Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….3

The main problems in interpersonal relationships between people....4

Communication is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities.

The main problems in people's interpersonal relationships.

Problems of interpersonal relationships between people occur quite often in practice. psychological counseling, and if the client does not directly talk about them, expressing complaints only about other personal problems, this does not mean that in fact he does not have problems with interpersonal relationships.

In most cases of life, the opposite is also true: if a client is concerned about the state of affairs in the field of interpersonal relationships, then almost always one can also find personal problems related to his character. In addition, the methods of practical solution of these and other problems are largely similar to each other.

In addition, there is a significant difference in the ways of solving personal and interpersonal problems. If personal problems are usually associated with the need for a radical change in a person’s inner world, then interpersonal problems– with the need to change mainly only the external forms of human behavior that affect the people around him.

Psychological problems related to a person’s relationships with other people can be different in nature. They may be related to a person’s personal and business relationships with the people around him, and relate to relationships with people close to him and quite distant from him, for example, with relatives and strangers.

These problems may also have a pronounced age-related connotation, for example, they arise in the client’s relationships with peers or with people of another generation, younger or older than himself.

The problems of interpersonal relationships can also concern people of different sexes: women and men, both in monosex and heterosex social groups.

The multifaceted nature of these problems reflects the complexity of the actually existing system of human relationships.

Problems of the client’s personal relationships with people.

This group of problems primarily includes those that relate to the client’s relationships with those people who are approximately the same age as him and differ in age from each other by no more than two or three years.

A person’s psychological development gradually slows down with age, and the commonality of life experience, psychology and behavior of people becomes the main criterion for assessing them as peers.

Observations show that most often those who are over fifteen and under sixty years old turn to psychological consultation regarding problems in relationships with other people. As for the relationships of preschoolers, primary schoolchildren and older people with each other, they are less likely to cause concern among their participants and, moreover, have their own specific characteristics.

In preschool and primary school age, usually not yet serious problems in the relationships of children with peers, which would require increased attention and psychological counseling. In old age, relationships between people are usually limited to a narrow circle of relatives, acquaintances and friends with whom these relationships have been established for a long time and are more or less regulated. In addition, the relationships of older people with others are relatively easily resolved due to the extensive life experience accumulated by such people, and, therefore, the problems that arise with them are also relatively easily resolved without resorting to psychological counseling.

Lack of mutual sympathy in personal human relationships.

Show sympathy for your communication partner, trying to understand him even if he is clearly wrong. The client’s attitude in communicating with a partner should be as follows: at all costs, try to understand why at a given moment in time the partner behaves this way and not otherwise;

Try to meet your partner halfway as much as possible, yielding to him, demonstrating a sincere desire to take his needs and interests into account as much as possible.

The client usually complains that conflicts arise too often between close, significant people for him, and he is very worried about them, or he himself often finds himself involved in these conflicts against his will. At the same time, it often seems to the client that if it were not for him, then there would be much fewer conflicts between people significant to him.

There may be two different situations here that require different corrective actions on the part of the consulting psychologist.

In the first of the situations, he himself actually acts as a “bone of discord” between the conflicting parties (they, for example, can fight among themselves for his attention to themselves).

In the second situation, the client is not personally involved in the conflict, but his sincere desire to reconcile the conflicting parties and personal intervention in existing conflictual relationships in order to eliminate them does not lead to the desired effect or, on the contrary, gives rise to the opposite result: the conflict only intensifies from the client’s intervention.

In the first of the situations described above, the client can be recommended the following:

- firstly, in no case should you come to the defense of only one of the conflicting parties, or show greater favor to one side to the detriment of the other side. This will not make the conflict disappear, but can only intensify;

– secondly, try in every possible way to avoid showing any special feelings, positive or negative, towards only one of the conflicting parties;

– thirdly, try to make it clear to both parties to the conflict that a prerequisite for maintaining friendly relations between them and the client is the end of the conflict.

In the second situation, in order to eliminate the conflict that has arisen or to relieve its severity, it is necessary, first of all, to carefully analyze why the client’s personal intervention in the conflict between people significant to him does not lead to the desired result, that is, to the elimination of the conflict. Until an accurate and clear answer to this question is received, it is advisable to completely stop unsuccessful attempts to interfere with it.

Once a satisfactory answer to the question formulated above has been found, it is necessary to carefully think through and plan actions that, taking into account past failures, this time will lead to positive result, and experimentally test the corresponding actions in practice.

In this case, it is possible for the client to turn, in particular, to those forms of behavior that have already been discussed in relation to the first of the situations described above.

Conclusion.

Communication is of great importance in the formation human psyche, its development and the formation of reasonable, cultural behavior. Through communication with psychological developed people, thanks to ample opportunities for learning, a person acquires all his higher cognitive abilities and qualities. Through active communication with developed personalities, he himself turns into a personality.

Communication with adults is especially important for a child’s mental development. early stages ontogeny. At this time, he acquires all his human, mental and behavioral qualities almost exclusively through communication, since until the start of school, and even more definitely - until adolescence, he is deprived of the ability for self-education and self-education. The mental development of a child begins with communication. This is the first kind social activity, which arises in ontogenesis and thanks to which the baby receives the information necessary for its individual development. In communication, first through direct imitation (vicarious learning) , and then through verbal instructions (verbal learning) the child's basic life experience is acquired.

Communication constitutes the internal mechanism of joint activities of people, the basis of interpersonal relationships. The increasing role of communication and the importance of its study is due to the fact that in modern society, decisions are made much more often in direct, immediate communication between people, which were previously made, as a rule, by individual people.

List of used literature.

1. Andreeva psychology. - M: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1988.

2. Bodalev and the understanding of man by man. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1982.

3. Bodalev and communication: Selected works. - M.: Pedagogy, 1983.

4. Leontiev as an object of psychological research // Methodological problems of psychology / Responsible. ed. . - M.: Nauka, 1975. - 295 p.

5. Convoy relationship. - L.: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1979. Pankratov in disputes and their neutralization. - M.: Ros. ped. agency, 1996.

6. Problems of communication in psychology: Collection of articles / AN, Institute of Sociology.; Rep. ed. . - M.: Nauka, 1981.

7. Petrovskaya in communication: socio-psychological training. M., 1983.

8. Reznikov relationships // Modern psychology: A reference guide / Ed. . - M.: Infra-M, 1999.

9. Lunev become the master of the situation. The anatomy of effective communication. Guide practical psychologist/ IP RAS. - M., 1996.

10. Theoretical and methodological problems social psychology/Ed. And. M., 1977.

11. Shibutani T. Social psychology. M., 1968.

Introduction

In recent decades, all over the world, more and more new scientists have been involved in the development of a set of problems that make up the psychology of how people know each other. Each scientist is interested, as a rule, in separate and particular issues related to this large complex, but together they create the prerequisites for deep insight into the essence of the process of formation of knowledge of other people in a person, as well as for a true comprehension of the role of this knowledge in human behavior and activity . The general features of the formation of the image of another person and the concept of his personality are explored, the significance of a person’s gender, age, profession and belonging to a particular social community for the formation of knowledge about other people is clarified, typical mistakes that a person makes when assessing the people around him are identified, connections are traced between his knowledge of himself and his understanding of others. Many branches of psychological science are enriched with previously unknown facts, and practitioners receive additional opportunities for more effective management of the organization of relationships between people, optimization of the process of their communication in the sphere of work, study, and everyday life.

Speaking about the specificity of human cognition, it is also necessary to see that this cognition, as a rule, is associated with the establishment and maintenance of communications. Being a manifestation of such cognition, the images of other people and the generalized knowledge that a person develops about them constantly depends on the goals and nature of his communications with other people, and on these communications, in turn. The activity that brings people together, its content, progress and results always influences.

Main part

Feelings and Interpersonal Roles

It has often been noted that literary writers provide more convincing accounts of human life than social psychologists. Scientists often find themselves powerless to understand what makes people human. Even the best of their works seems to be missing something. Writers are primarily interested in love, friendship, passion, heroism, hatred, thirst for revenge, jealousy and other feelings. Writers focus on describing the affective connections established between characters, their development and transformation, as well as the joys, sorrows and acute conflicts that arise between people. Although these phenomena are undoubtedly a central part of the drama of life, until recently social psychologists have shied away from studying them.

More than 200 years ago, a group of philosophers from Scotland - among them Adam Ferguson, David Hume and Adam Smith - argued that it is the different feelings formed and nurtured in the associations of people close to each other that distinguish man from other animals. Despite the great influence of these authors on their contemporaries, as well as the development of their ideas, the romantics. For the next century, until very recently, this statement was ignored by social scientists. Rare exceptions, such as Cooley and McDougall, were like a voice crying in the wilderness. Over the past few decades, however, interest has focused on studying close contacts between people. Psychiatrists, who have always been interested in human relationships, were influenced by Sullivan, who argued that personality development is driven by networks of interpersonal relationships. Moreno first attempted to create procedures to describe and measure these networks and, together with his colleagues, developed various sociometric methods. Some psychologists, noting that the perception of human beings is much more complex than the perception of inanimate objects, began to consider this process as a special field of study.

The development of interest in small groups, as well as the growing popularity of existentialism, brought further attention to interpersonal relationships. Although the level of knowledge in this area is still insufficient, its subject is one of the most important.

Interpersonal relationship problems

In fact, in all group actions, participants act simultaneously in two capacities: as performers of conventional roles and as unique human personalities. When conventional roles are played, people act as units of social structure. There is agreement about the contribution that each role holder must make, and each participant's behavior is constrained by cultural expectations. However, by engaging in such enterprises, people remain unique living beings. The reactions of each of them turn out to be dependent on certain qualities of those with whom they happen to come into contact. Therefore, the nature of mutual attraction or repulsion is different in each case. Initial reactions can range from love at first sight to sudden hatred of the other person. A kind of assessment is made, for it is completely implausible that two or more people could interact while remaining indifferent to each other. If contact is maintained, the participants can become friends or rivals, dependent or independent of each other, they can love, hate or be offended by one another. How each person reacts to the people associated with him forms a second system of rights and responsibilities. The pattern of interpersonal relationships that develop between people involved in a joint action creates another matrix that places further restrictions on what each person can or cannot do.

Even in the most fleeting interactions, there seems to be some sort of interpersonal reaction taking place. When a man and a woman meet, there is often mutual evaluation in erotic terms. However, educated people in such cases usually do not reveal their inner experiences. A remark regarding a person of the opposite sex is often reserved for one of his closest friends. In most of the contacts that occur, such reactions are of little significance and are soon forgotten.

When people continue to communicate with each other, more stable orientations arise. Although the expression "interpersonal relationships" is used variously in psychiatry and social psychology, it will be used here to designate the mutual orientations that develop and crystallize among individuals in long-term contact. The nature of these relationships in each case will depend on the personality traits of the individuals involved in the interaction.

Since a person expects special attention from his closest friends and is not inclined to expect good treatment from those whom he does not like, each party in the system of interpersonal relations is bound by a number of special rights and responsibilities. Everyone plays a role, but such interpersonal roles should not be confused with conventional roles. Although both types of roles can be defined on the basis of group expectations, there are important differences between them. Conventional roles are standardized and impersonal; the rights and responsibilities remain the same regardless of who fills these roles. But the rights and responsibilities that are established in interpersonal roles depend entirely on the individual characteristics of the participants, their feelings and preferences. Unlike conventional roles, most interpersonal roles are not specifically taught. Each person develops his own type of relationship with a partner, adapting to the demands placed on him by the particular individuals with whom he comes into contact.

Although no two interpersonal systems are exactly alike, there are repeated situations and similar individuals react in the same way to the same type of treatment. It is therefore not unexpected that typical patterns of interpersonal relationships are observed and that interpersonal roles can be named and defined. Thus, in cooperative situations there may be colleague, partner, supplier, client, admirer, love object, etc. Interpersonal roles that arise when people compete over similar interests may include rival, enemy, conspirator, and ally. If a person tries to mediate between those who disagree, he becomes an arbiter. Another recurring situation can be described as the power of one party over the other. If such dependence is maintained through agreement, legitimate authority is established and those in a dominant position assume the role of authority figure. But the actual ability to direct the behavior of others is not always in the hands of those whose conventional role is vested with power. A child, for example, who knows how to take advantage of the momentary outburst of his restless parents can control their behavior. Among the interpersonal roles that arise when power is unequally distributed are leader, hero, follower, puppet, and patron. Although each group develops patterns for the performance of these roles, the latter are analytically different from conventional roles because in this case each person assumes a certain role due to his personal qualities.

In every organized group there is a common understanding of how members are supposed to feel towards each other. In a family, for example, the relationship between mother and sons is conventionally defined. However, within this cultural framework there are many variations of actual relationships. It is not unusual for mothers to hate or envy their children openly, disobey them, and constantly contradict them. Three sons of one mother may have different orientations toward her, and despite her best efforts to be impartial, she may find herself constantly favoring one over the others. The feelings that are supposed to arise often do arise, but in many cases, no matter how hard people try, they cannot feel as expected. Outwardly they conform to group norms, but internally everyone knows that the appearance maintained is only a façade.

So, people participating in a coordinated action simultaneously interact in the language of two sign systems. As performers of conventional roles, they use conventional symbols, which are the object of social control. At the same time, however, the particular personal orientation of each actor is manifested in the style of his performance, as well as in what he does when the situation is not sufficiently defined and he has some freedom of choice. The manifestation of personality traits, in turn, causes responses, often unconscious. If a person feels that his partners are contributing in some way that is not entirely sincere and sincere, he may become offended, or disappointed, or even begin to despise them - depending on the characteristics of his character.

Our interests concentrate on more or less long-term connections that are established between individuals. Whatever the association, people enter into highly personalized relationships that impose on them special rights and responsibilities regardless of conventional roles. When a person loves someone, he becomes close to his beloved, turns a blind eye to his shortcomings and rushes to help when necessary. But he does not feel obligated to do the same towards someone he does not love. On the contrary, he will feel even better if he turns aside to cause him trouble. To the extent that such tendencies are established, the system of interpersonal relationships can be seen as another means of social control. The challenge facing social psychologists is to construct an adequate conceptual framework for studying these phenomena.

Feelings as behavioral systems

The basic analytical unit for the study of interpersonal relationships is feeling. In everyday life, we talk about love, hate, envy, pride or resentment as “feelings” that arise from time to time in someone’s “heart.”

As Adam Smith noted long ago, feelings differ from other meanings in that they are based on empathy. There is a sympathetic identification with the other person: he is recognized as a human being, a creature capable of making choices, experiencing suffering, enjoying joy, having hopes and dreams, in general, reacting in much the same way as he himself might react in similar circumstances. As Buber pointed out, recognizing another person as “You” rather than “It” presupposes thinking of him as a being endowed with qualities much like my own. So, feelings are based on the attribution of properties that a person finds in himself. The person is outraged by the actions of his superior. If he attributes sadistic tendencies. But he sympathizes with similar actions of another person if he believes that he could not have acted differently. Therefore, feelings are based on the ability to assume the role of a particular person, identify with him and define the situation from his particular point of view. Because people vary greatly in their ability to empathize, there are individual differences in the ability to experience feelings.

When empathy is absent, even human beings are seen as physical objects. Many social interactions that take place in a big city are devoid of sentiment. A bus driver, for example, is often treated as if he were just an appendage of the steering wheel. Even in sexual relationships - one of the most personal forms of interaction between individuals - it is possible to perceive another person as “You” or as “It”. Researchers note that prostitutes usually perceive visitors as inanimate objects, only as a source of livelihood. In contrast to such relationships, many of these women have lovers. Psychologically, there are completely different types of interaction, and only the second brings satisfaction. What is essential here is that certain qualities are projected onto the object in order to establish some kind of sympathetic identification. It follows that some conventional roles - such as executioner or soldier in battle - can be performed more effectively if feelings are absent.

These feelings vary significantly in intensity. The latter depends, at least in part, on how contradictory the orientations of one person are in relation to another. For example, falling in love reaches its highest intensity in situations where there is a conflict between erotic impulses and the need to restrain oneself out of respect for the object of love. It is likely that hatred reaches its greatest intensity when there is some ambivalence. This is confirmed by the fact that a person is much more suspicious of a traitor than of an enemy. Like other meanings, feelings, once they have arisen, tend to stabilize. The stability of such orientations is revealed especially in the event of the death of a close being. With his mind, a person accepts the fact of this death, but for some time he can replace the missing communication with interaction with personification. Relatively stable personifications are constantly reinforced due to selectivity of perception. Every person willingly justifies those he loves: having noticed an unseemly act of a friend, he concludes that either it seemed to him, or there were some extenuating circumstances for it. But the same person is not at all so generous towards people whom he does not love: he approaches them, having prepared for the worst. Even a completely innocent remark on their part can be interpreted as a hostile attack. Therefore, most people manage to make the same assessment of each of their acquaintances, almost regardless of what they actually do. Of course, if a person constantly acts contrary to expectations, people will sooner or later revise their assessments. But there are significant individual differences in the ability to change attitudes towards people. Some are so inflexible that they are unable to notice signals that strongly contradict their hypotheses. Despite repeated failures, they continue to act as before - until a disaster forces them to carry out a “painful reassessment” of the relationship.

Since the study of feelings is only now entering the mainstream, it is not surprising that few techniques have been developed for observing them. Data about how people relate to each other is collected through intensive interviews, through observation in pre-arranged situations, and through a variety of tests.

Structure of typical feelings

Each feeling is a meaning that develops in a successive series of adaptations to the demands of life with a particular individual. Since both the subject and the object are unique, no two feelings can be completely identical; and yet we easily recognize typical feelings. Typical feelings are part of repeated interpersonal relationships, and they can be seen as ways of playing common interpersonal roles. At some time, each person finds himself in the power of another or, conversely, has another in his power. Often he finds himself forced to compete with someone. In such situations, typical interests are formed, typical re-identifications are constructed, and typical assessments of other people arise. This means that many feelings are similar enough that some generalizations can be formulated.

Systematic study of feelings is complicated by value judgments. In the United States, where romantic attraction is seen as a necessary basis for marriage, there is a widespread belief that there can only be one true love in any individual's life. When various metabolic transformations occur upon meeting an attractive person of the opposite sex, many young people spend agonizing hours wondering if this mystical experience has truly arrived. Love is given a very high value: there is a tendency to associate it with God, fatherland or some noble ideals. Similarly, hatred and violence are almost universally condemned. All this makes it difficult to impartially study various feelings. Often the actual situation is mixed with conventional norms. People tend to overlook or deny tendencies they disapprove of.

When embarking on a more objective study, one should begin by considering how people evaluate each other, and refuse to evaluate feelings as such. To describe the several feelings that feature prominently in popular psychiatric theories, it seems best to begin with a limited number of the most obvious types of orientation.

All kinds of unifying, conjunctive feelings usually arise when people pursue common interests, and the achievement of collective goals brings everyone some kind of satisfaction. The participants in such situations are mutually dependent, because the consummation of the impulses of one depends on the contributions made by others.

In such circumstances, the other party is seen as the desired object. Each constant source of satisfaction acquires high value. Lovers and companions are cherished, cared for, rewarded, protected, and in some cases even promoted to the maximum development of his abilities. Such feelings range in intensity from weak preference to deep devotion - as in a lover who is completely absorbed in another person, in a mother who gives her life to her only child, or in a believer who forgets himself for the sake of pious love for God.

The Western intellectual tradition has long distinguished between two types of love. The Greeks called love for another because of his usefulness Eros, and love for the sake of the person himself - Aqape. Based on this distinction, in the Middle Ages theologians contrasted human love—which was usually seen as having an erotic basis—with divine love. Emphasis was placed on the distinction between an orientation in which the love object is an instrument and an orientation in which it is an end in itself. The lover may be interested primarily in his own satisfaction or in the satisfaction of the object. This distinction has recently been revived by psychiatry to avoid calling two different feelings by the same word.

Possessive love is based on an intuitive or conscious understanding of the fact that one's own satisfaction depends on cooperation with another person. This other is personified as an object, valuable due to its usefulness. They babysit him because it is in their own interests to take care of his well-being. This type of feeling is characterized by a specific pattern of behavior. A person is usually happy if he is with the object of his love, and sad when he is absent. If the object is attacked in any way, the person shows rage towards the attacker; it protects the subject from danger, although the extent to which he will risk himself is not unlimited. If the object attracts others, the person experiences jealousy. However, since the interest is focused on its own satisfaction, it may not even notice the disappointment and pain in the object.

Selfless love, on the contrary, assumes that the personification acquires the highest value without relation to the lover, as in the case usually called maternal love. The main interest here is centered on the well-being of the love object. Accordingly, the pattern of behavior differs: joy at the sight of some kind of satisfaction on the part of the object of love and grief when he is offended or sick. And if someone harms or humiliates the object of love, rage arises against the aggressor. At the sight of danger, a person experiences fear and can take the blow on himself. To save him, he may even sacrifice himself. Therefore, as Shand distinguishes, the differences between possessive and selfless love are that the latter is self-centered; joy, grief, fear or anger arise depending on the circumstances in which it is not so much the lover himself, but the object of “love”. Both types of feelings are called “love,” because a high value is assigned to the object, but in the second case the lover is more interested in the object than in himself. The general tendency is to seek identification with the object, and some psychiatrists believe that the goal in this type of relationship is complete fusion with the object.

Hatred is a feeling that is known, apparently, to everyone. A person becomes sad when the object of hatred is healthy and prosperous, he experiences rage and disgust in his presence, he rejoices when he fails, and he experiences anxiety when he succeeds. Because these impulses are usually judged, they are often suppressed. But they are revealed in expressive movements - in a quickly flashing smile when the hated person stumbles, a grimace of disgust when he succeeds, or an indifferent shrug of the shoulders when he is in danger. It is sometimes said that a person cannot hate those whom he knows closely. In reality this is not the case. If social distance is reduced, there is much more opportunity for hatred to develop. Indeed, perhaps the most intense form of hatred is vindictiveness, which develops when a person turns his anger against someone he previously loved and trusted.

Not all people who submit to domination believe that this arrangement is fair. Some obey only because they have no other choice. For such people, the dominant side becomes a frustrating object and causes feelings such as resentment or resentment. The pattern of indignation is rarely expressed openly, but the offended person personifies the other as a person who really does not deserve respect. He willingly notes all his mistakes and mistakes, and if he feels that he can get away with it, he moves on to open disobedience. Once formed, such feelings can persist even after the unpleasant relationship ends. As adults, children who resented parental authority sometimes become hostile to authority figures of any kind.

The attitude towards various feelings established in everyday life can be easily understood. Conjunctive feelings are favorable for the optimal development of participants and facilitate the execution of various joint endeavors. The general approval of these sentiments is not unexpected. On the contrary, the development of disjunctive feelings almost always proves to be a hindrance in the life of the group, and their common condemnation is equally understandable.

Personality differences in feelings

Individuals vary greatly in the extent to which they are able to perform interpersonal roles, and each has developed a characteristic way of being included in the network of interpersonal relationships. Some people love people, find pleasure in communicating with them and quite sincerely enter into joint venture. Others contribute their share with caution: they make efforts only when their partners also fulfill their responsibilities. Still others perform their duty only if someone is watching them or when it is clear that this contributes to their direct benefit. They believe that only dull and stupid people can work enthusiastically for someone else. Finally, there are those who are not able to cope with any responsibilities at all.

Conflicts of one kind or another are inevitable in the life of any person, and everyone develops characteristic way dealing with the enemy. Some are frank; they state their demands directly and, if necessary, engage in physical combat. Others avoid a breakup at all costs by focusing on behind-the-scenes maneuvering.

Since feelings are what one individual means to another, each of them is by definition individual. But the feelings of a given person towards several different persons may have much in common, giving his attitude towards people in general a certain style. In fact, some seem to be incapable of experiencing certain feelings. For example, because friendship requires trust without any guarantees and the person remains open to possible exploitation, some choose not to enter into such a relationship at all. Others are unable to participate in disjunctive relationships. If they are attacked, they "turn the other cheek" and wait patiently until their tormentors come to their senses.

Moreover, there are people who are unable to understand certain feelings on the part of others. Even when they observe corresponding actions, they cannot believe that others are really so oriented.

Feelings are orientations based on personifications that are constructed primarily through the attribution of motives. To attribute a motive is to make an inference about another person's inner experiences. We can only assume that others are similar enough to ourselves and try to understand their behavior by projecting our own experiences onto them. But a person cannot project experiences that he has never experienced. If he has never experienced a sense of personal security, can he really understand the trusting actions of another? Rather, he will look for some hidden motives. On the contrary, for those who are sure that all people are basically “good”, it is very difficult to understand the actions of a person who is at war with the whole world. This shows that the type of interpersonal relationships in which a given individual can be involved is determined by his personality.

Individual differences in the ability to perform interpersonal roles are also based on differences in empathy - the ability to sympathetically identify with other people. It is common for some people to maintain social distance; they always seem cold and rational. Others perceive others very directly, reacting spontaneously to their difficulties and joys. An attempt to construct a scale to measure empathy was made by Diamond.

There is much speculation regarding the basis of friendship; There have been some studies on clique formation, but the findings so far are not conclusive. It has been shown, for example, that the development of common interests, especially those that go beyond the necessary interaction, facilitates the establishment of friendly ties. But another different hypothesis can be proposed: the formation of any private network of interpersonal relationships, as well as its stability, depend on the extent to which the individuals included in it in some respect complement each other. Two aggressive and power-hungry people are unlikely to experience mutual affection: each needs his own group of dependent followers. Sometimes such people find themselves bound by conventional norms—when they establish a modus vivendi but continue to compete with each other. The relationship is disjunctive, and this limits opportunities from the very beginning. When the indulgent person becomes the object of hero-worship on the part of those who are obedient and dependent, a very satisfactory relationship is established. Sometimes people make the most incredible combinations and desperately cling to one another. A sensitive, but not very insightful person can devote himself entirely to an object of love who is not very responsive - as in the case of the attachment of a parent to a child, an owner to a dog, or an employee of a psychiatric hospital to a catatonic patient.

Some feelings, like the imaginary chivalrous love for movie stars, are one-sided. Their structure develops into an organization where the dreamer can control all the conditions of action. A person creates such objects of love, combining together all the desired qualities, including reciprocity. These idealized personifications sometimes become the object of the strongest unegoistic affection. The feelings organized in this way can subsequently be transferred to real human beings - often to their horror, for real people cannot live up to the expectations caused by a disordered imagination. This inevitably leads to disappointment. Some people seem to spend their whole lives searching for the ideal marriage partner who matches the personifications created in their dreams.

Observations of this kind led Winch to create a theory of mate choice from the point of view of “complementary needs.” He believed that although the area of ​​​​choosing a partner for marriage is limited by conventional barriers and usually the partners belong to the same culture, within this area each person strives for those whose personality traits facilitate the consummation of the impulses inherent in him as a unique individual. Winch was, of course, only interested in societies in which young people choose their own spouses. In a preliminary study of 25 married couples, he found significant support for his theory. Indeed, he managed to identify four frequently repeated combinations:

A) families that resemble the conventional mother-son relationship, where a strong and capable woman takes care of a husband who needs someone to lean on;

B) families where a strong, capable husband takes care of a passive and compliant wife, much like a little doll who needs to be nursed;

C) families resembling the conventional master-maid relationship, in which an indulgent husband is served by a capable wife;

D) families in which an active woman dominates an intimidated and disappointed husband.

The degree of correlation revealed by statistical analysis is sufficient, although not high; This is not surprising, since many other considerations are taken into account when choosing a spouse. It is possible that the results would have been more satisfactory if Winch had focused on marriages that survive, as opposed to those that fail.

So, feelings that create some kind of private networks of interpersonal relationships can be one-sided, two-sided or mutual. In most cases, the feelings are two-way; each side approaches the other slightly differently. For example, in a family, a mother may be altruistically oriented towards her husband and children; on the contrary, her husband has possessive feelings towards his daughters and does not love his son, treating him as a rival, competing with him for his wife’s attention. One of their daughters may love her sister, who, however, will treat her with contempt. A boy may approach his sisters as useful tools for achieving his goals, regard his mother with deep affection, and look to his father as a hero who can be harsh and unpleasant at times. This is not such an unusual picture. The duration of such connections seems to depend on the mechanisms that provide some kind of mutual satisfaction for those involved in a given network of relationships.

Conclusion

Essentially, all common approaches to social psychology explain human behavior almost exclusively in terms of the biological properties of people as they are molded into the cultural matrix. A child is born into an organized society and, interacting with others, learns various models of appropriate behavior. What a person does is often seen as a response to needs, some of which are inherited organically and others acquired through participation in a group. But serious questions may arise as to whether such conceptual schemes are adequate. By entering into stable associations, people often find themselves involved in networks of interpersonal relationships that impose on them special responsibilities in relation to each other. Feelings are systems of behavior that are not biologically inherited or learned. They take shape and crystallize through the adaptations made to each other by individual human beings.

Each feeling is unique, because it is a unique relationship of one human individual to another. But among people in a stable association, the same problems inevitably arise. As a person learns to interact with others, typical personifications develop, and specific meanings - love, hate, hero-worship, jealousy - become sufficiently defined to make it possible to consider typical feelings. Each participant in a joint action is liked by some of those around him and disliked by others. An attempt has been made to describe some conjunctive and disjunctive feelings. This pattern of attractions and aversions forms a network of personal responsibilities that largely determines the behavior of the individuals involved. The sustainability of any such network of interpersonal relationships depends on a continuous flow of satisfaction for the majority of participants.

Since people involved in the study of intimate relationships have different intellectual backgrounds, it is not surprising that much confusion reigns in this area. A vast literature is rapidly accumulating, but there is little agreement on anything other than that the subject in question is worthy of serious study. One of the main obstacles to the systematic study of feelings is the lack of an adequate category system. Moreover, common sense terminology, with its irrelevant and confusing associations and value judgments, makes this study even more difficult. Describing interpersonal relationships in terms such as “Love,” “Hate,” and “Jealousy” is much like a chemist saying “water,” “fire,” and “air” instead of “oxygen,” “hydrogen.” and the like. However, this area is so important for understanding human behavior that, despite all the difficulties, every effort should be made to study it. There is no shortage of observations or theories. However, so that the attempt does not turn out to be premature, one must try to organize the material obtained from different sources into a sufficiently coherent scheme. It may be that for some time the study of the senses will remain unprofessional and speculative, but even a timid beginning may shed some light on the complex problems which present such serious difficulties even to the construction of hypotheses.

In the process of interpersonal relationships, people do not just communicate, they do not just act together or next to each other, they influence each other and form a certain style of relationship. Trying to imitate the good, avoid the bad, comparing himself with others, a person “builds himself and his relationships with the world around him.”

Bibliography

1. Bodalev A.A. Personality and communication. – M., 1983.

2. Shibutani T. Social psychology. Per. from English V.B. Olshansky. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1998. - P. 273-279.

3. Jerome S. Bruner and Renato Taqiuri, The Perception of People, b Lindzey, op. cit., Vol. II.

5. C.H. Rolph, ed., Women of the Streets, London, 1955.

6. French, op cit.; Leary, op. cit; Osquood et al., op cit.

7. Huqo G. Beiqel, Romantie Love, American Socioqical Review, XVI (1958).

8. Karen Horney, On Feelind Abused, American Journal of Psychoanalysis XI (1951).

9. Henry H. Brewster, Grief: A. Disrupted Human Relationship, Human Orqanization, IX (1950).

10. Nelson Foote, Love, "Psyehiatry", XIV (1953).

12. Henry V. Dicks, Clinical Studies in Marriage and the Famili, British Journal of Medical Psychology, XXVI (1953).

13. Rosalind F. Dymand, A. Scale for the Measurement of Empathic Ability, Joumalof Consultinq Psycholoqy, XIII (1949).

14. Howard Rowland, Friendship Patterns in the State Mental Hospital, Psychiatry, II (1939).

15. Robert F. Winch, Mate-Selection: A Study of Complementary Needs, New York, 1958.

Table of contents
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………...3

Chapter 1. Theoretical aspect of studying the problem of regulation of interpersonal relationships

1.1.Basic approaches to the problem of interpersonal relationships in psychology.................................................. ........................................................ ........................5

1.2. The structure of interpersonal interaction in a group……………………….9

Conclusions on the chapter………………………………………………………………………………11

Chapter 2. Regulation of interpersonal relationships in a team

2.1. Conflict as an indicator of disharmony in interpersonal relationships in a team…………………………………………………………………………………..13

2.2. Methods for regulating interpersonal relationships…………………………….21

Conclusions on the chapter………………………………………………………………………………24

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….25

References…………………………………………………………………………………27

Introduction
The formation of an individual cannot be considered in isolation from society, from the collective, from the society in which he interacts. The nature of interpersonal relationships is quite complex. They reveal both the purely individual qualities of a person - his emotional and volitional properties, intellectual capabilities, as well as the norms and values ​​of society internalized by the individual. In the system of interpersonal relations, a person realizes himself by giving to society what he perceives in him (B.F. Lomov, N.I. Shevandrin). It is the activity of the individual, his actions that are the most important link in the system of interpersonal relations. Thus, the personal characteristics of each individual influence the development of interpersonal relationships. By entering into interpersonal relationships of the most diverse in form, content, values, and structure of human communities - in a friendly circle, in various kinds of formal and informal associations - an individual manifests himself as a person and has the opportunity to evaluate himself in a system of relationships with others.

Many psychologists have studied the nature of interpersonal relationships (G.M. Andreeva, B.V. Kulagin, B.F. Lomov, A.V. Petrovsky, etc.). B.F. Lomov defined interpersonal relationships as relationships covering a significant range of phenomena that can be qualified taking into account three components of interaction:

1) people’s perception and understanding of each other,

2) interpersonal attractiveness (attraction and sympathy),

3) mutual influence and behavior (in particular, role). A.A. Krylov and A.V. Petrovsky considered interpersonal relationships through the aspect of the social situation of development, which is represented by social position, i.e. the attitude of group members to these objective conditions, status, and their readiness to accept this position and act in accordance with it.

Much attention in social psychology (B.F. Lomov, G.M. Andreeva) is paid to the study of interpersonal attractiveness, which manifests itself in liking and attraction. According to N.I. Shevandrina, the nature of interpersonal interaction is determined by the type of situation and the personal characteristics of its participants, such as value orientations, behavioral stereotypes, motivation, temperament, etc.

Relevance chosen topic is due to the fact that modern conditions place increased demands on harmonious interpersonal relationships between people. At the present stage, there is an urgent practical need to study methods of regulating interpersonal relationships. This determines the choice of the topic of our research: "Regulation of interpersonal relationships."

Object of study: interpersonal relationships.

Subject of research: features of methods for regulating interpersonal relationships.

Purpose of the study – study of the regulation of interpersonal relationships in a team.

Based on the stated purpose of the study, it would be advisable to solve the following tasks:

1.Study the basic approaches to the problem of interpersonal relationships in psychology.

2. Determine the structure of interpersonal relationships in the group.

3. Analyze the conflict as an indicator of disharmony in interpersonal relationships in the group.

4. Justify methods for regulating interpersonal relationships.

Chapter 1. Theoretical aspect of studying the problem of regulation of interpersonal relationships

1.1.Basic approaches to the problem of interpersonal relationships in psychology
The problem of intergroup relations has been studied in social psychology relatively recently (Andreeva G.M., Lomov B.F., Krylov A.A., Petrovsky A.V., etc.), at least in comparison with the study of problems of intragroup relations, which were widely studied in the works of Pryazhnikov N.S., Karpov A.V., Shevandrina N.I. It is closely related to purely psychological and sociological research. There are four main directions in the study of intergroup relations in social psychology and related disciplines.

The first direction is related to the study of relations between large social groups within the whole society at the level of social stratification Andreeva G.M., Andrienko E.V., Ts.P. Korolenko and others).

The second is determined by the study of intergroup relations in conditions when one group acts as a leader, and the other (or others) follow it (I.S. Kon, A.N. Leontiev, A.V. Mudrik, K. Levin).

The third direction is related to the study of relationships between small groups (B.G. Ananyev, A.V. Petrovsky, D. Myers, A. Maslow). Fourth, it studies the influence of intergroup relations on intragroup processes (Burns E., T. Shibutani, McDougal, Schultz D., etc.). These areas of research can only be clearly divided with a certain degree of convention, since they are all interconnected and interdependent.

The general socio-psychological characteristics of a group should begin with identifying its social affiliation. The general analysis in this case will be primary in relation to the particular one. If we take for comparison two social groups that differ in their membership in different large social groups, we must first of all determine the significant differences between these large groups and, based on this, give comparative characteristics small groups that are part of them. Most modern researchers (Andreeva G.M., Ananyev B.G., Petrovsky A.V., etc.) highlight the following intergroup relations: cooperation, competition (competition, rivalry), intergroup conflict and relations of independence. Competition and conflict are associated with the tendency of differentiation, and cooperation (cooperation, compromise) is associated with the tendency of integration. In fact, competition and conflict are very close interaction strategies here, just like cooperation and compromise. As for independence relationships, they are often not considered as a type of relationship at all. However, independent relations are also relations that may well characterize the position of the group. In relations of independence there are groups that do not have social connections among themselves, while the presence of such makes groups interdependent in one aspect or another of activities and relationships.

Any group is usually divided into microgroups, the relations between which are not stable. One of the most important factors influencing intergroup relations, according to B.F. Lomov, is the nature of joint activities. If such activity is extreme in nature and carried out under stressful conditions, then there may be dynamics of intergroup relations described in the works of V. Hanowes, a participant in the famous international expedition led by Thor Heyerdahl.

The philosophical and methodological justification for the psychological analysis of interpersonal relationships was given by S.L. Rubinstein. Developing the foundations of a general psychological theory of activity in the early 1920s, he pointed out that activity as a philosophical category is not initially the activity of one subject, but always the activity of subjects, i.e. joint activity that determines interpersonal relationships.

Joint activity is distinguished from individual activity, first of all, by the presence of interaction between the participants in the activity, which transforms, changes their individual activity and is aimed at achieving a common result. Such interaction is observed in cases where the actions of one person or group of persons determine certain actions of other people, and the actions of the latter can influence the actions of the former, etc.

The operational concept of joint activity, derived by B.F. Lomov, includes a number of parameters or characteristics that distinguish it from individual activity.

The main features of joint activities include:

Distinction of a single goal for all participants involved in the activity;

The incentive to work together, i.e., in addition to individual motives, a common motivation must be formed;

Division of activities into functionally related components, i.e. distribution of functions between group members;

Integration of individual activities, interrelation and interdependence of individual participants in the activity;

Harmonization and coordination of functionally distributed and integrated individual activities;

Availability of management;

Single end result;

Unified spatio-temporal functioning of participants in joint activities.

In order to make sure that all of the listed signs are necessary characteristics of joint activity, it is enough to imagine a team of a fishing trawler, a team of construction workers, or any other real-life group. Such a group always has a common goal, common motives, its activities are based on the processes of integration and at the same time functional distribution. Someone must lead such a group. She achieves a common result that cannot be achieved alone.

In psychology, such a group is defined as a collective subject of activity. In the foreign theory of social psychology (McDougal, K. Levy), work collectives, their parts, and divisions are called groups. Any enterprise or organization consists of several groups. A group is two or more persons who interact with each other in such a way that each person influences others and is at the same time influenced by other persons. There are two types of groups - formal and informal. Formal groups or organizations (teams) are created by management when they divide labor horizontally (divisions) and vertically (levels of management) to organize the production or trading process. Their primary function is to perform specific tasks and achieve certain goals.

Andreeva G.M. identifies three main types of formal groups.

The manager's group (team) consists of the manager and his immediate subordinates, who, in turn, can also be managers. A typical command group is the company president and vice presidents. The same group is formed by the store director and heads of its departments.

A work (task) group consists of individuals working together on a common task.

The third type of group is a committee (commission, council) within an organization to which authority is delegated to perform a task. His distinctive feature is group decision making and implementation of actions. There are two main types of committees: ad hoc and permanent. The first is a temporary group formed to accomplish a specific purpose. The second is a permanent group within the organization that has a specific goal. They are often used to provide organizations with advice on important issues. These are boards of directors (form boards), audit commissions, planning groups, salary review commissions.

The effectiveness of formal groups, according to G.M. Andreeva, depends on the size and composition of formal groups, group norms, cohesion of people, the degree of conflict, status and functional roles of group members.

Thus, interpersonal relationships, according to Petrovsky A.V., are subjectively experienced connections between people, objectively manifested in the nature, methods of interpersonal interaction, that is, mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint activity and communication.

1.2. The structure of interpersonal interaction in a group
The concept of group cohesion is a key concept in social psychology. Any collection of people, considered from the point of view of their community, can be designated as a social group. Since social life is organized in such a way that a person can do little alone without resorting to participation in groups, the latter are studied within the framework of a systems approach as special social systems consisting of interconnected elements. One should not think that only people are elements of the system. Actually, individuals do not belong to the entire group, but only to those aspects of their personality that are associated with the social roles performed in this group.

Several main characteristics of a social group can be identified. Firstly, the presence of integral psychological characteristics, such as public opinion, psychological climate, group norms, group interests, etc., which are formed with the emergence and development of the group. A specific person cannot have an integral characteristic of a group, which is determined by a special psychological factor that arises during the interaction of individuals. Thus, the relative unanimity of group members on a particular issue is determined by public opinion, but it does not represent the totality of individual opinions. It is simply the quintessence of an idea about which the participants in the interaction have agreed. At the same time, the opinions of specific individuals may differ significantly from public opinion. Group processes include dynamic, i.e., changing indicators of the group as a social process of relations. It is quite clear that an analysis of group processes can only be provided by a person who has observed the group over a certain period.

Particular importance is attached here to the psychological and organizational processes of cohesion (leadership and management), the level of development of the group as a social unity (stages of development of the team), the process of group pressure (conformism), etc. Thus, the phenomenon of group cohesion can be defined as a harmoniously organized process of leadership and subordination in the conditions of a group (team) of an organization.

In the structure of interpersonal relationships, a special place is occupied by the moral and psychological climate - a stable emotional and moral state of group members, which reflects the mood, attitude towards each other, towards material and spiritual values. It is usually customary to divide the moral and psychological climate into healthy (favorable) and unhealthy (unfavorable). The first is characterized by comfort and emotional satisfaction of group members, in which negative phenomena do not find grounds for development and are overcome through common efforts.

The creation of a healthy moral and psychological climate is facilitated by empathy (from the Greek empatheia - empathy) - emotional responsiveness, sympathy, the ability to put oneself in the place of another, affiliation (from the English affiliate - to join) - a person’s desire to be in the company of other people, as well as mental contagiousness - contagiousness that arises during joint communication and causes similar impulses. A healthy moral and psychological climate in a team arises when its members take care of creating a good impression of themselves, the ability to objectively evaluate the behavior of others, show tolerance, and take a critical approach to themselves.

Creating a favorable emotional background in relationships puts employees on the same wavelength and does not allow pessimists to spread their influence over others, putting a barrier to conflicting personalities. The opposite, destructive, picture is observed in groups where an unhealthy moral climate prevails. There is no concern for the results of the case, common interests, labor activity, solidarity, but narrow selfish aspirations, ambition, and disunity prevail. Of course, no highly moral organizational behavior can arise in this case. No less important, along with the moral and psychological climate, is the organizational climate - clear regulation of the functioning of all parts of the production group, imposing its own requirements and restrictions on the behavior of workers.

Chapter Conclusions
- Interpersonal relationships, according to Petrovsky A.V., are subjectively experienced connections between people, objectively manifested in the nature, methods of interpersonal interaction, that is, mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint activity and communication.

The concept of group cohesion is a key concept in social psychology. Any collection of people, considered from the point of view of their community, can be designated as a social group. Since social life is organized in such a way that a person can do little alone without resorting to participation in groups, the latter are studied within the framework of a systems approach as special social systems consisting of interconnected elements. One should not think that only people are elements of the system. Actually, individuals do not belong to the entire group, but only to those aspects of their personality that are associated with the social roles performed in this group.

Creating a favorable emotional background in relationships puts employees on the same wavelength and does not allow pessimists to spread their influence over others, putting a barrier to conflicting personalities. The opposite, destructive, picture is observed in groups where an unhealthy moral climate prevails. There is no concern for the results of the case, common interests, labor activity, solidarity, but narrow selfish aspirations, ambition, and disunity prevail. Of course, no highly moral organizational behavior can arise in this case.

Chapter 2. Regulation of interpersonal relationships

2.1. Conflict as an indicator of disharmony in interpersonal relationships in a group

An organizational conflict is understood as a collision of oppositely directed tendencies in the psyche of an individual, in the relationships of people, their formal and informal associations, due to differences in views, positions and interests. In an organization, conflict always results in certain behavior, actions that violate the interests of others.

Conflicts are often characterized by an uncertain outcome. This is due to the wide variety of possible behavior options of the parties under the influence of random factors, psychology, and hidden goals. But, nevertheless, the emergence of conflicts can be predicted, and their consequences, although with considerable difficulty, can be foreseen.

In terms of scale, conflicts can be general, covering the entire organization, and partial, affecting a separate part of it; by stages of development - incipient, mature or fading; according to goals - blind or rational; by forms of occurrence - peaceful or non-peaceful; by duration - short-term or long-term, for a long time feverish the entire organization. An extensive and acute conflict can cause a crisis and ultimately lead to its destruction or significant change. A person enters into conflict in a situation that is significant to him and only when he does not see an opportunity to change it, but usually tries not to complicate the relationship and maintain restraint.

The modern point of view is that many conflicts are not only acceptable, but also desirable, because they allow us to identify problems, processes hidden from view, various points of view on certain events, etc.

The positive consequences of the conflict are: solving the problem in a way acceptable to all parties; strengthening mutual understanding, cohesion, cooperation in the team; reduction of antagonism, unanimity, humility.

Conflicts lead to the restructuring of existing and the formation of new social institutions and mechanisms, contribute to the strengthening of groups, maintaining a balance of interests and power between them, and thus ensure relative stability of internal relations.

Finally, conflicts increase people’s activity, their desire to improve their skills, stimulate debate and curiosity, creativity, the emergence of new ideas, and readiness for change. Absolutely without conflicts, worries, or tensions, a person can stop in his development.

All this facilitates the management process, increases its efficiency, and that is why conflicts are often better not to suppress, but to regulate.

At the same time, conflicts can also have dysfunctional (negative) consequences: causing dissatisfaction, deterioration of the moral and psychological climate in the team, curtailment of cooperation, increased staff turnover, decreased productivity, decreased activity in the future, increased hostility and the formation of an image of the enemy and the desire for victories, rather than problem solving.

56. The main causes of conflicts.

The causes of a conflict are not always amenable to logical reconstruction, because they may include an irrational component, and external manifestations often do not give an idea of ​​their true nature.

Conflicts can be internal and external. The first include intrapersonal; to the second: interpersonal; between the individual and the group; intergroup. The emergence of internal conflicts is due to a person’s contradiction with himself. It can be generated by such circumstances as the need to choose between what is acceptable and acceptable, when both are desirable, but you need to choose one; unacceptable and unacceptable (of two evils); acceptable and unacceptable (choice of alternatives that have both positive and negative consequences- negative for the acceptable and positive for the unacceptable). The closer the goal is, the stronger the desire for what is acceptable; The tendency to avoid the unacceptable is stronger the closer the danger is. At the same time, the gradient of avoiding danger grows faster than the gradient of striving for a goal. When there is a conflict between acceptable but incompatible aspirations, the stronger one wins.

Intrapersonal conflict can also be caused by a discrepancy between external demands and internal positions; ambiguity in the perception of the situation, goals and means of achieving them; needs and opportunities to satisfy them; drives and responsibilities; various kinds of interests, etc. In the general case, most often we are talking about “choice in conditions of abundance” (motivational conflict) or “choice of the least evil” (role conflict).

Interpersonal conflicts are believed to be 75-80% generated by the clash of material interests of subjects, although outwardly this manifests itself as a discrepancy in characters, personal views or moral values. When reacting to a situation, a person acts in accordance with his views and character traits, and different people behave differently in the same situations.

Conflicts between an individual and a group are mainly caused by the discrepancy between individual and collective norms of behavior, and intergroup conflicts are generated by differences in views or interests.

In the first case, everyone strives to prove that he is right; in the second - to seize the necessary resources, limiting others, which, if escalated, threatens with large losses. A conflict of views only leads to a refutation of a point of view, to a logical dead end.

From the point of view organizational levels to which the parties belong, conflicts can be divided into horizontal and vertical. The first type includes, for example, a conflict between individual areas of the organization’s activities; to the second - between different levels of the hierarchy. Practice shows that the majority of vertical conflicts are up to 70-80%. The interweaving of intra-organizational relations in practice leads to the fact that many conflicts are mixed, containing various elements.

According to the area of ​​occurrence and development, conflicts can be divided into business ones, related to the performance of a person’s official duties, and personal ones, affecting his informal relationships.

Based on the distribution of losses and gains between the parties, conflicts can be divided into symmetrical and asymmetrical. In the first case, they are divided approximately equally; in the second, some gain or lose significantly more than others. If the participants in the conflict hide it from prying eyes, or the conflict has not yet “ripened”, which, of course, complicates the process of managing it or resolving it, it is hidden, latent; otherwise the conflict is considered open. Since the latter is under management control, it is less dangerous; the hidden one can imperceptibly undermine the foundations of the team, although outwardly it will seem that everything is going fine. According to their consequences, conflicts can be constructive or destructive. Constructive ones imply the possibility of rational transformations in an organization, as a result of which their very cause is eliminated, and, therefore, can bring great benefit to it and promote development. If the conflict has no real basis, it becomes destructive, first destroying relationships between people, and then disorganizing the management system. Conflict is one of the universal characteristics of the world and the main driving force of its development. This is one of the most controversial phenomena and the main mechanisms of all changes and transformations. Determining the psychological factors that determine the emergence, dynamics and final result of the development of interpersonal conflict is important for understanding the psychological mechanisms of regulation of individual behavior. In addition, this problem is essential for the development of methodological foundations for psychodiagnostics, prediction and correction of interpersonal conflicts in a broader context. Determining the psychological factors of conflict depends on understanding the determination of the human psyche and, in particular, his behavior, on preliminary methodological approaches to the study of interpersonal conflicts.

The conflict is a bipolar phenomenon, which manifests itself in the activity of the parties. The idea of ​​"multi-subjectivity" of a person's inner world is considered in the works of many authors, especially those who proceed from the structural construction of personality. For example, psychoanalysis claims that conflict arises in the depths of the psyche as a result of the interaction of internal structures and tendencies of the psyche due to the laws of its objective existence; the tendency to interpersonal conflicts is the result of a distortion of a person’s basic attitudes that arise under the influence negative experience acquired in childhood. Psychological conflicts play a significant role in the formation of new character traits and in the restructuring of personality, and their solution represents an acute form of development - there is a change in the structure of the teenager’s personality and the formation of new relationships. The conflict takes the participants to a qualitatively new level of interaction, which is accompanied by value reorientation, awareness and formation of personal and group interests, changes in the communicative structure, destruction of old and creation of new legitimation schemes. Conflict is viewed at different levels of personality. Intrapersonal conflict manifests itself in external interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal conflicts are accompanied by a person’s emotional experiences. To the same extent, a person’s internal conflicts lead to certain characteristics of his interpersonal behavior. Different types of conflicts are interconnected and can move from one level to another. An interpersonal conflict associated with contradictions in interaction can develop into an internal conflict: a conflict of motives, a conflict of choice, etc.; conflict that arises between participants separate groups, can become the beginning of intergroup conflict. The first theoretical and experimental studies of interpersonal conflicts were carried out by K. Levin, who considered them in the context of satisfaction and dissatisfaction of individual needs. He characterizes conflict as “a situation in which an individual is affected by oppositely directed forces of approximately equal magnitude,” that is, K. Levin refers to the contradictions between human needs and external forcing forces as interpersonal conflicts. If a teenager is in such a situation, then the force that motivates him on the part of the adult is the result of the field of power of this person over the teenager. The more significant the needs of the individual it affects, the more serious the conflict. Failure to satisfy needs creates tension, a condition of almost instinctive origin.

It is the presence of this reaction that can explain the fact that adolescents commit most violations in a group; This is where the formation of mental dependence on alcohol occurs. The hobby reaction may be absent in adults, but it is an integral attribute of adolescents. The same hobby can be formed by different motives, that is, relate to different types of hobbies, therefore, some hobbies of adolescents may be the basis of behavioral disorders - due to the excessive intensity of the hobby or the antisocial content of the hobby itself. The study of reactions caused by sexual desire indicates that the sexual behavior of adolescents is extremely unstable and can approach pathological forms. The cause of this instability is undifferentiated sexuality. In addition, adolescents are characterized by childish behavioral reactions of refusal, opposition, imitation, compensation and overcompensation.

L. S. Vygotsky noted that the transition period includes two series of processes: “the natural series consists of the processes of biological maturation of the individual, including puberty, and the social series is the processes of learning and socialization in the broad sense of the word."

The central new development of a teenager’s personality is the formation of a sense of his own adulthood: not just being, but also appearing to be an adult. The sources of the feeling of adulthood are significant changes in physical development, the onset of puberty and social sources, as well as their awareness by the teenager himself.

But the social position of the teenager does not change - he was and remains a student, his financial dependence on his parents, who play the role of educators, remains, especially since adults still have the habit of directing and controlling the child, which is very difficult to lose, even understanding the need for it. After all, by giving independence to a child, an adult must limit his rights. And this creates a solid basis for maintaining an adult’s attitude towards a teenager as a child who must obey and not claim new rights. This attitude unconsciously flatters the pride of adults: the more helpless and infantile a child seems, the more significant and necessary teachers and parents appear in their eyes. An unfavorable educational situation is created: this attitude of adults contradicts the tasks of the educational process, creates a contradiction in the teenager’s ideas about himself, inhibits the development of social adulthood and the acquisition of social competence in communication and behavior. In the works of L. I. Bozhovich, conflict behavior is considered as a result of internal and external contradictions between society, the microenvironment and the person himself. This is the result of internal and external contradictions between the need for self-affirmation and the possibility of its satisfaction, between self-esteem and the assessment of the group, between the requirements of the group and one’s own attitudes and beliefs, that is, conflict behavior acts as a person’s tendency to conflict during the interaction of personal factors and environmental factors. Conflict is defined as a permanent personality trait, which is accumulated by its natural inclinations and social experience. Conflict involves a certain level of mental tension. It can be different for different people, which is associated with the level of psychological stability of a person. Mentally stable and mentally unstable people behave differently in difficult situations. Mentally unstable teenagers do not have effective ways to overcome obstacles, so sometimes the phenomenon of self-induction of negative behavior is observed. emotional stress: Disorganized behavior increases stress, which further disorganizes behavior, leading to a “wave of disorganization.”

Psychological resilience is a personality property and consists of maintaining an optimal state of functioning of mental energy and is acquired.

Conflict resistance is a specific manifestation of psychological stability, which is considered as a person’s ability to solve problems adequately and without conflict social interaction. The structure of conflict resistance includes such components as emotional, volitional, cognitive, motivational and psychomotor. Therefore, taking into account the fact that conflict intensity and conflict tolerance are at different poles of the same continuum, it would be legitimate to define the structure of conflict intensity as identical to the structure of conflict tolerance, but with the opposite sign.

The components of conflict will thus have the following form: emotional component (personal state in a situation of interpersonal interaction, inability to manage one’s emotional state in pre-conflict and conflict situations); volitional component (inability of the individual to consciously mobilize forces and self-control); cognitive component (includes the level of perception of the opponent’s provocative actions, subjectivity, inability to analyze and predict the situation); motivational component (reflects the state of internal motivating forces that are not conducive to adequate behavior in conflict and problem solving); psychomotor component (inability to control one’s body, control gestures and facial expressions).

2.2. Methods for regulating interpersonal relationships
Experts have developed many recommendations concerning various aspects of people’s behavior in conflict situations, the selection of appropriate behavioral strategies and means of conflict resolution, as well as its management. Let us consider, first of all, a person’s behavior in a conflict situation from the point of view of its compliance with psychological standards. This model of behavior is based on the ideas of E. Melibruda, Siegert and Laite.

It is believed that constructive conflict resolution depends on the following factors:

Adequacy of the perception of the conflict, that is, a fairly accurate assessment of the actions and intentions of both the enemy and one’s own, not distorted by personal biases;

Openness and effectiveness of communication, readiness for a comprehensive discussion of problems, when participants honestly express their understanding of what is happening and ways out of a conflict situation,

Creating an atmosphere of mutual trust and cooperation.

Summarizing the research of psychologists, we can say that such qualities can include the following:

Inadequate self-esteem of one’s capabilities and abilities, which can be either overestimated or underestimated. In both cases it may contradict adequate assessment surrounding people - and the ground is ready for conflict to arise;

The desire to dominate at all costs where this is possible and impossible;

Conservatism of thinking, views, beliefs, unwillingness to overcome outdated traditions;

Excessive adherence to principles and straightforwardness in statements and judgments, the desire to tell the truth at all costs;

A certain set of emotional personality traits: anxiety, aggressiveness, stubbornness, irritability.

K.U. Thomas and R.H. Kilman developed the most appropriate basic strategies for behavior in a conflict situation.

They point out that there are five basic styles of conflict behavior: accommodation, compromise, cooperation, ignoring, rivalry or competition.

State autonomous educational institution

Secondary vocational education

"Baikal basic medical college

Ministry of Health of the Republic of Buryatia"

Interpersonal relationships in student team

Andreeva L. M.

Introduction

§ 2. Research on motivation for going to college

§.3. Analysis of the results of a study of interpersonal relationships using sociometry

§ 4. Analysis of the results of research on self-esteem in the student group

Conclusion

List of information sources used

Introduction

Relevance

The system of secondary vocational education in Russia is undergoing transformation and adapting to new market conditions. At the same time, health care reform places new demands on nursing professionals. Today, medical institutions need not only nurse, and a specialist who is capable of a creative approach to his activities is a well-educated professional.

The idea of ​​integrity, unity of the student’s personal and professional development formed the basis for the formation of a future specialist. The standard of the graduate model includes such integral personality characteristics as competence, emotional and behavioral flexibility.

The basis for assessing these qualities is a combination of a number of psychological techniques that make it possible to track and form a standard of a graduate’s personality.

The art of communication, the ability to build relationships with people, and find an approach to them are necessary for everyone. This skill lies at the heart of life and professional success.

Adolescence is the age when a significant expansion of the social circle occurs. At the end of adolescence, the individual is focused on mastering a profession. According to the authors Mukhina V.S., Gamezo M.V., Petrova E.A., Khukhlaeva O.V., youth is the so-called peak of interpersonal communication.

Interpersonal relationships arise and develop on the basis of certain feelings that people have towards each other. Emotions and feelings perform a regulatory function in interactions between people due to the fact that they appear as a norm of behavior, as a willingness to act in a certain way in relation to certain people.

The relevance of the problem of interpersonal relationships in adolescence lies in the fact that at this age the characteristics of the individual’s relationships with others are determined, which influence its formation and development, as well as the development of individuality; in the actions of the individual, a set of norms, rules and forms of behavior is formed, the individual asserts his place in society.

The problem of interpersonal relationships was considered in Russian psychology by V.N. Myasishchev, A.V. Petrovsky, A.A. Bodalev, Ya.L. Kolominsky, E.O. Smironova. Myasishchev V.N. developed a theory of relationships, in which the relationship of a person is always structural and includes the simplest emotional experiences; through the inclusion of evaluative attitudes in connection with norms and normative criteria, beliefs are formed. Bodalev A.A. developed patterns of relationship formation. Kolominsky Ya.L. defines communication as “such informational and substantive interaction between people, during which their interpersonal relationships are realized, manifested and formed.”

Purpose of the study:

Research objectives:

1.

2.

.

.Develop recommendations for the formation of interpersonal relationships

Object of study- interpersonal relationships

Subject of research

Hypothesis:if corrective classes are conducted to build team cohesion, the level of interpersonal relationships will increase

The methodological basis of the study is a set of philosophical, socio-psychological principles that reveal the essence of the psychology of interpersonal relationships.

The theoretical significance of the study is that it allows us to expand and clarify the idea of ​​interpersonal relationships in adolescence. Theoretical and experimental results are significant for personality psychology.

The practical significance lies in the fact that the data obtained in it make it possible to determine ways to optimize the problem of interpersonal relationships in society. The results of the study can be used in the practice of psychologists in secondary educational institutions to diagnose the characteristics of interpersonal relationships.

interpersonal relationship student body

Chapter I. The problem of interpersonal relationships in psychology

By studying an individual, we turn to his immediate environment, and through the prism of interpersonal relationships, his microsociety, we begin to better understand the problems of the individual and the roots of his personification.

If we talk about attitude, then we must keep in mind the subjective connection that is established by a person, an event and manifests itself in his emotional reactions and certain activities.

V.N. Myasishchev gave a classic definition of personality relationships: “Relationships are an integral system of individual, selective, conscious connections of a person with different aspects of objective reality, including three interrelated components: a person’s attitude to people, to himself, to objects of the external world.”

The definition of “interpersonal” indicates not only that the object of the relationship is another person, but also the mutual direction of the relationship. Interpersonal relationships differ from such types as self-attitude, attitude towards objects, intergroup relations.

The concept of “interpersonal relationships” focuses on the emotional and sensory aspect of interaction between people and introduces the time factor and analysis of communication, since under the condition of interpersonal communication, through the continuous exchange of information, the dependence of the people who have come into contact on each other arises, and mutual responsibility for the existing relationship.

A person’s interaction with the social system is carried out through a set of connections, thanks to which he becomes a person, a subject of activity and individuality. Relations that arise between people in the process of communication, joint practical and spiritual activities are defined as social relations. The reasons for such relationships can be industrial, political, legal, moral, religious, psychological and others.

Psychological relationships between people are usually divided into official and informal in accordance with the organization where they are formed. Official relationships are sanctioned, documented and controlled by society or individual representatives. Informal relationships may be recognized and even encouraged by formal organizations, but they are not documented.

Distinguish between business and personal or (interpersonal relationships). Business relationships are associated with and are determined by joint educational or work activities. Personal relationships can be evaluative (admiration, popularity) and effective (related to interaction); they are determined not so much by objective conditions as by the subjective need for communication and the satisfaction of this need.

N.N. Obozov offers the following classification of interpersonal relationships: relationships of acquaintance, friendship, comradely, friendly, love, marital, family and destructive. This classification is based on several criteria: the depth of the relationship, selectivity and choice of partners, and the function of the relationship. The main criterion, in his opinion, is the extent and depth of a person’s involvement in a relationship, and additional criteria are the distance between partners, the duration and frequency of contacts, the participation of role clichés in acts of communication, norms of relationships, requirements for the conditions of contact. According to N.N. Obozov, different types of interpersonal relationships involve the inclusion in communication of certain levels of personality characteristics

Interpersonal relationships in a group can be considered statically, in the form in which they have formed at a given point in time, and dynamically, i.e. in the process of development. In the first case, the features of the existing system of relations are analyzed, in the second - the laws of their transformation and development. These two approaches often coexist with each other and complement each other.

Relationships in groups naturally change. At first, at the initial stage of group development, they are relatively indifferent (people who do not know or know each other poorly cannot definitely relate to each other), then they can become conflictual, and under favorable conditions turn into collectivist.

When analyzing the life and activities of an individual person who enters into communication with other people, they most often abstract from the broad understanding of the category “relationship”, taking into account only its narrower meaning, in this case we are talking about interpersonal relationships.

Interpersonal relationships are a type of personality relationship that is revealed in relationships with other people. Interpersonal relationships are emotional in nature. They are accompanied by various experiences (likes and dislikes). The term “relationships” is used to denote interpersonal relationships in psychology.

The main criterion is depth - a measure of a person’s involvement in a relationship. In the structure of a personality, several levels of manifestation of its characteristics can be distinguished: general species, sociocultural, psychological, individual. Sociocultural characteristics include: nationality, profession, education, political and religious affiliation, social status.

Psychological characteristics include: intelligence, motivation, character, temperament, abilities.

To the individual - everything individually unique, determined by the characteristics of a person’s life.

Different types of interpersonal relationships involve the inclusion of different levels of personality in communication. The greatest inclusion of personality, down to individual characteristics, occurs in friendly relationships.

According to the second criterion, the greatest selectivity is characterized by friendship, marital, love relationship. The least selectivity is typical for acquaintance relationships.

The third criterion - the difference in the functions of relationships, means that the functions of relationships are manifested in the difference in their content, psychological meaning for partners.

Functions refer to tasks and issues that are resolved in interpersonal relationships.

In addition to the main ones, additional criteria are identified. These include: the distance between communication partners, the duration and frequency of contacts, the participation of role stereotypes in acts of communication, norms of relationships, requirements for the conditions of contact. The general pattern is as follows: the deeper the relationship, the shorter the distance; the more frequent the contacts, the fewer role clichés.

In friendships, one can distinguish instrumental relationships and emotional-confessional ones.

Emotionally confessional friendships are based on mutual sympathy, emotional attachment, and trust. This type of relationship is characterized by: decreased self-control and looseness in communication, removal of social masks of behavior - the opportunity to be oneself, the predominance of a positive evaluative attitude of partners.

The opposite of friendly relationships is hostile relationships. This type of relationship involves negative emotional attitudes towards the partner. hostile relationships are manifested in a lack of trust, violation of the partner’s plans, obstacles in activities, and deliberate underestimation of the partner’s self-esteem.

Through interpersonal relationships, a person can indirectly become involved in the system of social relations. Initially, such inclusion occurs through a person’s immediate environment, but as they grow older, the boundaries expand. Informal, emotionally rich, personally significant interpersonal relationships create the basis for the formation of personality.

The focus is on M.I. Lisina and her employees were not only the external, behavioral picture of communication, but also the needs and motives of communication, which in essence are relationships. First of all, the concepts of “communication” and “relationship” should be correlated.

Communication was quite widely used in the context of the activity approach and was itself considered as a special type of activity. Interpersonal relationships were included in the problems of communication. At the same time, interpersonal relationships were intensively studied within the framework of relationship psychology, founded by A.L. Lazursky and V.N. Myasishchev.

It is characteristic that the activity approach developed mainly within the framework of theoretical and experimental psychology, and the psychology of relationships developed mainly in the sphere of psychological practice.

In contrast to action, attitude:

.Has no purpose and cannot be arbitrary

2.It is not a process and, therefore, does not have a space-time development; it is a state rather than a process;

.It does not have culturally normalized external means of implementation and, therefore, cannot be presented and assimilated in a generalized form; it is always extremely individual and concrete.

At the same time, attitude is inextricably linked with action. It generates action, changes and transforms in action, and itself is formed and arises in action. Personal meaning is both a formative element of consciousness (which, as is known, precedes action) and main characteristic action and its result. The resulting attitude may be both the source of the action and its product, but it may not be, since the attitude does not always express itself in external activity.

Consider the impact various factors on the structure of formal and informal relations in the study group, features of communication in the student body.

Interpersonal relationships arise and function within each type of social relationship, including during training at a medical college, and allow specific people to express themselves as individuals in acts of communication and interaction.

Communication is a prerequisite for the process of educating and training students. Its role and importance are determined by a number of factors.

Firstly, human life at any level involves the establishment of information connections and contacts, mutual understanding and interaction between people.

Secondly, no human communities, including student groups, can carry out full-fledged joint activities unless contact is established between people and mutual understanding is achieved among them.

Thirdly, the very psychological nature of a person causes him to need the support and help of other people, to study and use their life experience, to gain necessary advice and information, which is especially relevant and necessary for first-year students.

Fourthly, the successful solution of educational tasks, activating students to complete them, making decisions, monitoring the execution of instructions is carried out through communication.

In domestic social psychology, there are three different types of interpersonal communication in their orientation: imperative, manipulation and dialogue.

In the conditions of a medical college, the third type of communication is clearly manifested, i.e. dialogical communication. This is an equal subject-subjective interaction, which aims at mutual knowledge, self-knowledge of communication partners. Its effectiveness is largely determined by strict adherence to the rules: psychological attitude towards the state of the interlocutor; non-evaluative perception of the partner’s personality; perception of the partner as an equal, having his own opinion. Naturally, this type of communication requires the teacher to have extensive experience in working with people, as well as certain personal qualities; restraint, respect for the interlocutor, patience, etc.

Imperative communication is an authoritarian, directive form of interaction with a communication partner. They resort to it in order to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of a partner, forcing him to take certain actions. The peculiarity of imperative communication is that the partner is a passive party. At the same time, during communication, its ultimate goal, its coercive nature, is not hidden.

Manipulative communication is one of the forms of interpersonal communication in which influence on a partner to achieve one’s intentions is carried out covertly. With manipulative communication, the goal is also to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person, but in this case the partner is not informed about the true goals of communication. They either hide or are replaced by others. Most often, manipulation is used in business relations and in the field of propaganda. Manipulative communication is not acceptable in a medical college, as it can lead to mistrust on the part of students.

The effectiveness of communication depends on individual, personal and socio-psychological conditions and prerequisites. In psychology, these include: a clear understanding of the goals of communication; the presence of appropriate motives; mastery of means of communication; the communication skills and knowledge of the communicants are well formed.

The central component of the psychology of the student body, the core of the socio-psychological climate in it, is the relationship between students in two main forms.

When considering the dynamics of student relationships, it is necessary to take into account the features, specific manifestations and contradictions characteristic of adolescence at the stage of transition to maturity.

Self-esteem is an important regulator of human behavior; relationships with others, criticality and demands on oneself, and attitude towards one’s successes and failures depend on it. Self-esteem greatly influences our perception of others.R. Nemov writes that one of the facts that definitely influences the correctness of people’s perception of each other is the primacy effect.

Its essence is that the primary impression of a person, the first personal information received about him, can have a strong, lasting influence on the formation of the image. The primary impression of a person is influenced by such little things as gestures, facial expressions, appearance, speech, and therefore, with low self-esteem, it is difficult to actually make a good impression, since low self-esteem, in the first place, prevents a person from revealing himself as an individual and realizing his potential.

When communicating with a person with low self-esteem, he feels the person’s attitude toward himself on a subconscious level (subconsciously picking up facial expressions, gestures, intonations) and an elementary law comes into play: “Why would I make extra efforts and treat the person better than he expects?” People with low self-esteem generally do not strive for a leadership position in a team.

The most important feature of interpersonal relationships is that the emotional component plays a very significant role in information. This is not the case in other types of relations, such as industrial and political. The content and degree of expression of emotions and feelings that students can experience in relation to each other are extremely diverse: a deep sense of respect, indifference, hatred, willingness to sacrifice everything for a friend. All emotions and feelings associated with interpersonal relationships can be divided into two large groups - a group of positive and a group of negative feelings and emotions.

The first group includes bringing together and unifying feelings, in which the subjects of the relationship demonstrate readiness and desire for cooperation, joint actions (feelings of sympathy and respect for the other, positive emotions, manifested as a consequence of a high assessment of his moral, business and other qualities).

The second group includes bringing together and unifying feelings, when there is no desire to cooperate, interaction becomes impossible, antipathy, contempt, and negative emotions arise.

Likes and dislikes, as an important psychological element of interpersonal relationships, affect the psychological climate of the group, and sometimes of the entire course, especially if likes or dislikes arise between the leaders of microgroups. No less significantly the nature of interpersonal relationships is influenced by the position of the individual in the system of group relations, which is characterized, first of all, by his status and the roles he performs.

Status is the position of a subject in interpersonal relationships. Status assigns a social function to a person by normatively endowing him with rights and responsibilities. Status is realized through a system of roles, that is, various functions that a person performs in accordance with his position in the group. Role behavior is relatively flexible; it can change and improve depending on the situation and the dynamics of the individual. Therefore, the role can be considered a dynamic aspect of status.

The totality of subordinate positions of a group in the system of intragroup interpersonal preferences forms the sociometric structure of a small group. A system of emotional likes and dislikes between group members that determine the unofficial sociometric status of a group member.

The sociometric status of a group member is a fairly stable value. The value is not only preserved, but also “transfers” with the student to another group. The explanation for this is very simple. Status is a group category and does not exist outside the group; the student gets used to fulfilling the roles assigned to him by his permanent status position. Certain habitual forms of response to the words and actions of others are fixed in behavior. Facial expressions, postures and other non-verbal reactions are also “adjusted” to a certain role.

Some psychological and social factors influence the magnitude of a student’s sociometric status. Firstly, appearance - facial expression, clothing, hairstyle, physique; secondly, the nature of speech - what is said and how, the content and form of communication style; thirdly, behavior - the nature of actions, their motives, manner of behavior; fourthly, activity - what and how the student does, goals, motives and methods of activity, its quality. Each group has a system of its own valuable qualities for this community. High status is given to those who possess them in due measure.

A student's status often depends on his position in other groups and the success of his activities. A student who has distinguished himself in sports and amateur performances can improve his position in the group and on the course.

Each status includes a number of roles. For example, a student who has the status of a prefect behaves differently with other students. The set of roles corresponding to a given status is called role-playing set. There are formal roles, which are performed in accordance with the officially assigned status, and informal ones (“the soul of the group”, “the ringleader”). With long-term interactions, roles become stable. And in the future they greatly influence the behavior of the individual and his actions.

The relationship between status and role in formal and informal groups is different. In a formal group, statuses are normatively defined and delimited. A person first occupies a status (appointed or elected to a position), and then begins to perform a role. There may be cases of occupying a status without playing a role or with playing a role. In an informal group, a person performs a role while occupying a status.

From this it is obvious that the important point is the choice of the group's asset. This should be preceded by long and labor-intensive work by the class teacher to analyze the existing interpersonal relationships in the group. In the future, the psychological climate in the study group, as well as the effectiveness of solving problems of various kinds, will depend on this choice. The optimal option is when members of the active group are also leaders of microgroups.

The study of microgroups in a student group, the ability to distinguish between them is an integral part of the work of the class teacher, and he must understand that such groups exist within the framework of any small social community. Numerous subgroups are not very stable. Within the microgroup, their own norms and rules of group life are established, and it is the microgroup that most often initiates changes in these groups. A student entering a new group first of all faces the choice of a microgroup that would accept him and approve of his behavior. The teacher in his work must act taking into account the reaction of the microgroup, especially those of them who occupy dominant positions.

A significant influence on the nature of interpersonal relationships is exerted by the structure of social power in a group, which, realized through the actual or potential right to influence on the part of certain group members, can be exercised in various forms, among which the phenomena of leadership and management are the most studied.

§1. The problem of interpersonal relationships in domestic and foreign psychology

Currently, there is a large number of psychological studies devoted to various aspects of the problem of interpersonal relationships.

The developments of domestic psychologists are based on the ideas of B.G. Ananyev and V.N. Myasishchev about the nature of interpersonal interaction, in which three components can be distinguished: people’s knowledge of each other, their relationship to each other in the form of an emotional response, and the treatment of a person with a person in the process of communication.

B.G. Ananyev considers communication as a social and individual phenomenon simultaneously manifested in information, communication and the transformation of a person’s inner world, which occurs in various specific situations communication and interaction of people. At the same time, he establishes the relationship between external conditions and interpersonal communication, and also makes an attempt to determine the optimal amount of communication that is necessary for the development of the individual as a whole. He considered the main directions of the influence of communication on the formation of the mental world of the individual and the relationship of communication with other types of professional activity of the individual (1982).

V.N. Myasishchev viewed communication as a process of interaction between specific individuals influencing each other in a certain way. In his works, he analyzed the influence of conditions that can promote or hinder interpersonal interaction, as well as the role of communication in personality development (1973).

A person's self-awareness is possible only through his relationships with others. This idea was expressed most clearly by S.L. Rubinstein in his last work “Man and the World”: “I” cannot be revealed as an object of direct awareness, through relationships with oneself, isolated from other people. The initial condition for my existence is the existence of personality, subjects with consciousness, the existence of the psyche, the consciousness of other people."

The approach outlined by Rubinstein is developed in his works by K.A. Albukhanov-Slavskaya, for whom the central point of self-determination is self-determination, one’s own activity, a conscious desire to take a certain position. Bye. Albukhanova-Slavskaya, self-determination is an individual’s awareness of his position, which is formed within the coordinates of the system of relations. At the same time, she emphasizes that the self-determination and social activity of the individual depend on how the system of relations develops (to the collective subject, to one’s place in the team and to its other members).

The development and experimental solution of problems of interpersonal communication at the intersection of philosophy and general psychology was carried out by B.F. Lomov, in the field of general and social psychology G.M. Andreeva and A.V. Petrovsky, general psychology, psycholinguistics - A.A. Leontiev, social and differential psychology - A.A. Bodalev, V.A. Kan-Kalik, interpersonal perception was studied by A.A. Bodalev, G. A Kovalev and others.

In the studies of A.A. Bodalev considers interpersonal communication that occurs in the process of joint activity and is its means. It is noted that in the process of official business communication all components of interpersonal communication are present, but they acquire the character of the most important factor in the effectiveness of professional activity.

The study of interpersonal relations at the interethnic level was carried out by L. Ahnert, M.I. Volovikova, L.R. Goldberg, V.V. Znakov, A.G. Shmelev, A.I. Egorova and others, who in their research drew attention to the influence of interethnic differences on the nature of interpersonal relationships.

The role and place of interpersonal relationships in the educational space was emphasized by A.A. Rean, Ya.L. Kolominsky, D.N. Isaev, V.E. Kagan, N.E. Kolyzaeva, I.S. Kohn, V.A. Losenkov, T.V. Kornilova, E.L. Grigorenko, T.S. Koshmanova, N.V. Kuzmina and others.

Stylistic features of interpersonal interaction were studied by T.E. Argentova, G.A. Berulava, L.I. Wasserman, V.A. Goryanina, E.A. Klimov, V.N. Kunitsyna, V.V. Latynov, V.S. Merlin and others.

The analysis of interpersonal family relationships was carried out by A.N. Volkova, V.P. Levkovich, A.E. Lichko, T.M. Mishina, A.N. Obozova, T.G. Rybakova, V.A. Smekhov, T.M. Trapeznikova, A.M. Shershevsky, E.G. Eidmiller, V.V. Justitsky and others.

The study of interpersonal relationships based on the activity approach was carried out by E.V. Zalyubovskaya, N.V. Kuzmina and others.

The influence of feelings and emotions on the nature of relationships between people was studied by D.I. Dzhidaryan, K.E. Izard, I. S. Kohn, V.A. Labunskaya, N.D. Levitov, K.S. Lewis, Y.A. Mendzheritskaya, K. Muzdybaev, I.M. Paley and others.

In the study of various problems of management psychology (E.E. Vendrov, F. Genov, B.F. Lomov, V.M. Shepeli and others, the large role of interpersonal communication in achieving the final result of professional activity is also noted, while the psychological characteristics of such communication , is mainly determined by the goals, objectives, and structure of specific professional activities.

In foreign psychology, more than a dozen major trends have emerged that study interpersonal relationships. Blackock and P. Wilkin developed a behavioral approach based on dyadic interaction theory (1979).

American psychologist E. Erikson, in his book Young Luther (1958), developed his theory of the formation of personal identity. The book examines the concept of "moratorium" - a period of apparent inaction or withdrawal, search and reflection, which in young people precedes the achievements of maturity. Erikson examines Luther's "identity crisis" and the way Luther overcomes his internal conflicts.

In his book Childhood and Society (1950), Erikson emphasized the importance of adolescence and other periods in a person's life. From his point of view, the life cycle is determined by a sequence of crises that are resolved and give way to new ones, thanks to which the individual realizes his capabilities. A person at any age can either be in agreement with himself, or he can be torn apart by internal contradictions. Rejecting psychological determinism, Erikson emphasized the role of a wide range of influences that shape development not only in childhood, but also in adolescence, adulthood, and old age.

E. Erikson collected his essays in the book Understanding and Responsibility (1964) and Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968).

R. Burns, one of the leading English scientists in the field of psychology, who was seriously involved in issues of self-knowledge, defines the concept as follows: “Self-concept is the totality of all a person’s ideas about himself, associated with their assessment. The descriptive component of the Self-concept is often called the image of the Self or picture of the Self. The component associated with the attitude towards oneself or to one’s individual qualities is called self-esteem or self-acceptance, in essence, it determines not just what an individual is, but also what he thinks about himself, how he looks. on its active beginning and development opportunities in the future."

It should be noted that any of the images of the self has a complex origin, ambiguous in its structure, consisting of three aspects of the relationship: physical, emotional, mental and social self.

The study of specific interaction conditions that increase or decrease the effectiveness of interpersonal cooperation was carried out by G. Allport (1950), K. Stefan (1985), S. Cook (1956).

Research on the influence of minorities as a source of innovation in society belongs to S. Muscovy (1976), D. Levine (1980), M. Dome and E. Van Evermeet (19800

In the works of U. Duaz, G. Gerard, M. Hoyt (1974), G. Tajfel (1971), D. Turner (1975) identified very important mechanisms of interpersonal interaction based on the formation of an individual’s sense of identity with the group.

The problem of interpersonal relationships in a small group was the focus of attention of R. Bales, S. Milgram, S. Moscovia, F. Shambo, M. Shaw and other authors.

Relations between people incline researchers to analyze interpersonal relationships using physical concepts by D. Homans (1950) and the doctrine of economic man by D. Thibault and G. Keley (1959). To get closer to the real picture of the world, some scientists are beginning to take the opposite path - the path of complicating the model of interpersonal processes by including more and more external and internal variables that influence people's behavior.

T. Wilder, describing interpersonal relationships, introduced the expression “constellation of significant”: each person should have 2 * 9 people spiritually close to him (men and women, among whom are older than him in age, his peers and younger in age. Rarely, but maybe never be, these 18 vacancies are filled at the same time: some places remain unfilled - some for many years, some have an older or younger friend all their lives, and sometimes there are none. The more vacancies in this constellation of interpersonal relationships, the more a person suffers from loneliness. (1991).

The development of the theory of interpersonal interaction was significantly influenced by the ideas of one of the founders of humanistic psychology, C. Rogers (1993), who identified three main conditions for dialogic communication:

a) naturalness and spontaneity in the expression of feelings and sensations that arise between partners at each specific moment of interaction

b) an unconditionally positive attitude towards other people and towards oneself, caring about the other and accepting him as an equal communication partner

c) empathic understanding, the ability to accurately and adequately empathize with the feelings, moods, thoughts of another during contacts with him.

The theory of structural balance, the theory of communicative acts, the theory of congruence, and the theory of causal attribution made a great contribution to understanding the characteristics of interpersonal communication.

According to F. Heider, one of the authors of the theory of structural balance, these judgments express ideas about a person’s desire for a balanced cognitive structure. Precisely because the analytical model of these theories includes three obligatory elements, namely, a cognizing subject, another subject, to which the first relates in a certain way, and, finally, an object about which both the perceiver and his partner have some kind of opinion - then research situations essentially turn out to be situations of interpersonal interaction, and the researcher’s task, according to this theory, is to determine which type of relationship between the three designated elements gives a stable balanced structure, and which causes a situation of discomfort.

According to T. Newcome, in accordance with the theory of communicative acts, the similarity of relationships will give rise to hostility between them. To bring the system into a state of balance, it is necessary to conduct negotiations, the purpose of which will be to bring closer the positions of A and B in relation to the subject of disagreement. This model has found its application in the study of small communication processes, namely, in determining the conditions for the effectiveness of persuasive speech influence on the consumer of information (1972)

An important contribution of cognitivism to the study of interpersonal relationships is the study of such a phenomenon as causal attribution, that is, how people interpret the reasons for the behavior of other people in conditions of insufficient information about these reasons, and in the theory of interpersonal relationships, special importance is attached to attribution regarding the behavior of a partner. interaction (E. Jones, 1990; K. Davis, 1997; D. Kelly, 1958, etc.).

The so-called “second cognitive revolution” by R. Harré (19960 and K. Gergen (1986)) in their studies on discursive psychology and the theory of social constructivism, drew attention to the fact that the main field of research becomes language, that is, the study of oral and written language communication occurring in normal, natural conditions. The main object of the study is the participants in the conversation, the “community of interlocutors,” and it is argued that speech not only serves human activity, but constructs both types of activity and interpersonal relationships.

Particular attention is paid to the problem of interpersonal attractiveness, the study of which is presented in the works of E. Aronson, E. Berschild, L. Lee, K. Libertan, L. Peplow, E. Walster, etc.

S. Dak in his works on social psychology paid considerable attention to the relationships between people. B.T. Johnson and A.H. Igli studied the reasons for the manifestation of aggressiveness in relationships between people.A. Feingold attached great importance to the analysis of interpersonal relationships.R. Hogan, G. Kurfi, D. Hogan analyzed the problem of leadership in interpersonal relationships.H. Kim, s. Falbe, G. Yukl developed problems of subordination in interpersonal relationships.

A great contribution to understanding the characteristics of interpersonal communication was made by: the theory of structural balance F. Heider, the theory of congruence C. Osgood. Attracting attention are studies carried out in line with the theory of attachment (D. Bowlby and M. Ainsworth), according to which, as a result of the internalization of relationships with the object of primary attachment (first mother, then teacher, then peer, lover, etc.) stable forms develop , interpersonal relationships.

Particularly interesting works of this kind include the fundamental work of H. Blalock and M. Wilkin on the formal description of interpersonal processes (1979). Specialist in the field family psychotherapy V. Satir identifies the most important components of interpersonal relationships between family members (1992).

§ 2. Features of interpersonal relationships in adolescence

Youth is a period of a person’s life, located ontogenetically between adolescence and adulthood, early youth. It is in youth that the formation of a person as an individual occurs, when a young person, having gone through the difficult path of ontogenetic identification of likeness to other people, appropriated from them socially significant personality traits, the ability to empathize, to have an active moral attitude towards people, towards himself and towards nature; the ability to assimilate conventional roles, norms, rules of behavior in society, etc.

Youth, which accounts for the fifth stage in E. Erikson’s life cycle diagram, is considered very important period in human psychosocial development. E. Erikson's theoretical interest in this age and the problems characteristic of it prompted him to analyze this phase more deeply than other stages of the development of the “I”.

A new psychosocial parameter that appears in adolescence appears on the positive pole in the form of self-identity, on the negative pole - in the form of role displacement. The task that young people face is to bring together all the knowledge they have by this time about themselves (what kind of sons or daughters they are, students, athletes, musicians, etc.) and combine, include these numerous images of themselves into one's self-identity, which represents the awareness of both the past and the future that logically follows from it.

E. Erikson (1982) emphasizes the psychosocial essence of the sense of self-identity of the “I”, paying close attention not to conflicts between psychological structures, but rather to the conflict within the “I” itself - that is, to the conflict of self-identity and role displacement. The main emphasis is on the self and how it is influenced by society, especially peer groups. Therefore, the self-identity of the “I” can be defined as follows.

In the definition of self-identity given by E. Erikson, three elements can be distinguished. First: young men and women must constantly perceive themselves as “internally identical to themselves.” In this case, the individual must form an image of himself, formed in the past and connecting with the future.

Second, significant others must also see “identity and wholeness” in the individual. This means that young people need confidence that the internal integrity they previously developed will be accepted by other people who are significant to them. To the extent that they may be unaware of both their self-concepts and their social images, their emerging sense of self-identity may be counteracted by doubt, timidity, and apathy.

Third: young people must achieve “increased confidence” that the internal and external plans of this wholeness are consistent with each other. Their perceptions of themselves must be confirmed by interpersonal experience through feedback.

According to E. Erikson, the basis for a favorable youth and the acquisition of a holistic sense of self-identity is laid in childhood. However, beyond what adolescents take away from their childhood, the development of their self-identity is strongly influenced by the social groups with which they identify.

For example, E. Erikson drew attention to the fact that excessive identification with popular heroes (movie stars, super-athletes, rock musicians) or representatives of the counterculture (revolutionary leaders, skinheads, delinquent individuals) snatches the “flourishing self-identity” from the existing social environment, suppressing thereby personality and limiting the growth of its self-identity.

In addition, the search for self-identity may be a more difficult process for certain groups of people. Rejecting parents as models for their self-identity, adolescents often seek alternative sources of support from peers as they redefine their self-image.

The problem of self-identity for young people is also becoming immeasurably more complicated in connection with extremely rapid social changes, requiring a revision of basic values ​​and norms.

The crisis of self-identity is manifested, at least recently, in three main areas of behavior of young people. These are: a) membership in a peer group b) the problem of choosing a career c) alcohol and drug use.

In our culture, ties to peer groups are very strong during this period; their influence on the values ​​and attitudes of young men and women is often greater than the influence of parents, schools, religious organizations or any other social structure (Massoby 1990). These groups help young people maintain their self-confidence at a time when they are experiencing truly physiological and ideological changes. By being aware of their own feelings, as well as being concerned about their peers, adolescents develop the ability to cope with other puzzling and sometimes frightening situations.

E. Erikson noted that the uniformity of clothing, body movements and facial expressions so often observed in youth is a defense against a confused, uncertain self-identity (1968). When young boys and girls do not clearly understand what they are, imitating their peers in clothing and behavior gives some sense of inner stability and security. In addition, their jewelry, hairstyle and music symbolize distance from parents and everything connected with the adult world.

According to E. Erikson, the inability to professional self-determination is a cause of serious concern for many young people. Simply put, in order to make a decision on choosing a profession, a teenager must determine what he is like. Since in our society different types of professional employment correspond to different lifestyles, choosing a career essentially turns into choosing a lifestyle as a whole. To do right choice, young people need to have a true understanding of themselves, as well as an informed assessment of where they could best fit into working life. Ultimately, the choice of a particular career can in itself give an idea of ​​what type of person a young man or woman wants to become.

Hesitation in choosing a profession among young people is often a manifestation of a more fundamental uncertainty in the sphere of their own self-identity.

Extremely wide distribution of all kinds narcotic drugs recreational activities, of which alcohol is the most common, shows that there is no simple explanation for what factors lead adolescents to use or become dependent on alcohol and drugs.

Depending on the specific person and the specific drug, the motives for starting to use drugs can be different: from curiosity, the search for thrills, peer pressure and the desire to earn their approval, escape from stress and rebellion against authority, the desire for self-knowledge, self-improvement. If these motives are considered in the context of E. Erikson’s theory, then their connection with the feeling of insufficient self-identity becomes clear. Young people who do not know who they are may find the experience of drinking and drugs very attractive in "groping" for the outer boundaries of their self. They assume that they will be able to discover a dimension of themselves that eludes them precisely when they are in sober, “correct” world.

Alcohol and drug use can temporarily alleviate the emotional stress that accompanies an identity crisis. Hesitating in choosing a profession, conflicting with parents, entering into fragile and unreliable relationships with peers, boys and girls can treat drugs as a means of immediately helping them go beyond themselves. Moreover, when they are in the same company with peers who use drugs, it is not difficult to understand how they can be “pressured,” especially if their status in the group also depends on drug use. A person with an established self-identity may resist such pressure, but adolescents with a diffuse self-identity may have difficulty complying.

It would be a mistake to believe that all aspects of adolescent behavior can be explained from the perspective of Erikson's theory. However, the concept of identity crisis is a preeminent theoretical approach for understanding many psychological problems of adolescence. In attempting to explain the basic lines of psychosocial development, Erikson made many lasting contributions.

Also, special neoplasms are characteristic of this age.

Age-related neoplasms are qualitative shifts in personality development on individual age stages. They reveal the peculiarities of mental processes, states, and personality traits that characterize its transition to a higher degree of organization and functioning. Neoplasms of adolescence cover the cognitive, emotional, motivational, and volitional spheres of the psyche. They also manifest themselves in the structure of the personality: in interests, needs, inclinations, and character.

Central mental processes adolescence are the development of consciousness and self-awareness. Due to the development of consciousness in the youth environment and to one’s own activities, the leading activity of the period of adolescence is educational and professional activity.

To the neoplasms of youth I.S. Kohn attributes the development of independent logical thinking, figurative memory, individual style mental activity, interest in scientific research

The most important new development of this period is the development of self-education, that is, self-knowledge, and its essence is an attitude towards oneself. It includes a cognitive element (discovery of one’s “I,” a conceptual element (an idea of ​​one’s individuality, qualities and essence) and an evaluative-volitional element (self-esteem, self-respect).

The main condition for the normal formation of personality is the experience of its emotional well-being. Self-esteem, the core characteristic of personality, depends on it. Emotional well-being is determined by the positive assessment of others. If a person experiences emotional well-being in a team, then its values ​​and norms are perceived by him as his own, and an active position becomes significant and attractive. Only a benevolent attitude can awaken people's activity.

The development of reflection, that is, self-knowledge in the form of reflection on one’s own experiences, sensations and thoughts, causes a critical reassessment of previously established values ​​and the meaning of life - perhaps their change and further development.

The meaning of life is the most important new formation of early youth. I.S. Cohn notes that it is during this period of life that everything becomes globally encompassing, taking into account the short and long term.

In adolescence, individualization of the individual is more pronounced; they form personal relationships that become especially important.

Friendship is the most important kind emotional attachment and interpersonal relationships of adolescence. Very often you can hear the opinion that under the influence of the increased mobility of society, the acceleration of the rhythm of life and the expansion of the circle of friends, the friendships of modern youth are becoming more superficial and extensive, that the ideal of exclusive and deep paired friendship, the friendship of Herzen and Ogarev, does not correspond to today's conditions that friendship is being replaced by wide groups of friends based on common entertainment, etc. But complaints about the impoverishment of friendship were heard at the beginning of our century, and in the era of romanticism, and in the Middle Ages, and in antiquity

The highest moral values ​​- and friendship has always been considered such - have always been in short supply

The age dynamics of friendship, like other interpersonal relationships, are measured primarily by the degree of its selectivity, stability and intimacy. All these qualities increase with the transition from childhood to adolescence and from adolescence to youth.

The older a person is, the less influence external, situational factors have on his friendships. In youth, friendship can be maintained at a distance, since it is already internalized.

The increase in selectivity of friendships is accompanied by an increase in their stability. In the sphere of interpersonal relationships, this is expressed in an increase in tolerance: a quarrel, which in younger adolescents would mean the end of a friendship, in youth is perceived as a detail that can be neglected in order to preserve a deeper community.

Adolescence is the stage of making responsible decisions, one of which is the choice of profession. A student’s attitude toward a profession is determined by: his professional awareness, the dominant motivation for choice, and the personal qualities required by a particular profession.

The motives of a person are those internal forces that are associated with needs and encourage him to perform certain activities. Issues of the formation of professional motives, motives for choosing a profession are reflected in numerous works of domestic authors: I.S. Kona, E.A. Klimova, L.I. Bozhovich, V.D. Shadrikova, N.I. Kalugina.

The process of choosing a profession involves not one motive, but several. The variety of motives for choosing a profession can be reduced to three groups: a person chooses a profession because he likes the work process itself; because he understands how society needs the profession; because he wants to alleviate the suffering of the sick.

In adolescence, the group of peers retains the same important place in the lives of children as in adolescents. However, the nature of dependence on the collective is changing, and the demands of young men on the groups of which they are members are also changing. If the main thing for a teenager is to be included in collective relationships, then for boys and girls it is important not only to be accepted by their peers, but also to have a certain status in the group.

As for the nature of the structure of relationships in youth groups, it is significantly differentiated and stable. The difference in the position of the “stars” and the rejected or isolated members of the group becomes sharper.

A developed system of relationships in a group is the result of its formation as a psychological community.

Adolescence is not a phase of “preparation for life,” but an extremely important stage with independent, absolute value. life path. Will there be teenage years happy and creative, or whether they will remain in the memory of today's student as filled with petty conflicts, dull cramming and bitching, largely depends on the atmosphere prevailing in college, on his own relationships with teachers and peers.

Chapter II. Empirical research interpersonal relationships

§ 1. Organization, methods and procedure of the study

Purpose of the study:consideration of theoretical and practical aspects problems of interpersonal relationships in the student body

Research objectives:

1.Conduct an analysis of domestic and foreign literature, covering interpersonal relationships.

2.To measure the degree of cohesion in a student group, to identify the status of group members based on signs of sympathy and antipathy, to detect microgroups

.Analyze practical questions interpersonal relationships of students using the example of first-year students

.Develop recommendations for the formation of interpersonal relationships in a student group

Object of study- interpersonal relationships

Subject of research- formation of interpersonal relationships

Hypothesis:the level of interpersonal relationships between students will improve with the help of remedial classes in interpersonal relationships

Research stages:

.Selection of literature and search for experimental base

2.Comparative experimental and diagnostic studies of interpersonal relationships in adolescence

.Conducting classes aimed at improving interpersonal relationships

.Formative experimental and diagnostic studies

To solve the problems we used following methods research:

.Comparative method

2.Ascertaining and forming experiments

.Method of analysis of primary and secondary data processing

The study involved first-year subjects (students) of the experimental and control groups. The techniques were carried out on one day, which made it possible to exclude the influence of temporary situational factors. These organizational measures made it possible to increase the reliability of the results obtained.

In our study we used the following methods:

.Questionnaire "Motivation for going to college"; "Motive for choosing a medical specialty"

2.Sociometry "Method of sociometric measurements"

.Drawing test "Non-existent animal"

To analyze the motivation of students to enroll in medical college and the motive for choosing a medical specialty, the following methodology was proposed - a survey.

Questionnaire No. 1

Dear student! Answer the question: "Why did you go to medical school?" Underline one answer. (Questions for questionnaire No. 1, Appendix 1) The results are processed using a five-point system. Questions 1-5 b; 2-4 b; 3-1 b; 4-3 b; 5-2 b.

Questionnaire No. 2

Dear student! Answer one question: “What prompted you to choose medical specialty"Underline one answer. (Questions for questionnaire No. 2 Appendix 1) The results are processed using a five-point system. Questions 1-4 b; 2-5 b; 3-3 b; 4-1b; 5 - 2 b.

To identify the student’s position in the system of interpersonal relationships, the sociometric method of J. Moreno is used.

Diagnostic goal:

a) measuring the degree of cohesion-disunity in the group;

b) identification of “sociometric positions”

c) detection of intragroup subsystems, cohesive formations, which may be headed by informal leaders

Sociometric methodology is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations with a view to their further change. Obviously, some aspects of the children’s relationships may be hidden from the teacher, due to the formality of the situation or the personal characteristics of the teacher himself.

The sociometric procedure is as follows.

There cannot be complete anonymity in this technique, otherwise sociometry will be ineffective. When sociometry criteria are selected, they are entered into a special card. When conducting a survey with limited choices, to the right of each criterion, as many graphs are drawn on the card as the number of choices we expect to allow in a given group (Appendix 2). Each member of the group is obliged to answer them, choosing certain members of the group depending on their greater or lesser inclination, their preference over others, likes, or vice versa, antipathies, trust or distrust. You cannot select members of other groups. As a result of the sociometric procedure and simple statistical calculations, it is possible to identify “leaders”, “preferred”, “rejected” in the group. It is possible to calculate indices of group cohesion and emotional expansiveness of the group.

First you need to build a sociomatrix. The election results are posted on the matrix. Analysis of the sociomatrix for each criterion gives a fairly clear picture of the relationships in the group. The main advantage of the sociomatrix is ​​the ability to represent elections in numerical form, which in turn allows you to rank group members according to the number of elections received and given, and to establish the order of influences in a particular group.

Based on the sociomatrix, a sociogram is constructed - a map of sociometric elections. A sociogram allows for a comparative analysis of the structure of relationships in a group in space on the “shield” plane with the help of special signs.

Analysis of the sociogram begins with finding the central, most influential members, then mutual pairs and groupings. Groups are made up of interconnected individuals who seek to choose each other.

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………..3

1. THE PROBLEM OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND INTERACTION OF PEOPLE………………………………………………………………………………………5

1.1. The purpose and objectives of interpersonal interaction……………………5

1.2. Features of interpersonal relationships and human interaction…………………………………………………………………………………..7

2.1. Functions of communication in interpersonal relationships………………...10

2.2. Structure of communication in interpersonal relationships……………….14

2.3. Types of communication in the system of interpersonal relations……………15

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………..19

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST…………………………………………..21

APPENDIX……………………………………………………………….22

INTRODUCTION

Human interaction with the outside world is carried out in a system of objective relations that develop between people in their social life.

Objective relationships and connections inevitably and naturally arise in any real group. A reflection of these objective relationships between group members are subjective interpersonal relationships, which are studied by social psychology.

The main way to study interpersonal interaction and interaction within a group is an in-depth study of various social factors, as well as the interaction of people within a given group. No human community can carry out full-fledged joint activities unless contact is established between the people included in it and proper mutual understanding is not achieved between them. So, for example, in order for a teacher to teach something to students, he must enter into communication with them.

Communication is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities.

Over the past 20-25 years, the study of the problem of communication has become one of the leading areas of research in psychological science, and especially in social psychology. Its movement to the center of psychological research is explained by a change in the methodological situation that has clearly emerged in social psychology in the last two decades. From a subject of research, communication has simultaneously turned into a method, a principle for studying, first, cognitive processes, and then the personality of a person as a whole.

This course work will examine communication in the system of interpersonal relationships and human interaction.

The subject of this course work is to determine the place of communication in the structure of interpersonal interaction and interaction between people. The goal is to study the features of communication in the system of interpersonal interaction and communication between people. The objectives of this course work are:

1. Consider the features of interpersonal relationships, interpersonal interaction.

2.Study the specifics of communication in the system of interpersonal relationships.

To structure the numerous results of research on interpersonal interaction, a systematic approach is used, the elements of which are the subject, the object and the process of interpersonal interaction.

1. THE PROBLEM OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND INTERACTION

1.1. The purpose and objectives of interpersonal interaction

The concept of “person's perception by person” is not enough to fully understand people. Subsequently, the concept of “understanding a person” was added to it, which involves connecting other cognitive processes to the process of human perception. The effectiveness of perception is associated with socio-psychological observation - a personality trait that allows it to capture subtle, but essential for his understanding, features in a person’s behavior.

The characteristics of the perceiver depend on gender, age, nationality, temperament, health, attitudes, communication experience, professional and personal characteristics, etc.

With age, emotional states differentiate. A person perceives the world around him through the prism of his national way of life. Those people who have a higher level of social intelligence are more successful in identifying various mental states and interpersonal relationships; the object of cognition is both the physical and social appearance of a person; perception initially captures the physical appearance, which includes physiological, functional and paralinguistic characteristics. Anatomical (somatic) features include height, head, etc. Physiological characteristics include breathing, blood circulation, sweating, etc. Functional features include posture, posture and gait, linguistic (non-verbal) communication features include facial expressions, gestures, body movements. Unambiguous emotions are easy to differentiate, but mixed and unexpressed mental states are much more difficult to recognize. Social appearance presupposes the social design of appearance, speech, paralinguistic, proxemic and activity characteristics. Social appearance (appearance) includes a person’s clothing, shoes, singing and other accessories. Proxemic features of communication refer to the state between the communicators and their relative position. An example from fiction that demonstrates the ability to determine place of birth and profession by characteristics is phonetics professor Higgins from the play Pygmalion. Extralinguistic features of speech presuppose the originality of the voice, timbre, pitch, etc. When perceiving a person, social features, in comparison with the physical appearance, are the most informative. 1

The process of human cognition includes mechanisms that distort ideas about what is perceived, mechanisms of interpersonal cognition, feedback from the object, and the conditions in which perception occurs. Mechanisms that distort the emerging image of what is perceived limit the possibility of objective knowledge of people. The most significant of them are: the mechanism of primacy, or novelty (which boils down to the fact that the first impression of what is perceived influences the subsequent formation of the image of the cognizable object); projection mechanism (transfer to people of the mental characteristics of the perceivers); the mechanism of stereotyping (attributing the perceived person to one of the types of people known to the subject); the mechanism of ethnocentrism (passing all information through a filter associated with the ethnic lifestyle of the perceiver).

To perceive a person and understand him, the subject unconsciously chooses various mechanisms of interpersonal cognition. The main mechanism is the interpretation (correlation) of personal experience of knowing people in general with perception this person. The identification mechanism in interpersonal cognition represents the identification of oneself with another person. The subject also uses the mechanism of causal attribution (attributing to the perceived certain motives and reasons that explain his actions and other characteristics). The mechanism of reflection of another person in interpersonal cognition includes the subject’s awareness of how he is perceived by the object. In interpersonal perception and understanding of an object, there is a fairly strict order of functioning of the mechanisms of interpersonal cognition (from simple to complex).

In the course of interpersonal cognition, the subject takes into account information coming to him through various sensory channels, indicating a change in the state of the communication partner. Feedback from the object of perception performs an informative and corrective function for the subject in the process of perceiving the object.

The conditions for the perception of a person by a person include situations, time and place of communication. Reducing the time when perceiving an object reduces the ability of the perceiver to obtain sufficient information about it. With prolonged and close contact, evaluators begin to show condescension and favoritism.

1.2. Features of interpersonal relationships and human interaction

Interpersonal relationships are an integral part of interaction and are considered in its context. Interpersonal relationships are objectively experienced, to varying degrees perceived, relationships between people. They are based on the various emotional states of interacting people and their psychological characteristics. Unlike business relationships, interpersonal connections are sometimes called expressive and emotional.

The development of interpersonal relationships is determined by gender, age, nationality and many other factors. Women have a much smaller social circle than men. In interpersonal communication, they feel the need for self-disclosure, transferring personal information about themselves to others. They more often complain of loneliness (I.S. Kon). For women, characteristics that manifest themselves in interpersonal relationships are more significant, and for men, business qualities are more significant. In different national communities, interpersonal connections are built taking into account a person’s position in society, gender and age status, belonging to various social strata, etc. 2

The process of development of interpersonal relationships includes dynamics, a mechanism for regulating interpersonal relationships and the conditions for their development.

Interpersonal relationships develop dynamically: they are born, consolidated, reach a certain maturity, after which they can gradually weaken. The dynamics of the development of interpersonal relationships go through several stages: acquaintance, friendly, comradely and friendly relations. Dating takes place depending on the sociocultural norms of society. Friendly relationships form readiness for further development of interpersonal relationships. At the stage of comradely relations, there is a convergence of views and support for each other (it’s not for nothing that they say “act like a comrade”, “comrade in arms”). Friendly relationships have a common subject content - common interests, goals of activity, etc. We can distinguish utilitarian (instrumental-business) and emotionally expressive (emotional-confessional) friendship (I. S. Kon).

The mechanism for the development of interpersonal relationships is empathy - the response of one person to the experiences of another. Empathy has several levels (N. N. Obozov). The first level includes cognitive empathy, which manifests itself in the form of understanding the mental state of another person (without changing one’s state). The second level involves empathy in the form of not only understanding the state of the object, but also empathy with it, i.e. emotional empathy. The third level includes cognitive, emotional and, most importantly, behavioral components. This level involves interpersonal identification, which is mental (perceived and understood), sensory (empathetic) and effective. There are complex hierarchically organized relationships between these three levels of empathy. Various forms of empathy and its intensity can be inherent in both the subject and the object of communication. A high level of empathy determines emotionality, responsiveness, etc.

The conditions for the development of interpersonal relationships significantly influence their dynamics and forms of manifestation. In urban conditions, compared to rural areas, interpersonal contacts are more numerous, quickly established and just as quickly interrupted. The influence of the time factor varies depending on the ethnic environment: in Eastern cultures, the development of interpersonal relationships seems to be stretched out over time, while in Western cultures it is compressed and dynamic.

2.1. Functions of communication in interpersonal relationships

The functions of communication are understood as those roles and tasks that communication performs in the process of human social existence. The functions of communication are diverse, and there are various bases for their classification.

One of the generally accepted bases for classification is the identification of three interconnected aspects or characteristics in communication - informational, interactive and perceptual (Andreeva G. M., 1980). In accordance with this, information-communicative, regulatory-communicative and affective-communicative functions are distinguished (Lomov B.F., 1984).

The information and communication function of communication consists of any type of exchange of information between interacting individuals. The exchange of information in human communication has its own specifics. First, we are dealing with the relationship of two individuals, each of whom is an active subject (as opposed to a technical device). Secondly, the exchange of information necessarily involves the interaction of thoughts, feelings and behavior of partners. Thirdly, they must have a single or similar system of codification/decodification of messages.

The transmission of any information is possible through various sign systems. Usually, a distinction is made between verbal (speech is used as a sign system) and nonverbal (various non-speech sign systems) communication.

In turn, nonverbal communication also has several forms:

Kinetics (optical-kinetic system, including gestures, facial expressions, pantomime);

Proxemics (norms for organizing space and time in communication);

Visual communication (eye contact system).

Sometimes the set of odors possessed by communication partners is separately considered as a specific sign system. 3

The regulatory-communicative (interactive) function of communication is to regulate behavior and directly organize the joint activities of people in the process of their interaction. Here a few words should be said about the tradition of using the concepts of interaction and communication in social psychology. The concept of interaction is used in two ways: firstly, to characterize the actual real contacts of people (actions, counteractions, assistance) in the process of joint activity; secondly, to describe mutual influences (impacts) on each other in the course of joint activities, or more broadly, in the process of social activity.

In the process of communication as interaction (verbal, physical, non-verbal), an individual can influence motives, goals, programs, decision-making, execution and control of actions, i.e., all components of his partner’s activities, including mutual stimulation and behavior correction.

Identification is the mental process of assimilating oneself to a communication partner in order to cognize and understand his thoughts and ideas.

The affective-communicative function of communication is associated with the regulation of a person’s emotional sphere. Communication is the most important determinant of a person’s emotional states. The entire spectrum of specifically human emotions arises and develops in the conditions of human communication - either a rapprochement of emotional states occurs, or their polarization, mutual strengthening or weakening.

It is possible to give another classification scheme of communication functions, in which, along with those listed, other functions are separately identified: organization of joint activities; people getting to know each other; formation and development of interpersonal relationships. In part, this classification is given in the monograph by V.V. Znakov (1994); the cognitive function as a whole is included in the perceptual function identified by G. M. Andreeva (1988). A comparison of two classification schemes makes it possible to conditionally include the functions of cognition, the formation of interpersonal relationships, and the affective-communicative function into the perceptual function of communication as more capacious and multidimensional (Andreeva G. M., 1988). When studying the perceptual side of communication, a special conceptual and terminological apparatus is used, which includes a number of concepts and definitions and allows one to analyze various aspects of social perception in the process of communication.

Firstly, communication is impossible without a certain level of mutual understanding between the communicating subjects. Understanding is a certain form of reproduction of an object in knowledge that arises in the subject in the process of interaction with cognizable reality (Znakov V.V., 1994). In the case of communication, the object of cognizable reality is another person, a communication partner. At the same time, understanding can be considered from two sides: as a reflection in the consciousness of interacting subjects of each other’s goals, motives, emotions, attitudes; and how the acceptance of these goals allows relationships to be established. Therefore, in communication it is advisable to talk not about social perception in general, but about interpersonal perception or perception. Some researchers prefer to talk not about perception, but about the knowledge of another (Bodalev A. A., 1965, 1983).

The main mechanisms of mutual understanding in the communication process are identification, empathy and reflection. The term “identification” has several meanings in social psychology. In communication issues, identification is the mental process of assimilating oneself to a communication partner in order to cognize and understand his thoughts and ideas. Empathy also refers to the mental process of likening oneself to another person, but with the goal of “understanding” the experiences and feelings of the person being cognized. The word "understanding" is used here in a metaphorical sense - empathy is "affective understanding."

As can be seen from the definitions, identification and empathy are very close in content and often in the psychological literature the term “empathy” has a broad interpretation - it includes the processes of understanding both the thoughts and feelings of a communication partner. At the same time, when speaking about the process of empathy, one must also keep in mind an unconditionally positive attitude towards the individual. This means two things:

a) acceptance of a person’s personality as a whole;

b) own emotional neutrality, absence of value judgments about what is perceived (Sosnin V. A., 1996).

Reflection in the problem of understanding each other is an individual’s understanding of how he is perceived and understood by his communication partner. In the course of mutual reflection of the participants in communication, reflection is a kind of feedback that contributes to the formation of both the behavioral strategy of the subjects of communication and the correction of their understanding of the characteristics of each other’s inner world.

Another mechanism of understanding in communication is interpersonal attraction. Attraction (from English - to attract, attract) is the process of forming the attractiveness of a person for the perceiver, the result of which is the formation of interpersonal relationships. Currently, an expanded interpretation of the attraction process is being formed as the formation of emotional and evaluative ideas about each other and about one’s interpersonal relationships (both positive and negative) as a kind of social attitude with a predominance of the emotional and evaluative component.

The considered classifications of communication functions, of course, do not exclude each other. Moreover, there are other classification options. This, in turn, suggests that the phenomenon of communication as a multidimensional phenomenon must be studied using systems analysis methods.

2.2. Structure of communication in interpersonal relationships

In Russian social psychology, the problem of the structure of communication occupies an important place. The methodological study of this issue at the moment allows us to identify a set of fairly generally accepted ideas about the structure of communication (Andreeva G. M., 1988; Lomov B. F., 1981; Znakov V. V., 1994), which serve as a general methodological guideline for organizing research.

The structure of an object in science is understood as the order of stable connections between the elements of the object of study, ensuring its integrity as a phenomenon during external and internal changes. The problem of the structure of communication can be approached in different ways, both by highlighting the levels of analysis of this phenomenon, and by listing its main functions. Usually there are at least three levels of analysis (Lomov B.F., 1984):

1. Macro level: an individual’s communication with other people is considered as the most important aspect of his lifestyle. At this level, the process of communication is studied in time intervals comparable to the duration of human life, with an emphasis on the analysis of the mental development of the individual. Communication here acts as a complex developing network of relationships between an individual and other people and social groups.

2. Mesa level (middle level): communication is considered as a changing set of purposeful, logically completed contacts or interaction situations in which people find themselves in the process of current life activity at specific time periods of their lives. The main emphasis in the study of communication at this level is on the content components of communication situations - “about what” and “for what purpose.” Around this core of the topic, the subject of communication, the dynamics of communication are revealed, the means used (verbal and non-verbal) and the phases or stages of communication during which the exchange of ideas, ideas and experiences are carried out are analyzed.

3. Micro level: here the main emphasis is on the analysis of elementary units of communication as related acts, or transactions. It is important to emphasize that the elementary unit of communication is not a change in the intermittent behavioral acts of its participants, but their interaction. It includes not only the action of one and the partners, but also the associated assistance or opposition of the other (for example, “question-answer”, “incitement to action - action”, “communication of information and attitude towards it”, etc.). 4

Each of the listed levels of analysis requires special theoretical, methodological and methodological support, as well as its own special conceptual apparatus. And since many problems in psychology are complex, the task arises of developing ways to identify relationships between different levels and discover the principles of these relationships.

2.3. Types of communication in the system of interpersonal relations

Interpersonal communication is associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs with a constant composition of participants. In social psychology, there are three types of interpersonal communication: imperative, manipulative and dialogical.

Imperative communication is authoritarian, directive interaction with a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior, attitudes and thoughts, forcing him to certain actions or decisions. In this case, the communication partner is considered as an object of influence; he acts as a passive, “suffering” party. The ultimate goal of such communication - coercion of a partner - is not veiled. Orders, regulations and demands are used as means of exerting influence. It is possible to indicate a number of areas of activity where the use of imperative communication is quite effective. These areas include: relations of subordination and subordination in conditions of military activity, “superior-subordinate” relations in extreme conditions, under emergency circumstances, etc. But we can also identify those areas of interpersonal relationships where the use of the imperative is inappropriate. These are intimate-personal and marital relationships, child-parent contacts, as well as the entire system of pedagogical relations.

Manipulative communication is a type of interpersonal communication in which influence on a communication partner in order to achieve one’s intentions is carried out covertly. Like the imperative, manipulation presupposes an objective perception of the communication partner, the desire to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person. The area of ​​“permitted manipulation” is business and business relationships in general. This type of communication was symbolized by the concept of communication developed by Dale Carnegie and his followers. The manipulative style of communication is also widespread in the field of propaganda.

Dialogical communication is an equal subject-subject interaction aimed at mutual knowledge and self-knowledge of communication partners. Such communication is possible only if a number of rules of relationship are observed:

1. the presence of a psychological attitude towards the current state of the interlocutor and one’s own current psychological state (following the “here and now” principle).

2.Use of non-judgmental perception of the partner’s personality, an a priori attitude of trust in his intentions.

3. Perception of a partner as an equal, having the right to his own opinion and decisions.

5. You should personalize communication, that is, conduct a conversation on your own behalf (without reference to the opinions of authorities), present your true feelings and desires.

Dialogical communication allows you to achieve deeper mutual understanding, self-disclosure of the partners’ personalities, and creates conditions for mutual personal growth.

The following types of communication can also be distinguished:

Formal-role communication, when both the content and means of communication are regulated and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they make do with knowledge of his social role.

Business communication is a situation where the goal of interaction is to achieve some clear agreement or agreement. In business communication, the personality characteristics and mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, first of all, to achieve the main goal in the interests of the business. Business communication is usually included as a private moment in any joint productive activity of people and serves as a means of improving the quality of this activity. Its content is what people are doing, and not the problems that affect their inner world.

Intimate and personal communication is possible when you can touch on any topic and do not necessarily resort to words; the interlocutor will understand you by facial expression, movements, and intonation. In such communication, each participant has an image of the interlocutor, knows his personality, and can anticipate his reactions, interests, beliefs and attitudes. Most often, such communication occurs between close people and is largely the result of previous relationships. Unlike business communication, this communication, on the contrary, is centered around psychological problems, interests and needs, which deeply and intimately affect a person’s personality: searching for the meaning of life, determining one’s attitude towards a significant person, to what is happening around, resolving any internal conflict, etc.

Social communication. The essence of secular communication is its pointlessness, that is, people do not say what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; this communication is closed, because people’s points of view on a particular issue do not matter and will not determine the nature of communications.

There is also instrumental communication, which is not an end in itself, is not independently stimulated by need, but pursues some goal other than obtaining satisfaction from the act of communication itself. In contrast, targeted communication itself serves as a means of satisfying a specific need, in this case the need for communication.

Diagnostic communication aims to form a certain idea about the interlocutor or obtain some information from him. Partners are in different positions: one asks, the other answers.

Educational communication involves situations in which one of the participants purposefully influences the other, quite clearly imagining the desired result, that is, knowing what he wants to convince the interlocutor of, what he wants to teach him, etc.

CONCLUSION

Communication is of great importance in the formation of the human psyche, its development and the formation of reasonable, cultural behavior. Through communication with psychologically developed people, thanks to ample opportunities for learning, a person acquires all his higher cognitive abilities and qualities. Through active communication with developed personalities, he himself turns into a personality.

If from birth a person was deprived of the opportunity to communicate with people, he would never become a civilized, cultural and morally developed citizen, and would be doomed to remain a half-animal until the end of his life, only externally, anatomically and physiologically resembling a person.

Communication with adults in the early stages of ontogenesis is especially important for the mental development of a child. At this time, he acquires all his human, mental and behavioral qualities almost exclusively through communication, since until the start of school, and even more definitely - until adolescence, he is deprived of the ability for self-education and self-education. The mental development of a child begins with communication. This is the first type of social activity that arises in ontogenesis and thanks to which the baby receives the information necessary for its individual development. In communication, first through direct imitation (vicarious learning) , and then through verbal instructions (verbal learning) the child's basic life experience is acquired.

Communication constitutes the internal mechanism of joint activities of people, the basis of interpersonal relationships. The increasing role of communication and the importance of its study is due to the fact that in modern society, decisions are made much more often in direct, immediate communication between people, which were previously made, as a rule, by individuals.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

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APPLICATION

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION IN INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Information and communication

Regulatory-communicative

Affective-communicative

Scheme. Functions of communication in interpersonal relationships

		This is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities.
	Causal attribution	interpretation by the subject of interpersonal perception of the reasons and motives of other people's behavior
		(Greek empatheia-empathy) comprehension of the emotional states of another person in the form of experience
	Identification	the mental process of assimilating oneself to a communication partner in order to cognize and understand his thoughts and ideas.
	Understanding	this is a certain form of reproduction of an object in knowledge that arises in the subject in the process of interaction with cognizable reality
	Reflection	the process of self-knowledge by the subject of internal mental acts and states.
	Attraction	(from English - attract, attract) a concept denoting the emergence, when a person perceives a person, of the attractiveness of one of them for another.
	Dialogical communication	equal subject-subject interaction, with the goal of mutual knowledge, self-knowledge of communication partners. Such communication is possible only if a number of rules of relationships are observed.
	Manipulative communication	a type of interpersonal communication in which influence on a communication partner in order to achieve one’s intentions is carried out secretly problem interpersonal relations child with other children. Attitude to others people constitutes the main fabric..., but are also realized, manifested in interaction people. At the same time attitude to another, as opposed to communication... intimate interpersonal relationship Abstract >> Psychology ... interpersonal relations And interaction people. The subject of my course work is to determine the place of communication in the structure interpersonal interaction And interaction people ... interpersonal relationships In domestic social psychology problem ... Interpersonal relationship (2) Abstract >> Psychology One of the most important. Problems interpersonal relations In fact, with all group... so that two or more people could interact, remaining indifferent to each other... participating in a concerted action People simultaneously interact in two languages... Interpersonal relationship concept and main features Abstract >> Management ... problem studying interpersonal relations becomes very relevant in a team. Today in the psychological press there is much talk about interpersonal interaction ... Interpersonal relationship in the medical team Thesis >> Psychology Concept interpersonal relations. Interpersonal relationship people- these are subjective connections that arise as a result of their actual interaction and... components under the influence of others people. Problem interpersonal relations occupied a position in the team for a long time...