synonymy of terms arises.

Synonymous terms have different sounds, but the same meaning (for example, the terms “questionnaire” and “questionnaire”).

There is also such a phenomenon as homonymy of terms, when two or more terms coincide in sound, but differ in meaning, that is, they denote different concepts. Among outdated vocabulary, two categories of words stand out: archaisms and historicisms.

The use of neologisms is not allowed - words denoting new concepts and objects are divided into two groups: neologisms that have become terms and neologisms-professionalism or words of professional jargon. The use of new words in the text of a document should be based on an assessment of whether this word is a term or names a concept that already has a stable designation in the language.

Borrowed words are words that came into the Russian language from other languages of the world. Words are often borrowed along with new concepts and objects. The use of borrowed vocabulary in many cases causes difficulties.

A feature of business style is the use of so-called Universal words - words with an erased, uncertain meaning.

Long words and phrases make them difficult to use, so in oral and written speech, in order to compress speech, abbreviations are used to denote concepts.

There are two main types of abbreviated words: lexical abbreviations (abbreviations) - complex abbreviated words formed by removing part of their constituent letters or from parts of words: CIS, Moskapremont, deputy, special forces, etc.; graphic abbreviations - abbreviated designations of words used in writing: Mr., point, zh.-d., sq.m., l, ex. etc.

One of the features of business speech is the widespread use of language formulas - stable (template, standard) language expressions used unchanged. Their presence in business speech is a consequence of the regulation of official relations, the repetition of management situations and the thematic limitations of business speech:

“We inform you that in the period from... to...” “It has been established that in the period from... to...” “We inform you that as of...”

In official business writing, rules for the arrangement of definitions have developed. Thus, agreed definitions (expressed by adjectives) are placed before the word being defined, and inconsistent ones (expressed by a phrase) are placed after it. For example: current issue, wholesale market; a matter of paramount importance, the wholesale market.

When constructing phrases, it should be taken into account that most words in written business speech are used with only one word or with a limited group of words. For example: order - issued; control is assigned.

The main requirement for the information richness of a document is an appropriate amount of information included, necessary and sufficient to implement a communicative task - to convince, motivate, attract attention, express disagreement, etc. Redundancy and heterogeneity of information included in a document makes it difficult to perceive, and therefore reduces its effectiveness and persuasiveness.

7. Extralinguistic features of the document

1. Precision and clarity. The main requirement for the content of a document is its maximum accuracy and understandability (clarity). Accuracy of presentation presupposes an unambiguous understanding of the content set out in the document. The adequacy of the perception of the text by both the author of the document and its addressee is extremely important in business communication at all stages of management activity.

2. Collegiality, It is generally accepted that the determining factor in explaining the stylistic features of the text of a document is the status of the author. Regardless of who is the direct (technical) author of the document or its official author who signs the document, the addressee (sender) becomes a “collective subject” who also sends his official message to the “collective addressee” ( recipient). The author-compiler of the document must bear personal responsibility for the information presented in it.

Majority official documents endorsed and signed by several specific responsible persons. This also emphasizes both the collegial nature of the document and the personal responsibility for the content of the document of each of those who signed it.

3. Addressability. Another important characteristic of documentary communication, as experts note, is the precise targeting of the document. The document is not written to everyone or anyone at all, but to a specific organization or a specific circle of organizations, specific officials or employees. There are no addressless documents. This general feature official business style of speech, distinguishing it from other styles.

4. Thematic limitation. A significant factor in documentary communication that influences the nature of management information is the repetition and thematic limitation of management situations, which leads to the use of the same types of documents, the same linguistic means to make a specific decision.

5. Timeliness and relevance. The effectiveness of management activities in the system of state power is only high when timely and current information. Therefore, the document must contain in its content the latest, most important and relevant information for the organization. The author of the document must reflect information that has legal force at present.

6. Reliability and objectivity. This requirement means that a business message must reflect the actual state of affairs and give an unbiased, dispassionate assessment of events.

7. Persuasiveness. Reasonedness and persuasiveness of information are associated with the task of inducing the addressee to perform or not perform certain actions. The effectiveness of a document depends on how substantiated it is

8. Completeness. This requirement implies that the document must contain all the information necessary to make an informed decision.

9. Conciseness and conciseness. It would seem that this requirement contradicts the previous one. In fact, these are interconnected extralinguistic requirements. Conciseness and conciseness of presentation of the text of the document provides for the brevity of the presentation of the content, without unnecessary words and repetitions. But for the sake of brevity it is not permissible to exclude from the document important facts, numbers, information that allows you to make an adequate decision.

10. Neutrality. A neutral tone in document presentation is the norm for official business communication. Management information is official in nature, which indicates the business basis of the relationship between the sender and the addressee, emphasizes their non-personal nature, the presence of a certain distance between them.