Environmental monitoring (monitoring environment) is a comprehensive system of monitoring the state of the environment, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors

Types and subsystems of environmental monitoring

three stages (types, directions) of monitoring: bioecological (sanitary and hygienic), geosystemic (natural and economic) and biosphere (global)..

There are such subsystems of environmental monitoring as: geophysical monitoring (analysis of data on pollution, atmospheric turbidity, studies meteorological and hydrological data of the environment, and also studies elements of the inanimate component of the biosphere, including objects created by man); climate monitoring (a service for monitoring and forecasting fluctuations in the climate system. Covers that part of the biosphere that influences the formation of climate: the atmosphere, ocean, ice cover, etc. Climate monitoring is closely linked with hydrometeorological observations.); biological monitoring (based on monitoring the reaction of living organisms to environmental pollution); monitoring of public health (system of measures for observation, analysis, assessment and forecast of the state of physical health of the population), etc.

IN general view the process of environmental monitoring can be represented by the following diagram: environment (or a specific environmental object) -> measurement of parameters by various monitoring subsystems -> collection and transmission of information -> processing and presentation of data (formation of generalized assessments), forecasting. In the management system, three subsystems can also be distinguished: decision-making (specially authorized state body), management of the implementation of the decision (for example, enterprise administration), implementation of the decision using various technical or other means. Methods of environmental monitoring: Remote methods

As is known, the first automatic systems for monitoring parameters external environment were created in military and space programs. In the 1950s in the US air defense system they already used seven echelons floating in Pacific Ocean automatic buoys, but the most impressive automatic environmental quality control system was undoubtedly implemented in the Lunokhod. One of the main sources of data for environmental monitoring is remote sensing (RS) materials. They combine all types of data received from media:

Space (manned orbital stations, reusable spacecraft, autonomous satellite imaging systems, etc.);

Aviation-based (airplanes, helicopters and micro-aviation radio-controlled vehicles

Non-contact (remote) survey methods, in addition to aerospace (Aerospace (remote) methods of environmental monitoring include an observation system using aircraft, balloons, satellites and satellite systems, as well as a remote sensing data processing system.

Physico-chemical methods

-Qualitative methods. Allows you to determine what substance is in the test sample. For example, based on chromatography.- Quantitative methods. -Gravimetric method. The essence of the method is to determine the mass and percentage of any element, ion or chemical compound found in the test sample. - Titrimetric(volumetric) method. In this type of analysis, weighing is replaced by measuring volumes of both the substance being analyzed and the reagent used for this definition. Methods of titrimetric analysis are divided into 4 groups: a) methods of acid-base titration; b) precipitation methods; c) oxidation-reduction methods; d) complexation methods.

-Colorimetric methods. Colorimetry is one of the simplest methods of absorption analysis. It is based on changes in the color shades of the test solution depending on the concentration. Colorimetric methods can be divided into visual colorimetry and photocolorimetry.
-Express methods. Express methods include instrumental methods that allow you to determine contamination in a short period of time. These methods are widely used to determine background radiation in air and water monitoring systems. - Potentiometric methods are based on changing the electrode potential depending on physical and chemical processes flowing in solution. They are divided into: a) direct potentiometry (ionometry); b) potentiometric titration.

Biological monitoring methods

Bioindication is a method that allows one to judge the state of the environment based on the encounter, absence, and developmental characteristics of bioindicator organisms. Bioindicators are organisms whose presence, quantity or developmental characteristics serve as indicators of natural processes, conditions or anthropogenic changes in the environment. Conditions determined using bioindicators are called bioindication objects.

Biotesting is a method that allows laboratory conditions assess the quality of environmental objects using living organisms.

Assessment of biodiversity components is a set of methods comparative analysis components of biodiversity

Methods of statistical and mathematical data processing

To process environmental monitoring data, methods of computational and mathematical biology (including mathematical modeling), as well as a wide range of information technologies are used.

Geographic Information Systems

GIS is a reflection of the general trend of linking environmental data to spatial objects. According to some experts, further integration of GIS and environmental monitoring will lead to the creation of powerful EIS (environmental information systems) with dense spatial reference.

Ticket 13

1. The main reasons for the extinction of species: direct destruction (fishing), climate change, change in biotopes, introduction of competing species, chemical pollution, etc.

Man, having mastered fire and weapons, began to exterminate animals in the early periods of his history. However, now the rate of extinction of species has increased sharply, and more and more new species are being drawn into the orbit of the disappearing ones, as a result of which the rate of spontaneous emergence of species is tens and even hundreds of times lower than the rate of extinction of species. Therefore, there are simplifications of both individual ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole.

The main causes of loss of biological diversity, decline in numbers and extinction of animals are disturbance of their habitat, overharvesting or fishing in prohibited areas, introduction (acclimatization) of foreign species, direct destruction for the purpose of protecting products, accidental or unintentional destruction and environmental pollution.

Habitat disruption due to deforestation, plowing of steppes, drainage of swamps, flow regulation, creation of reservoirs and other anthropogenic impacts radically changes the breeding conditions of wild animals and their migration routes, which has a very negative impact on their numbers and survival.

Harvesting refers to any removal of animals from the natural environment for various purposes. Excessive harvesting is the main reason for the decline, for example, in the number of large mammals (elephants, rhinoceroses, etc.) in Africa and Asia: high cost ivory on the world market leads to the annual death of about 60 thousand elephants. At bird markets big cities Hundreds of thousands of small songbirds are sold to Russia every year. The international trade in wild birds exceeds seven million, most of which die either en route or shortly after arrival.

The introduction (acclimatization) of alien species also leads to a reduction in the number and extinction of animal species. Often local species are on the verge of extinction due to the invasion of “aliens”. There are known examples of the negative impact of the American mink on the European mink, the Canadian beaver on the European, and the muskrat on the muskrat.

Others reasons for the decline and extinction of animals are:

Their direct destruction to protect agricultural products and commercial fisheries (death of birds of prey, ground squirrels, pinnipeds, coyotes, etc.).

- (unintentional) destruction on roads, during military operations, when mowing grass, on power lines, when regulating water flow, etc.

Environmental pollution with pesticides, oil and petroleum products, atmospheric pollutants, lead and other toxicants.

2.The concept of “thermal pollution”. Ways to reduce thermal pollution.

Thermal pollution is a type of physical (usually anthropogenic) environmental pollution characterized by an increase in temperature above natural level. The main sources of thermal pollution are emissions of heated exhaust gases and air into the atmosphere, and the discharge of heated wastewater into reservoirs.

The main way to reduce thermal pollution is to gradually phase out fossil fuels and switch to renewable energy using solar energy sources: light, wind and hydro resources. An auxiliary measure could be the transition from the economy of a consumer society to a resource economy.

3.Laws of the Russian Federation on environmental protection.

Environmental legislation

1. Legislation in the field of environmental protection is based on the Constitution of the Russian Federation and consists of this Federal Law, other federal laws, as well as other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, laws and other regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation adopted in accordance with them.

2. This Federal Law is valid throughout the Russian Federation.

3. This Federal Law is valid on the continental shelf and in the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation in accordance with the norms of international law and federal laws and aims to ensure the conservation of the marine environment.

4. Relations arising in the field of environmental protection as the basis for the life and activities of peoples living on the territory of the Russian Federation, in order to ensure their rights to a favorable environment, are regulated international treaties of the Russian Federation, this Federal Law, other federal laws and other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, laws and other regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

5. Relations arising in the field of protection and rational use natural resources, their conservation and restoration, are regulated by international treaties of the Russian Federation, land, water, forestry legislation, legislation on subsoil, wildlife, and other legislation in the field of environmental protection and nature management.

6. Relations arising in the field of environmental protection, to the extent necessary to ensure the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population, are regulated by legislation on the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population and legislation on health protection, otherwise aimed at ensuring a favorable environment for humans legislation.

7. Relations in the field of environmental protection arising when establishing mandatory requirements for products, including buildings and structures (hereinafter referred to as products), or for products and the processes of design (including surveys), production, construction, installation related to product requirements , setup, operation, storage, transportation, sales and disposal, are regulated by the legislation of the Russian Federation on technical regulation.

Ticket 14

1.Ecology -(from the Greek oikos - house, dwelling, residence and...logy), the science of the relationships of living organisms and the communities they form among themselves and with the environment. The term “ecology” was proposed in 1866 by E. Haeckel. Objects of ecology can be populations of organisms, species, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. From ser. 20th century In connection with the increased human impact on nature, ecology has acquired special significance as scientific basis rational environmental management and protection of living organisms, and the term “ecology” itself has a broader meaning. Since the 70s 20th century human ecology is taking shape, or social ecology, studying the patterns of interaction between society and the environment, as well as practical problems her security; includes various philosophical, sociological, economic, geographical and other aspects (for example, urban ecology, technical ecology, environmental ethics, etc.). In this sense, they talk about “greening” modern science. Environmental issues, generated by modern social development, gave rise to a number of socio-political movements (“Greens”, etc.) opposing environmental pollution, etc. negative consequences scientific and technological progress.

2. The problem of degradation of the Earth's ozone layer. Environmental consequences.

The maximum concentration of ozone is concentrated in the troposphere at altitudes of 15–30 km, where the ozone layer exists. At normal surface pressure, all atmospheric ozone would form a layer only 3 mm thick.

The ozone layer is thinner in equatorial regions and thicker in polar regions. It is characterized by significant variability in time and territory (up to 20%) due to fluctuations in solar radiation and atmospheric circulation, which masks anthropogenic impacts.

Even with such low power The ozone layer in the stratosphere plays a very important role, protecting living organisms on Earth from harmful effects ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Ozone absorbs its hard part with wavelengths of 100–280 nm and most of the radiation with wavelengths of 280–315 nm. In addition, ozone absorption ultraviolet radiation leads to heating of the stratosphere and largely determines its thermal regime and the dynamic processes occurring in it. Exposure to hard ultraviolet radiation is associated with incurable forms of skin cancer, eye diseases, and immune system people, adverse effects on the life of plankton in the ocean, decreased grain yields and other geo-ecological consequences.

It is assumed that life on Earth arose after the formation of the ozone layer in the Earth’s atmosphere, when its reliable protection was formed. Particularly great interest in ozone arose in the 70s, when anthropogenic changes in ozone content were discovered as a result of emissions of nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere as a result of atomic explosions in the atmosphere, aircraft flights in the stratosphere, the use of mineral fertilizers and fuel combustion. However, the most powerful anthropogenic factor that destroys ozone are fluorine and chlorine derivatives of methane, ethane and cyclobutane.

These compounds are given the name freons. They are widely used in the manufacture of refrigerators and air conditioners, aerosol packages. Bromine-containing compounds, which are also a product, destroy ozone even more effectively. human activity. They are released into the atmosphere as a result of agricultural production, biomass combustion, internal combustion engines, etc.

Due to human activities since the late 1960s. until 1995 The ozone layer has lost about 5% of its mass. It is expected that the maximum loss of stratospheric ozone will be reached by the beginning of the 21st century. followed by gradual restoration during the first half in accordance with the Ozone Layer Convention.

Due to the exceptional importance of the ozone layer for the preservation of life on Earth in 1985. The Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was signed in Vienna. In 1987 The Montreal Protocol to ban emissions of ozone-depleting substances into the atmosphere was signed. UN General Assembly in December 1994 decided to declare September 16 as International Day for the Preservation of the Earth's Ozone Layer.

Currently, there is suppression of growth and a decrease in plant productivity in those regions where the thinning of the ozone layer is most pronounced, sunburn of foliage, death of tomato seedlings, sweet peppers, and diseases of cucumbers.

The number of phytoplankton, which forms the basis of the food pyramid of the World Ocean, is declining. In Chile, cases of loss of vision have been recorded in fish, sheep and rabbits, the death of growth buds in trees, the synthesis of an unknown red pigment by algae, which causes poisoning of marine animals and humans, as well as “devil's bullets” - molecules that, at low concentrations in water, have a mutagenic effect. on the genome, and at higher levels – an effect similar to radiation damage. They are not subject to biodegradation, neutralization, and are not destroyed by boiling - in a word, there is no protection against them.

IN surface layers In the soil, there is an acceleration of variability, a change in the composition and relationship between the communities of microorganisms living there.

A person's immune system is suppressed, the number of cases of allergosis is growing, accelerated aging of tissues is observed, especially the eyes, cataracts are more likely to form, the incidence of skin cancer is increasing, and pigmented formations on the skin become malignant. It has been noticed that these negative phenomena often result from staying on the beach for several hours on a sunny day.

3.Maximum concentrations of pollutants in atmospheric air: types, units of measurement. Which government agency sets these standards?

A feature of the standardization of atmospheric air quality is the dependence of the impact of pollutants present in the air on the health of the population not only on the value of their concentrations, but also on the duration of the time interval during which a person breathes this air.
Therefore, in the Russian Federation, as well as throughout the world, for pollutants, as a rule, 2 standards are established:

1) standard calculated for a short period of exposure to pollutants. This standard is called “maximum permissible maximum single concentrations”.

1) standard calculated for a longer period of exposure (8 hours, a day, for some substances a year). In the Russian Federation, this standard is established for 24 hours and is called “maximum permissible average daily concentrations.”

MPC - maximum permissible concentration of a pollutant in the atmospheric air - a concentration that does not have a direct or indirect adverse effect on the present or future generation throughout life, does not reduce a person’s performance, does not worsen his well-being and sanitary living conditions. MPC values are given in mg/m3. (GN 2.1.6.695-98)

MAC MR – maximum permissible single concentration of a chemical substance in the air of populated areas, mg/m3. This concentration, when inhaled for 20-30 minutes, should not cause reflex reactions in the human body.

MAC SS – maximum permissible average daily concentration of a chemical substance in the air of populated areas, mg/m3. This concentration should not have any direct or indirect harmful effects on humans if inhaled indefinitely (years).

State administration in the field of atmospheric air protection is carried out by the Government of the Russian Federation directly or through a specially authorized federal executive body in the field of atmospheric air protection, as well as by bodies state power subjects of the Russian Federation. The structure of federal government bodies in the field of atmospheric air protection is presented in Figure 2.11.

The State Committee for Ecology of Russia, as a specially authorized federal executive body in the field of atmospheric air protection, carries out intersectoral coordination and activities in the field of atmospheric air protection together with other federal authorities executive authorities within their competence and interacts with executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

Ticket No. 15

1.Basic laws of ecology.

Basic laws of ecology:

· The law of the indispensability of the biosphere: the biosphere is the only system that ensures the stability of the habitat in the event of any disturbances that arise. There is no reason to hope for the construction of artificial communities that provide environmental stabilization to the same extent as natural communities.

· The law of biogenic migration of atoms (V.I. Vernadsky): the migration of chemical elements on the earth's surface and in the biosphere as a whole is carried out with the direct participation of living matter - biogenic migration.

· Law of physical and chemical unity of living matter: general biosphere law - living matter is physical and chemically united; Despite all the different qualities of living organisms, they are so physicochemically similar that what is harmful to some is not indifferent to others (for example, pollutants).

· Redi's principle: living things come only from living things; there is an impassable boundary between living and non-living matter, although there is constant interaction.

· The law of unity “organism – environment”: life develops as a result of constant exchange of matter and information based on the flow of energy in the total unity of the environment and the organisms inhabiting it.

· The law of unidirectional energy flow: the energy received by the community and assimilated by producers is dissipated or, together with their biomass, is transferred to consumers, and then to decomposers with a decrease in flow at each trophic level; since an insignificant amount of initially involved energy (maximum 0.35%) enters the reverse flow (from decomposers to producers) it is impossible to speak of an “energy cycle”; There is only a circulation of substances supported by the flow of energy.

· The law of irreversibility of evolution by L. Dollo: an organism (population, species) cannot return to the previous state already achieved in the series of its ancestors, even after returning to their habitat.

· R. Lindemann's 10 percent law (rule): the average maximum transfer from one trophic level of the ecological pyramid to another 10% of energy (or matter in energy terms), as a rule, does not lead to adverse consequences for the ecosystem and the trophic level losing energy.

· Law of tolerance (W. Shelford): the limiting factor in the prosperity of an organism (species) can be either a minimum or maximum environmental impact, the range between which determines the amount of endurance (tolerance) of the organism to this factor.

· The law of optimum: any environmental factor has certain limits of positive influence on living organisms.

· The law of the limiting factor (J. Liebig's law of the minimum): the most significant factor is the one that deviates the most from the optimal values for the body; the survival of individuals depends on it at the moment; the substance present in the minimum controls growth.

· Gause's law (principle) of exclusion: two species cannot exist in the same area if their ecological needs are identical, i.e. if they occupy the same ecological niche.

· B. Commoner’s “laws” of ecology: 1) everything is connected to everything; 2) everything has to go somewhere; 3) nature “knows” better; 4) nothing is given for free.

Several consequences follow from the law of universal connection (“everything is connected to everything”):

Law large numbers– the combined action of a large number of random factors leads to a result that is almost independent of chance, that is, having a systemic character. Thus, myriads of bacteria in soil, water, and in the bodies of living organisms creates a special, relatively stable microbiological environment necessary for the normal existence of all living things. Or another example: the random behavior of a large number of molecules in a certain volume of gas determines quite definite values of temperature and pressure.

Le Chatelier's (Brown) principle - when an external influence takes the system out of a state of stable equilibrium, this equilibrium shifts in the direction in which the effect of the external influence decreases. At the biological level, it is realized in the form of the ability of ecosystems to self-regulate.

The law of optimality - any system functions with the greatest efficiency within certain spatio-temporal limits characteristic of it.

Any systemic changes in nature have a direct or indirect impact on humans - from the state of the individual to complex social relations.

At least two postulates of practical importance follow from the law of conservation of mass of matter (“everything must go somewhere”).

The law of development of a system at the expense of its environment states: any natural or social system can develop only through the use of material, energy and information capabilities of the environment. Absolutely isolated self-development is impossible.

The law of the inevitability of waste or side effects of production, according to which the waste generated in the process of production activities is irremovable without a trace, they can only be transferred from one form to another or moved in space, and their effect can be extended in time. This law excludes the fundamental possibility waste-free production and consumption in modern society. Matter does not disappear, but only passes from one form to another, influencing life.

Related information.

Monitoring as an information system. Environmental monitoring surrounding a person environment: goals, objectives, objects. Structure of the monitoring system. Classification. Directions of state environmental monitoring and authorized state services. Environmental control.

Over the past decade, human impacts on the environment have increased dramatically around the world, leading to high rates of ecosystem change. Changes in the biosphere vary in magnitude, directionality, and are unevenly distributed in space and time. In the current situation, objective advanced information about the state of the natural environment, its changes and determination of trends of changes is important. Control is necessary both for natural changes in the natural environment and for anthropogenic impacts that superimpose on natural changes, enhancing them. In this regard, there was a need to organize special systems for monitoring and analyzing the state of the natural environment, primarily pollution and the effects they cause in the biosphere.

Monitoring – a multi-purpose information system for monitoring, analyzing and forecasting the state of an object or process.

Most often, the concept of monitoring is associated with the environment. Environmental monitoring (ecological monitoring) is a comprehensive system of interrelated work carried out according to scientifically based programs on regular monitoring of the state of the environment, assessment and forecast of its changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors. Environmental monitoring provides warning information about critical situations that have arisen that are harmful to the health of people and other living organisms. Based on environmental monitoring data, recommendations are developed for further management decisions and corrective actions aimed at ensuring rational environmental management and preserving environmental quality.

For the first time the term “monitoring” (from Lat. monitor - cautionary) appeared in 1972 before the Stockholm UN Conference on the Environment in addition to the term “control”. It should be taken into account that the monitoring system itself only monitors and obtains information, not including environmental quality management activities, but is a source of information necessary for making environmentally significant decisions. Control also includes controls.

Environmental monitoring includes the following main activities :

Monitoring factors affecting the natural environment and state of the environment, which changes as a result of this influence.

Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment.

Forecast of the state of the natural environment and assessment of this state. Forecasts can be short-term or long-term.

Subject of environmental monitoring :

environment;

natural resources;

sources of anthropogenic impacts on the natural environment.

Goals :

environmental safety;

environmental well-being;

rational use of natural resources.

Under environmental safety understand a state in which the interests of the individual, society, nature and the state are protected from potential threats created by anthropogenic or natural impacts on the environment.

The main task The environmental monitoring system is information support and support for decision-making procedures in the field of managing the state of the natural environment (SES) and environmental safety.

In Fig. Figure 4 shows the structure of the monitoring system.

Information System Management

(monitoring)

Observation assessment of actual

state Regulation

environmental quality

state forecast assessment of the predicted

(future) states

Rice. 4. Block diagram of the monitoring system for

The “observation” and “state forecast” blocks are closely related to each other. A forecast is possible only if there is information about the actual state (direct connection). The direction of the forecast should largely determine the structure and composition of the observation network (feedback).

Data obtained as a result of observation or forecast must be evaluated using specially selected criteria. Assessment, on the one hand, implies the determination of damage from the impact, on the other hand, the selection of optimal conditions for human activity. Information about the state of the natural environment and trends in its change should form the basis for the development of nature protection measures.

The results of assessing the current and predicted state of the biosphere make it possible to clarify the requirements for the observation subsystem (this constitutes the scientific justification for monitoring, justification for the composition and structure of the network and observation methods).

Objects of environmental monitoring :

sources and factors of anthropogenic impact on the natural environment, including sources of pollution, radiation, including potentially hazardous objects;

elements of the biosphere, including

Components of the natural environment - lands, subsoil, soils, surface and underground waters, atmospheric air, levels of radiation and energy pollution, as well as the ozone layer of the atmosphere and near-Earth space, which together provide favorable conditions for the existence of life on Earth;

Natural objects - natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and their constituent elements. Observations are also carried out on the responses of living organisms to influence, on changes in their structural and functional indicators;

- natural-anthropogenic objects - natural objects transformed in the process of economic activity or objects created by man and having recreational and protective significance;

- population groups exposed to environmental factors.

This approach covers monitoring the entire cycle of anthropogenic impacts - from sources of impacts to the influence and reactions of individual natural environments and complex ecological systems. Classification of monitoring and all its possible directions is a complex and cumbersome task. Let's take a closer look at the priority systems.

Monitoring of natural environments and objects carried out at various levels:

global(biosphere or background - within the framework of international programs and projects);

federal(for the territory of Russia as a whole);

territorial(within the territory of the corresponding subject of the Russian Federation);

local (within the limits of a natural-technogenic system used by a nature user who has received a license for a particular type of activity).

Global monitoring – reduction of global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere and warning of emerging extreme situations. For example, the weakening of the ozone shield, the impact of global air pollution on climate, assessment of ocean pollution, the creation of an international disaster warning system. The development and coordination of the Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) is carried out by UNEP ( United Environment Program– UN Environment Program) and the World Meteorological Organization in the framework of various international programs and projects.

Environmental changes can occur due to natural causes and under the influence of human activities. In order to assess the changes introduced by human activity, it is necessary to know the background state of the biosphere. It is being studied on the basis of nature reserves that exist in a number of countries within the framework of background monitoring environment. In Russia, background monitoring stations are located in six biosphere reserves.

When carrying out global monitoring, Earth space remote sensing systems are used. They allow us to obtain unique information about the functioning of ecosystems, the consequences of natural disasters and environmental disasters.

Environmental monitoring at territorial level monitoring processes within the region. There are places (regions) where there are deviations from the statistical average, characteristic and natural in nature due to anthropogenic influences, for the entire biosphere.

Monitoring at the territorial level includes:

monitoring of sources and impact factors . Toxic substances that are most persistent and mobile and have toxic daughter products are primarily monitored. Among the sources, primarily factory chimneys, fields with introduced chemicals, cities, etc. are distinguished.

monitoring of natural environments – observations of changes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil, cryosphere and biota.

impact monitoring – observations of anthropogenic impacts in particularly hazardous areas and points, study of discharges from a particular enterprise (in particular, monitoring of areas of direct impact). The measurement is made against the background of natural processes.

In Fig. Figure 5 shows the classification of successive monitoring stages.

Rice. 5. Classification of successive stages of monitoring.

Geophysical monitoring – determines the reaction of the abiotic component, both on the micro- and macroscale. Up to the reaction and determination of the state of large systems: weather and climate.

Biological monitoring – monitoring of biological objects (presence of species, their condition, appearance of random introduced species, etc.)

Biological monitoring includes observations:

for human health, the impact of the environment on humans;

for the most important populations both from the point of view of the existence of the ecosystem and from the point of view of great economic value (valuable varieties of fish);

behind populations - indicators;

genetic monitoring.

Animals or plants (bioindicators) are used as indicators of environmental pollution. Bioindicators are used at the earliest stage of contamination. If the pollution has gone as far as, for example, in Los Angeles, where alleys of rubber trees have been created - living trees can no longer grow there - then at this stage there is no point in resorting to the help of bioindicators. The main bioindicators are lichens, since they tolerate air pollution very poorly. In places with severe air pollution, a “lichen desert” is observed. They live only in areas with clean air. Some of their species are found only at a distance of 50-60 km from industrial cities.

Coniferous plants are very sensitive to sulfur dioxide. If emissions into the atmosphere are high, the spruce forest completely dies. A bioindication can be a change in plant growth, color (qualitative changes).

Animals and birds can serve as bioindicators. A decline in natural bird populations is a signal that also warns of danger to humans. Poisons accumulate in the body and eggs of birds. Heavy metals accumulate in the body of lizards. Based on their analysis, one can judge the pollution of the environment. Sea urchin eggs serve as highly sensitive and easily used bioindicators of toxic impurities in seawater.

Very often, physicochemical methods for analyzing environmental objects require a lot of time and money. Bioindicators allow you to quickly and inexpensively detect harmful substances. For example, when testing food products for mycotoxins released by molds, the crustacean Artemia is used, which is fed to aquarium fish. The crustacean larvae are treated with an extract from suspicious plant material, and the percentage of larval mortality is used to determine whether they are contaminated with mycotoxins. Various types of algae are selectively used in water analysis for the content of insecticides and herbicides.

Analytical chemistry has now achieved fairly high results in the sensitivity of the methods used: if in the 50s the limit of dreams was the threshold for detecting poison at 1 mg/kg, today its detection in an amount of 10 -6 mg/kg has become realistic. Three molecules of any compound among three billion molecules of the material being studied is enough. However, bioindicators are even more sensitive. Biological tests can detect 10 -9 mg/kg. The sample is introduced into mammalian cells and the reaction of these cells to the poison is measured. The accuracy of this method is undeniable.

Genetic monitoring – observation of possible changes in hereditary characteristics in various populations, including humans. In order to determine the reality of the threat to the health of future generations, research is carried out in three areas:

testing for toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic activity physical factors, chemicals and biological agents that are widespread in nature;

monitoring the level and spectrum of morbidity in various population groups living in conditions of varying degrees of environmental pollution;

determination of the magnitude of the genetic load in human populations with an attempt to assess the level and dynamics of the frequency of newly emerging mutations.

All researchers on these problems have joined forces within the framework of the “Society for Environmental Mutagens”. A common disadvantage of genetic monitoring is the limitation of the study of mutations to viable individuals, that is, the underestimation of lethal mutations. Partially, these data are supplemented by data obtained from the analysis of material from spontaneously aborted fetuses, stillbirths and records of infertility in men and women. It has been established that 50% of spontaneous abortions and at least 25% of congenital malformations are caused by mutations.

Ecological monitoring of the environment is a modern form of implementing environmental activity processes using information technology, which ensures regular assessment and forecasting of Sipan's living environment of society and the operating conditions of ecosystems for the adoption management decisions on environmental safety, conservation of the natural environment and rational use of natural resources. Environmental monitoring is an information system for observing, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment, created with the aim of highlighting the anthropogenic component of these changes against the background of natural processes.

Back in the late 60s, many countries realized that it was necessary to coordinate efforts to collect, store and process environmental data. In 1972, a conference on environmental protection was held in Stockholm under the auspices of the UN, where for the first time the need arose to agree on a definition of the concept of “monitoring”. It was decided to understand environmental monitoring as a comprehensive system of observations, assessments and forecasts of changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors. The term appeared in addition to the term “environmental control.” Currently, monitoring is understood as a set of observations of certain components of the biosphere, specially organized in space and time, as well as an adequate set of environmental forecasting methods.

The main tasks of environmental monitoring: monitoring the state of the biosphere, assessing and forecasting its state, determining the degree of anthropogenic impact on the environment, identifying factors and sources of impact. IN ultimate goal Environmental monitoring is the optimization of human relations with nature, the environmental orientation of economic activity.

Environmental monitoring arose at the intersection of ecology, economics, biology, geography, geophysics, geology and other sciences. Highlight various types monitoring depending on the criteria: bioecological (sanitary and hygienic) Geoecological (natural and economic) production and environmental; biosphere (global) geophysical; climatic; biological; public health, etc.

Depending on the purpose, general, crisis and background environmental monitoring of the environment is carried out under special programs (Fig. 14.1).

Rice. 14.1. Types and levels of environmental monitoring system

Source: compiled according to data from the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine: [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: menr.gov.ua/monitoring

General environmental monitoring - these are optimal places, parameters and frequency of environmental observations in terms of quantity and placement, which allow, based on assessment and forecasting of the state of the environment, to support the adoption of appropriate decisions at all levels of departmental and national environmental activities.

Crisis environmental monitoring - these are intensive observations of natural objects, sources of man-made impact, located in areas of environmental tension, in zones of accidents and hazardous natural phenomena with harmful environmental consequences, with the aim of ensuring a timely response to crisis and emergency environmental situations and making decisions on their elimination, creating normal conditions for the life of the population and economy.

Background environmental monitoring - these are long-term comprehensive studies of specially designated objects of environmental protection zones in order to assess and predict changes in the state of ecosystems remote from industrial and economic activities, or to obtain information to determine the average statistical (background) level of environmental pollution in anthropogenic conditions.

In Ukraine, monitoring of the natural environment is carried out by many departments, within the framework of which the relevant tasks, levels and components of the monitoring subsystem are implemented. So, for example, in the monitoring system carried out in Ukraine, there are three levels of environmental monitoring environment: global, regional and local.

The purpose, methodological approaches and practice of monitoring at different levels differ. The criteria for the quality of the natural environment are most clearly defined at the local level. The purpose of regulation here is to ensure such a strategy does not bring the concentrations of certain priority anthropogenic pollutants to an acceptable range, which is a kind of standard. It represents the values of maximum permissible concentrations (MPC), which are established by law. Compliance of the quality of the natural environment with standards is monitored by the relevant supervisory authorities. The task of monitoring at the local level is to determine the parameters of the “emission field - concentration field” models. The object of influence at the local level is a person.

At the regional level, the approach to monitoring is based on the fact that pollutants, having entered the cycle of substances in the biosphere, change the state of the abiotic component and, as a consequence, cause changes in the biota. Any economic activity carried out on a regional scale affects the regional background - it changes the state of equilibrium of the abiotic and biological components. For example, the state of vegetation cover, primarily forests, significantly affects climatic conditions region.

The goals of global monitoring are determined in the process of international cooperation within the framework of various international organizations, agreements (conventions) and declarations. Global environmental monitoring includes seven areas:

1. Organization and expansion of a warning system about threats to human health.

2. Assessment of global air pollution and its impact on climate.

3. Assessment of the amount and distribution of pollution in biological systems, especially in the food chain.

4. Assess critical issues that arise from agricultural activities and land use.

5. Assessment of the responses of terrestrial ecosystems to environmental influences.

6. Assessment of ocean pollution and the impact of pollution on marine organisms.

7. Establishment of an improved international disaster warning system.

The state environmental monitoring system carries out the following types of work: routine observations, operational work, special work. Regular work is carried out systematically following annual programs, at specially organized observation points. The need to perform operational work depends on cases of emergency pollution of the natural environment or natural disasters; These works are performed in emergency situations.

The creation and operation of the State System of Environmental Monitoring of the Environment should contribute to the implementation of the state environmental policy, which provides for:

Environmentally rational use of the natural and socio-economic potential of the state, preservation of a favorable living environment for society;

Social, environmental and economically rational solution to problems arising from environmental pollution, hazardous natural phenomena, man-made accidents and disasters;

Development of international cooperation on the conservation of natural biodiversity, protection of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, prevention of anthropogenic climate change, forest protection and reforestation, transboundary environmental pollution, restoration of the natural state of the Dnieper, Danube, Black and Azov Seas.

The state environmental monitoring system should become an integrated information system that will collect, store and process environmental information for departmental and comprehensive assessment and forecast of the state of natural environments, biota and living conditions, and develop informed recommendations for making effective social, economic and environmental decisions in the future. all levels of state executive power, improvement of relevant legislative acts, as well as fulfillment of Ukraine’s obligations under international environmental agreements, programs, projects and events.

The functioning of the State Environmental Monitoring System is implemented according to the principles:

Systematic observations of the state of the natural environment and man-made objects that affect it, or are considered environmentally unstable;

Timely receipt and processing of observation data at departmental and general (local, regional and state) levels;

Comprehensive use of environmental information entering the system from departmental environmental monitoring services and other suppliers;

The objectivity of primary, analytical and forecast environmental information and the consistency of regulatory, organizational and methodological support for environmental monitoring of the environment carried out by the relevant services of ministries and departments of Ukraine and other central executive authorities;

Compatibility of technical, information and software of its components; efficiency of communicating environmental information to executive authorities, other interested bodies, enterprises, organizations and institutions;

Availability of environmental information to the population of Ukraine and the world community.

The state environmental monitoring system must ensure the achievement of the following main goals:

1) increasing the level of adequacy of its information model to the actual ecological state of the environment;

2) increasing the efficiency of obtaining and reliability of primary data through the use of advanced techniques at all levels public administration and local government;

3) increasing the level and quality information services consumers of environmental information at all levels of system operation based on network access to distributed departmental and integrated data banks;

4) integrated processing and use of information to make appropriate decisions.

So, monitoring implements a system of observations that make it possible to identify changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity. The main blocks of this system are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of: the natural environment; anthropogenic changes in the state of the abiotic component of the biosphere (in particular, changes in the levels of pollution of natural environments), the reverse reaction of ecosystems to these changes and anthropogenic shifts associated with the influence of pollution, agricultural use of land, deforestation, transport development, urbanization, etc. The current stage of development of society involves the introduction in all spheres of life with the latest information technologies, the use of significant amounts of information and, accordingly, the availability of new and broad knowledge. It is necessary to develop an information strategy, including the development of the most effective methods its selection, processing and dissemination, which requires updating and development of the monitoring system itself.

The most important issue in the strategy for regulating the quality of environmental protection is the issue of creating a system capable of identifying the most critical sources and factors of anthropogenic impact on public health and environmental protection, identifying the most vulnerable elements and parts of the biosphere susceptible to such impacts.

Such a system is recognized as a system for monitoring anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment, capable of providing the necessary information for decision-making by the relevant services, departments, and organizations.

Environmental monitoring– a comprehensive system of observations, assessment and forecast of the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.

The basic principle of monitoring is continuous tracking.

The purpose of environmental monitoring is information support for the management of environmental activities and environmental safety, optimization of human relations with nature.

There are different types of monitoring depending on the criteria:

Bioecological (sanitary and hygienic),

Geoecological (natural and economic),

Biosphere (global),

Space,

Climatic, biological, public health, social, etc.

Depending on the severity of anthropogenic impact, impact and background monitoring are distinguished. Background (basic) monitoring– monitoring natural phenomena and processes occurring in a natural environment, without anthropogenic influence. Carried out on the basis of biosphere reserves. Impact monitoring- monitoring of anthropogenic impacts in particularly hazardous areas.

Depending on the scale of observation, global, regional and local monitoring are distinguished.

Global monitoring– monitoring the development of global biosphere processes and phenomena (for example, the state of the ozone layer, climate change).

Regional monitoring– monitoring natural and anthropogenic processes and phenomena within a certain region (for example, the state of Lake Baikal).

Local monitoring– monitoring within a small area (for example, monitoring the air condition in the city).

In the Russian Federation, the Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring (USESM) is functioning and developing, formed at three main organizational levels: federal, constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local (objective) with the aim of radically increasing the efficiency of the monitoring service. Based on the monitoring results, recommendations are developed to reduce the level of environmental pollution and a forecast for the future.

Monitoring systems are associated with environmental assessments and environmental impact assessments (EIA).

Standardization of environmental quality (ecological regulation)

Under environmental quality understand the degree to which a person’s living environment corresponds to his needs. The human environment includes natural conditions, workplace conditions and living conditions. Life expectancy, health, morbidity levels of the population, etc. depend on its quality.

Environmental regulation– the process of establishing indicators of the maximum permissible human impact on the environment. Its main goal is to ensure an acceptable balance between ecology and economics. Such rationing allows for economic activity and preservation of the natural environment.

In the Russian Federation the following are subject to rationing:

Physical impact factors (noise, vibration, electromagnetic fields, radioactive radiation);

Chemical factors - concentrations of harmful substances in air, water, soil, food;

Biological factors – the content of pathogenic microorganisms in the air, water, food.

Environmental standards are divided into 3 main groups:

Technological standards - established for various industries and processes, rational use of raw materials and energy, minimizing waste;

Scientific and technical standards - provide for a system of calculations and periodic revision of standards, monitoring the impact on the environment;

Medical standards determine the level of danger to public health.

Standardization of environmental quality– establishing indicators and limits within which changes in these indicators are allowed (for air, water, soil, etc.).

The purpose of standardization is to establish maximum acceptable standards(environmental standards) human impact on the environment. Compliance with environmental standards should ensure the environmental safety of the population, the preservation of the genetic fund of humans, plants and animals, and the rational use and reproduction of natural resources.

The standards for maximum permissible harmful effects, as well as methods for determining them, are temporary and can be improved as science and technology develop, taking into account international standards.

The main environmental standards for environmental quality and impact on it are as follows:

1. Quality standards (sanitary and hygienic):

Maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of harmful substances;

Maximum permissible level (MAL) of harmful physical influences (radiation, noise, vibration, magnetic fields, etc.)

2. Impact standards (production and economic):

Maximum permissible emission (MPE) of harmful substances;

Maximum permissible discharge (MPD) of harmful substances.

3. Comprehensive standards:

Maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment.

Maximum permissible concentration (MPC)- the amount of a pollutant in the environment (soil, air, water, food), which, with permanent or temporary exposure to a person, does not affect his health and does not cause adverse effects in his offspring. MPCs are calculated per unit of volume (for air, water), mass (for soil, food products) or surface (for the skin of workers). MPCs are established on the basis of comprehensive studies. When determining it, the degree of influence of pollutants is taken into account not only on human health, but also on animals, plants, microorganisms, as well as on natural communities as a whole.

Maximum permissible level (MAL)- this is the maximum level of exposure to radiation, vibration noise, magnetic fields and other harmful physical influences, which does not pose a danger to human health, the condition of animals, plants, or their genetic fund. MPL is the same as MPC, but for physical impacts.

In cases where MPC or MPL have not been determined and are only at the development stage, indicators such as TPC - approximately permissible concentration, or TAC - approximately permissible level, respectively, are used.

Maximum permissible emission (MPE) or discharge (MPD)- this is the maximum amount of pollutants that a given specific enterprise is allowed to emit into the atmosphere or discharge into a body of water per unit of time, without causing them to exceed the maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants and adverse environmental consequences.

A comprehensive indicator of environmental quality is the maximum permissible environmental load.

Maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment (PDEN)- this is the maximum intensity of anthropogenic impact on the environment, which does not lead to a violation of the stability of ecological systems (or, in other words, to the ecosystem going beyond its ecological capacity).

The potential ability of the natural environment to tolerate one or another anthropogenic load without disrupting the basic functions of ecosystems is defined as capacity of the natural environment, or ecological capacity of the territory.

The resistance of ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts depends on the following indicators:

Stocks of animal and dead organic matter;

Efficiency of organic matter production or vegetation production;

Species and structural diversity.

The higher these indicators are, the more stable the ecosystem.

The concept of environmental monitoring Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program Menn 1972. The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring by Yu.

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Lecture No. 14

Environmental monitoring

Concept of environmental monitoring
Objectives of environmental monitoring
Monitoring classification
Assessment of the actual state of the environment (sanitary and hygienic monitoring, environmental)
Forecast and assessment of the predicted state

1. Concept of environmental monitoring

Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program (Menn, 1972). The need for detailed information about the state of the biosphere has become even more obvious in recent decades due to serious negative consequences caused by uncontrolled human exploitation of natural resources.

To identify changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity, an observation system is needed. Such a system is now commonly called monitoring.

The word “monitoring” entered scientific circulation from English-language literature and comes from the English word “ monitoring " comes from the word " monitor ", which in English has the following meaning: monitor, instrument or device for monitoring and constant control over something.

The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Menn in 1972. at the UN Stockholm Conference.

In our country, Yu.A. was one of the first to develop monitoring theory. Israel. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring, Yu.A. Israel back in 1974 focused not only on observation, but also on forecasting, introducing the anthropogenic factor into the definition of the term “environmental monitoring” as the main cause of these changes. Monitoring environmentit calls a system of observation, assessment and forecast of anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment. (Fig.1) . The Stockholm Conference on the Environment (1972) marked the beginning of the creation of global environmental monitoring systems (GEMS/ GEMS).

Monitoring includes the followingmain directions activities:

Observations of factors affecting the natural environment and the state of the environment;
Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
Forecast of the state of the natural environment. And an assessment of this condition.

Thus, monitoring is a multi-purpose information system of observation, analysis, diagnosis and forecast of the state of the natural environment, which does not include environmental quality management, but provides the necessary information for such management (Fig. 2).

Information system/monitoring/Management

Rice. 2. Block diagram of the monitoring system.

2. Objectives of environmental monitoring

Scientific and technical support for monitoring, assessing the forecast of the state of the environment;
Monitoring the sources of pollutants and the level of environmental pollution;
Identification of sources and factors of pollution and assessment of the degree of their impact on the environment;
Assessment of the actual state of the environment;
Forecast of changes in the state of the environment and ways to improve the situation. (Fig.3.)

The essence and content of environmental monitoring consists of an ordered set of procedures, organized into cycles: N 1 observations, O 1 assessment, P 1 forecast and U 1 management. Then the observations are supplemented with new data, on a new cycle, and then the cycles are repeated on a new time interval H 2, O 2, P 2, U 2, etc. (Fig. 4.)

Thus, monitoring is a complex, cyclically functioning, constantly operating system that develops in a spiral over time.

Rice. 4. Scheme of monitoring functioning over time.

3. Classification of monitoring.

According to the scale of observation;
By objects of observation;
According to the level of contamination of observation objects;
By factors and sources of pollution;
According to observation methods.

By scale of observation

Level name monitoring	Monitoring organizations
Global	Interstate monitoring system environment
National	State system of environmental monitoring of the territory of Russia
Regional	Regional and regional environmental monitoring systems
Local	City, district environmental monitoring systems
Detailed	Environmental monitoring systems for enterprises, fields, factories, etc.

Detailed monitoring

The lowest hierarchical level is the detailed levelenvironmental monitoring implemented within territories and on the scale of individual enterprises, factories, individual engineering structures, economic complexes, fields, etc. Detailed environmental monitoring systems are the most important link in a higher-ranking system. Their integration into a larger network forms a local level monitoring system.

Local monitoring (impact)

It is carried out in heavily polluted places (cities, populated areas, water bodies etc.) and is focused on the source of pollution. IN

Due to the proximity to sources of pollution, all the main substances included in emissions into the atmosphere and discharge into water bodies are usually present in significant quantities here. Local systems, in turn, are combined into even larger regional monitoring systems.

Regional monitoring

It is carried out within a certain region, taking into account the natural nature, type and intensity of man-made impact. Regional environmental monitoring systems are united within one state into a single national monitoring network.

National monitoring

Monitoring system within one state. Such a system differs from global monitoring not only in scale, but also in the fact that the main task of national monitoring is to obtain information and assess the state of the environment in national interests. In Russia it is carried out under the leadership of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task has been set to unite national monitoring systems into a single interstate network “Global Environmental Monitoring Network” (GEMN)

Global monitoring

The purpose of GSMS is to monitor changes in the environment on Earth as a whole, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for monitoring the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impact on the biosphere as a whole. GSMOS deals with global warming, problems of the ozone layer, forest conservation, drought, etc. .

By objects of observation

Atmospheric air
in populated areas;
different layers of the atmosphere;
stationary and mobile sources of pollution.
Groundwater and surface water bodies
fresh and salt waters;
mixing zones;
regulated water bodies;
natural reservoirs and watercourses.
Geological environment
soil layer;
soils.
Biological monitoring
plants;
animals;
ecosystems;
Human.
Snow cover monitoring
Background radiation monitoring.

Pollution level of observation objects

Background (basic monitoring)

These are observations of environmental objects in relatively clean natural areas.

2. Impact

Focuses on the source of pollution or individual polluting impact.

By factors and sources of pollution

1. Ingradient monitoring

This is a physical impact on the environment. These are radiation, thermal effects, infrared, noise, vibration, etc.

2. Ingredient monitoring

This is monitoring of a single pollutant.

By observation methods

1. Contact methods

2. Remote methods.

4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment

Assessment of the actual state is a key area within the framework of environmental monitoring. It allows you to determine trends in changes in the state of the environment; the degree of trouble and its causes; helps make decisions to normalize the situation. Favorable situations can also be identified, indicating the presence of ecological reserves of nature.

The ecological reserve of a natural ecosystem is the difference between the maximum permissible and actual state of the ecosystem.

The method for analyzing observation results and assessing the state of the ecosystem depends on the type of monitoring. Typically, the assessment is carried out using a set of indicators or conditional indices developed for the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Unfortunately, there are no unified criteria even for identical elements of the natural environment. As an example, we will consider only individual criteria.

In sanitary and hygienic monitoring they usually use:

1) comprehensive assessments of the sanitary condition of natural objects based on a set of measured indicators (Table 1) or 2) pollution indices.

Table 1.

Comprehensive assessment of the sanitary condition of water bodies based on a combination of physical, chemical and hydrobiological indicators

The general principle for calculating pollution indices is as follows: first, the degree of deviation of the concentration of each pollutant from its maximum permissible concentration is determined, and then the resulting values are combined into a total indicator that takes into account the impact of several substances.

Let us give examples of calculating pollution indices used to assess atmospheric air pollution (AP) and surface water quality (WQ).

Calculation of the air pollution index (API).

IN practical work use large number various ISAs. Some of them are based on indirect indicators of air pollution, for example, atmospheric visibility, transparency coefficient.

Various ISAs, which can be divided into 2 main groups:

1. Unit indices of air pollution by one impurity.

2.Comprehensive indicators of air pollution by several substances.

TO unit indices include:

Coefficient for expressing the concentration of an impurity in MPC units ( A ), i.e. the value of the maximum or average concentration, reduced to the maximum permissible concentration:

a = Cί / MPCί

This API is used as a criterion for the quality of atmospheric air by individual impurities.

Repeatability (g ) concentrations of impurities in the air above a given level by post or by K posts of the city for the year. This is the percentage (%) of cases where single values of an impurity concentration exceed a given level:

g = (m/n) ּ100%

where n - number of observations for the period under consideration, m - number of cases of exceeding one-time concentrations at the post.

IZA (I ) by an individual impurity - a quantitative characteristic of the level of atmospheric pollution by an individual impurity, taking into account the hazard class of the substance through standardization for the danger SO 2 :

I = (C g /PDKss) Ki

where I is an impurity, Ki - constant for various hazard classes in reducing the degree of harmfulness of sulfur dioxide, C g - average annual concentration of impurities.

For substances of different hazard classes Ki is accepted:

Hazard class
Ki value

The calculation of the API is based on the assumption that at the MPC level, all harmful substances are characterized by the same effect on humans, and with a further increase in concentration, the degree of their harmfulness increases at different rates, which depends on the hazard class of the substance.

This API is used to characterize the contribution of individual impurities to the overall level of air pollution over a given period of time in a given area and to compare the degree of air pollution by various substances.

TO complex indexes include:

The comprehensive city air pollution index (CIPA) is a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution created by n substances present in the city atmosphere:

KIZA=

where Ii - unit index of air pollution by the i-th substance.

The comprehensive index of air pollution by priority substances is a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution by priority substances that determine air pollution in cities, calculated similarly to KIZA.

Calculations of the natural water pollution index (WPI)can also be performed using several methods.

Let us give as an example the calculation method recommended by the regulatory document, which is an integral part of the Rules for the Protection of Surface Waters (1991) - SanPiN 4630-88.

First, the measured concentrations of pollutants are grouped according to limiting signs of harmfulness - LPV (organoleptic, toxicological and general sanitary). Then, for the first and second (organoleptic and toxicological DP) groups, the degree of deviation (A i ) actual concentrations of substances ( C i ) from their maximum permissible concentration i , the same as for atmospheric air ( A i = C i /MPC i ). Next, find the sums of indicators A i , for the first and second groups of substances:

where S is the sum of A i for substances regulated by organoleptic ( S org ) and toxicological ( S tox ) LPV; n - number of summarized water quality indicators.

In addition, to determine WPI, the amount of oxygen dissolved in water and BOD are used 20 (general sanitary LPV), bacteriological indicator - the number of lactose-positive Escherichia coli (LPKP) in 1 liter of water, smell and taste. The water pollution index is determined in accordance with the hygienic classification of water bodies according to the degree of pollution (Table 2).

Comparing the corresponding indicators ( Sorg, Stox, BOD 20 etc.) with the estimated ones (see Table 2), determine the pollution index, the degree of pollution of the water body and the water quality class. The pollution index is determined by the most stringent value of the assessment indicator. So, if according to all indicators water belongs to quality class I, but the oxygen content in it is less than 4.0 mg/l (but more than 3.0 mg/l), then the WPI of such water should be taken as 1 and classified as class II quality ( moderate degree pollution).

The types of water use depend on the degree of water pollution of a water body (Table 3).

Table 2.

Hygienic classification of water bodies by degree of pollution (according to SanPiN 4630-88)

Table 3

Possible types water use depending on the degree of pollution of the water body (according to SanPiN4630-88)

Degree of pollution	Possible uses same object
Acceptable	Suitable for all types of water use by the population with virtually no restrictions
Moderate	Indicates the danger of using a water body for cultural and household chains. Use as a source of domestic drinking water supply without reducing the level of: chemical pollution at water treatment plants can lead to initial symptoms intoxication in part of the population, especially in the presence of substances of hazard classes 1 and 2
High	There is an absolute danger of cultural and domestic water use on a water body. It is unacceptable to use it as a source of domestic drinking water supply due to the difficulty of removing toxic substances during the water treatment process. Drinking water can lead to symptoms of intoxication and the development of isolated effects, especially in the presence of substances of hazard classes 1 and 2
Extremely high	Absolutely unsuitable for all types of water use. Even short-term use of water from a water body is dangerous to public health

To assess water quality, the services of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation use the methodology for calculating WPI only based on chemical indicators, but taking into account more stringent fishery MPCs. At the same time, there are not 4, but 7 quality classes:

I - very clean water (WPI = 0.3);

II - pure (WPI = 0.3 - 1.0);

III - moderately polluted (WPI = 1.0 - 2.5);

IV - polluted (WPI = 2.5 - 4.0);

V - dirty (WPI = 4.0 - 6.0);

VI - very dirty (WPI = 6.0 - 10.0);

VII - extremely dirty (WPI more than 10.0).

Assessment of the level of chemical contamination of soilcarried out according to indicators developed in geochemical and geohygienic studies. These indicators are:

chemical concentration factor (K i),

K i = C i / C fi

where C i actual content of the analyte in the soil, mg/kg;

With fi regional background content of the substance in soil, mg/kg.

In the presence of maximum permissible concentration i for the soil type under consideration, K i determined by the multiple of exceeding the hygienic standard, i.e. according to the formula

K i = C i / MPC i

total pollution index Z c , which is determined by the sum of the concentration coefficients of chemical substances:

Zc = ∑ K i (n -1)

Where n number of pollutants in the soil, K i - concentration coefficient.

The approximate rating scale of the danger of soil pollution according to the total indicator is presented in table. 3.

Table 3

Danger		Change in health
acceptable	 16	low level of morbidity in children, minimum functional deviations
moderately dangerous	16-32	increase in overall morbidity rate
dangerous	32-128	an increase in the overall morbidity rate; increase in the number of sick children, children with chronic diseases, disorders cardiovascular system
extremely dangerous	 128	an increase in the overall morbidity rate; increase in the number of sick children, reproductive dysfunction

Environmental monitoring is of particular importance in the global systemenvironmental monitoring and, first of all, in monitoring renewable resources of the biosphere. It includes observations of the ecological state of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems.

The following criteria can be used to characterize changes in the state of natural systems: balance of production and destruction; the amount of primary production, the structure of the biocenosis; rate of circulation of nutrients, etc. All these criteria are numerically expressed by various chemical and biological indicators. Thus, changes in the Earth's vegetation cover are determined by changes in the area of forests.

The main result of environmental monitoring should be an assessment of the responses of ecosystems as a whole to anthropogenic disturbances.

A response or reaction of an ecosystem is a change in its ecological state in response to external influences. It is best to evaluate the system's response by integral indicators of its state, which can be used as various indices and other functional characteristics. Let's look at some of them:

1. One of the most common responses of aquatic ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts is eutrophication. Consequently, monitoring changes in indicators that integrally reflect the degree of eutrophication of a reservoir, for example pH 100% , is the most important element of environmental monitoring.

2. The response to “acid rain” and other anthropogenic impacts may be a change in the structure of biocenoses of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. To assess this response, various indices of species diversity are widely used, reflecting the fact that under any unfavorable conditions the diversity of species in the biocenosis decreases, and the number of resistant species increases.

Dozens of such indices have been proposed by different authors. Most Applications found indices based on information theory, for example, the Shannon index:

where N - total number of individuals; S - number of species; N i is the number of individuals of the i-th species.

In practice, they deal not with the number of a species in the entire population (in a sample), but with the number of a species in a sample; replacing N i / N by n i / n , we get:

Maximum diversity is observed when the numbers of all species are equal, and minimum diversity is observed when all species except one are represented by one specimen. Diversity indices ( d ) reflect the structure of the community, weakly depend on the sample size and are dimensionless.

Y. L. Vilm (1970) calculated Shannon diversity indices ( d ) in 22 unpolluted and 21 polluted sections of different US rivers. In uncontaminated areas the index ranged from 2.6 to 4.6, and in polluted areas - from 0.4 to 1.6.

Assessing the state of ecosystems based on species diversity is applicable to any type of impact and any ecosystem.

3. The system’s response may manifest itself in a decrease in its resistance to anthropogenic stress. As a universal integral criterion for assessing the stability of ecosystems, V.D. Fedorov (1975) proposed a function called the measure of homeostasis and equal to the ratio of functional indicators (for example, pH 100% or photosynthesis rate) to structural (diversity indices).

A feature of environmental monitoring is that the effects of impacts, subtle when studying an individual organism or species, are revealed when considering the system as a whole.

5. Forecast and assessment of the predicted state

Forecasting and assessing the predicted state of ecosystems and the biosphere are based on the results of monitoring the natural environment in the past and present, studying information series of observations and analyzing trends of changes.

At the initial stage, it is necessary to predict changes in the intensity of sources of impacts and pollution, to forecast the degree of their influence: to predict, for example, the amount of pollutants in different environments, their distribution in space, changes in their properties and concentrations over time. To make such forecasts, data on human activity plans is needed.

The next stage is the forecast of possible changes in the biosphere under the influence of existing pollution and other factors, since changes that have already occurred (especially genetic ones) can last for many years. Analysis of the predicted state allows you to select priority environmental measures and make adjustments to economic activity at the regional level.

Forecasting the state of ecosystems is essential for managing the quality of the natural environment.

In assessing the ecological state of the biosphere on a global scale based on integral characteristics (averaged in space and time), remote observation methods play an exceptional role. The leading methods among them are those based on the use of space assets. For these purposes, special satellite systems are being created (Meteor in Russia, Landsat in the USA, etc.). Synchronous three-level observations using satellite systems, aircraft and ground services are especially effective. They make it possible to obtain information about the state of forests, agricultural lands, sea phytoplankton, soil erosion, urbanized areas, redistribution of water resources, atmospheric pollution, etc. For example, there is a correlation between the spectral brightness of the planet’s surface and the humus content in soils and their salinity.

Satellite imaging provides ample opportunities for geobotanical zoning; allows us to judge population growth based on the area of settlements; energy consumption based on the brightness of night lights; clearly identify dust layers and temperature anomalies associated with radioactive decay; record increased concentrations of chlorophyll in water bodies; detect forest fires and much more.

In Russia since the late 60s. There is a unified national system of observation and control of environmental pollution. It is based on the principle of comprehensive observations of natural environments according to hydrometeorological, physicochemical, biochemical and biological parameters. Observations are constructed according to a hierarchical principle.

The first stage is local observation points serving the city, region and consisting of control and measuring stations and a computer center for collecting and processing information (CIS). Then the data enters the second level - regional (territorial), from where the information is transferred to local interested organizations. The third level is the Main Data Center, which collects and summarizes information across the country. For this purpose, PCs are now widely used and digital raster maps are created.

Currently, a Unified State Environmental Monitoring System (USESM) is being created, the purpose of which is to provide objective, comprehensive information on the state of the natural environment. The Unified State Environmental Monitoring System includes monitoring of: sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment; pollution of the abiotic component of the natural environment; biotic components of the natural environment.

Within the framework of the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System, the creation of environmental information services is provided. Monitoring is carried out by the State Observation Service (SOS).

Observations of atmospheric air in 1996 were carried out in 284 cities at 664 posts. The observation network for surface water pollution in the Russian Federation as of January 1, 1996 consisted of 1928 points, 2617 sections, 2958 verticals, 3407 horizons located on 1363 water bodies (1979 - 1200 water bodies); of which - 1204 watercourses and 159 reservoirs. As part of the State Monitoring of the Geological Environment (SMGE), the observation network included 15,000 observation points for groundwater, 700 observation sites for dangerous exogenous processes, 5 test sites and 30 wells for studying earthquake precursors.

Among all the blocks of the Unified State Monitoring System, the most complex and least developed not only in Russia, but also in the world is the monitoring of the biotic component. There is no uniform methodology for the use of living objects either for assessing or regulating environmental quality. Hence, priority task- determination of biotic indicators for each of the monitoring blocks at the federal and territorial levels, differentiated for terrestrial, aquatic and soil ecosystems.

To manage the quality of the natural environment, it is important not only to have information about its condition, but also to determine damage from anthropogenic impacts, economic efficiency, environmental protection measures, own economic mechanisms for protecting the natural environment.

Actual condition

environment

Environmental conditions

environment

For the state

environment

And the factors on

influencing it

Forecast

price

Observations

Monitoring

observations

State forecast

Assessment of actual condition

Assessment of the predicted state

Regulation of environmental quality

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

TASK

TARGET

OBSERVATION

GRADE

FORECAST

DECISION MAKING

STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT

IDENTIFICATION

for changes in the state of the environment

proposed environmental changes

observed changes and identifying the effect of human activities

causes of environmental change associated with human activities

to prevent

negative consequences of human activity

optimal relations between society and the environment

Fig.3. Main tasks and purpose of monitoring

H 1

O 2

H 2

P 1

O 1

19.58 KB Its main tasks include: collecting inventory and visualizing information on current state and the functioning of the most representative variants of soils and lands; element-by-element and comprehensive assessment of the functional-ecological state of soils and other landscape elements; analysis and modeling of the main modes and processes of land functioning; identifying problematic situations in the landscape; providing information to all zones. Indicator monitoring criteria: botanical plant sensitivity to the environment and... 7275. Monitoring network devices. Server monitoring (event viewing, auditing, performance monitoring, bottleneck identification, network activity monitoring) 2.77 MB In any system of the Windows family, there are always 3 logs: the System log, events recorded in the log by operating system components, for example, failure to start a service during a reboot; The default log location is in the SystemRoot system32 config SysEvent folder. Working with logs You can open system logs in the following ways: open the Computer Management console and, in the Utilities section, open the Event Viewer snap-in; open a separate console View events in the section... 2464. Monitoring of turaly zhalpa malimetter. Negіzgі mіndetteri. Monitoring of the block-syzbass 28.84 KB Ecological monitoring - anthropogendik factorlar aserinen qorshagan orta zhagdayynyn, biosphere component ozgeruin baqylau, baga zana bolzhau zhuyesi. Sonymen, monitoring – tabighi orta kuyin bolzhau men bagalaudyn 2400. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND ECOLOGICAL FACTOR 14.14 KB In this regard, the limitations of interpreting natural capital only as natural resources are increasingly realized. The lake contains a fifth of the world's fresh water resources; it regulates the water and climate regime over vast territories and attracts tens of thousands of tourists to admire its unique beauty. For Russia, for example, it is obvious great importance fossil resources in the economy. The role of natural conditions and resources in the development and placement of productive forces Depending on the nature of occurrence and location... 3705. Ecological tourism in the Far East 7.24 MB It is practically unexplored. There is no data on the analysis of types of ecotourism in the regions. There is only fragmentary information about some types of ecotourism presented in different regions of the Far East. 21742. Environmental audit of waste management at Intinskaya Thermal Company LLC 17.9 MB Analysis of waste generated at the enterprises of Intinskaya Thermal Company LLC by hazard class. Sources of waste generation by structural divisions of the enterprise. Calculations of waste generation standards. Analysis of waste by types and volumes of generation. 14831. Waste monitoring 30.8 KB Mixture different types waste is garbage, but if we collect them separately, we get resources that can be used. To date, in a large city, per person per year there is an average of 250,300 kg of solid household waste, and the annual increase is about 5, which leads to the rapid growth of landfills, both authorized registered and wild unregistered. The composition and volume of household waste is extremely diverse and depends not only on the country and area, but also on the time of year and many... 3854. WatchGuard System Management and Monitoring 529.58 KB WatchGuard System Manager provides powerful, easy-to-use tools for managing network security policies. It combines all of Firebox X's management and reporting features into a single, intuitive interface. 754. Monitoring of radiation pollution of the environment 263.85 KB The effects of radiation on the body can have tragic consequences. Radioactive radiation causes the ionization of atoms and molecules of living tissues, resulting in the breaking of normal bonds and a change in the chemical structure, which entails either cell death or mutation of the body. Technical assignment The impact of radiation on the body can have tragic consequences. Radioactive radiation causes the ionization of atoms and molecules of living tissues, resulting in the breaking of normal bonds and... 7756. Ecological and economic monitoring of the environment 238.05 KB Monitoring is a system of observations, forecasts, assessments carried out according to scientifically based programs and recommendations and options for management decisions developed on their basis, necessary and sufficient to ensure management of the state and safety of the managed system. The focus of monitoring on providing a management system for recommendations and options for management decisions predetermines the inclusion