A more detailed assessment of the content of the political process is associated with the characteristics of its types and varieties. Political processes unfold both on a global scale and within the political system of society, a separate region, or a local territory. They can be classified by scale, nature of transformations, composition of participants, time duration, etc. Political processes act as global and national, national and regional (local), as interclass, intergroup, and within classes, social and other groups, outside or within political parties and movements.

We can say that political processes are divided into domestic political and foreign policy.

The internal political process takes place between political subjects (classes, other social groups, nations, parties, social movements, political leaders), the core of whose activity is the conquest, retention and use of political power. The internal political process covers various areas life of society - political, legal, economic, social, environmental, demographic, cultural, military, etc. Internal political goals can be achieved by both peaceful and violent methods.

The foreign policy process extends to relations with other states as the art of conducting international affairs. It is closely connected with the dominant economic structure, social and state system and expresses them on the world stage. At the same time, the foreign policy process has a number of features due to the existence in the world of many states with divergent interests and programs in various areas. IN modern conditions The foreign policy process is increasingly becoming the art of negotiations and achieving reasonable, mutually acceptable political compromises.

According to the importance for society of certain forms of political regulation social relations political processes are divided into basic and peripheral.

The basic political process is characterized by various ways of including broad social strata in relations with the state, forms of transforming the interests and demands of the population into management decisions, typical methods of forming political elites, etc. In this sense, we can talk about processes political participation in public administration (in decision-making, legislative process, etc.).

Peripheral political processes reveal the dynamics of the formation of individual political associations (parties, pressure groups, etc.), the development local government, other connections and relationships in the political system that do not have a fundamental impact on the dominant forms and methods of exercising power.

By the nature of the participation of the masses in political life, we can distinguish democratic ones, where they combine various shapes direct and representative democracy and non-democratic, the internal content of which is determined by the presence of totalitarian or authoritarian regimes; activities of the relevant political parties and public organizations and leaders, the existence of an authoritarian political culture and mentality of citizens.

In political science there are also such types political processes, both open and hidden (shadow). An open political process is characterized primarily by the fact that the political interests of groups and citizens are systematically revealed in electoral preferences, programs of parties and movements, as well as in other forms of public claims of people to state power. On the contrary, the hidden (shadow) process is based on political institutions and centers of power that are not publicly formalized, as well as on such power claims that various reasons do not involve appeals to official authorities. The centers of power to which citizens then appeal can be prohibited, illegal and not recognized by society structures (for example, mafia clans) operating in a given political space. Control over the ruling elites is completely absent.

The nature of the transformation of power gives grounds to talk about revolutionary and evolutionary political processes.

The revolutionary type of political process develops in an environment revolutionary situation or close to it (according to V.I. Lenin: the “tops” cannot, and the “bottoms” do not want to live in the old way, high political activity of the masses). This type is characterized by a relatively rapid qualitative change in power, a complete revision of the state constitution; the use of both peaceful and violent means to overthrow the previous regime; electoral preferences give way to spontaneous arbitrary forms of mass political movements; at all levels of government there is a lack of time for adoption management decisions; the declining role of advisory and expert bodies, the increasing responsibility of political leaders; increasing conflict between the traditional and new elites.

The evolutionary type of political process is characterized by a gradual resolution of accumulated contradictions and rationalization of conflicts; separation of functions and roles of various political subjects; stability of the formed decision-making mechanisms; joint activities the elite and the electorate, mutually controlling each other and having freedom of action within the framework of their acquired statuses; legitimacy of power, unity of socio-cultural values ​​and guidelines of managers and managed; consensus and the presence of constructive opposition; a combination of management with self-government and self-organization of political life.

From the point of view of the sustainability of the main forms of interconnection between social and political structures, the certainty of the functions and relationships of subjects of power, stable and unstable political processes can be distinguished.

A stable political process is characterized by stable institutionalized forms of political mobilization and behavior of citizens, as well as functionally developed mechanisms for making political decisions. This process is based on a legitimate regime of government, appropriate social structure, high efficiency prevailing legal and cultural norms in society.

An unstable political process usually arises in a crisis as a manifestation of the need to change the political course. A number of factors can lead to this: a decline in production, social conflicts caused by the changed conditions of vertical and horizontal mobility, complications international relations. The instability of the political process is most clearly manifested in sharp fluctuation electoral preferences for development paths.

Political processes differ from each other in scale, duration, factors, nature of interaction between factors, etc. IN political science allocate various types political processes. There are several ways to typify political processes, based on different criteria.

Based on the diversity of political processes, several types can be distinguished. These are, first of all, everyday political processes (“small” factors and units of measurement), which are primarily associated with processes with direct interactions of individual, group and partially institutional factors. An example is the legislative process in a parliament.

Another type of political process is the historical political process (larger factors - mainly groups and institutions). These are processes associated with the commission of a historical event. Thus, a political revolution can be presented as a process of this kind. As the same historical process the emergence and development of a political party may be considered.

Finally, these are evolutionary political processes that are characterized by the participation of “large” factors (institutions, the political system), and are also measurable using large-scale time units. Such processes could be, for example, the process of turning a polis into an imperial capital, or the modernization of the political system as a result of a series of political reforms, or the transition to democracy as a result of the dismantling of authoritarian rule, the holding of constituent elections, and then their consolidation in a series of regular competitive elections.

There are other criteria for distinguishing individual types and varieties of the political process. So, A.I. Soloviev makes similar distinctions based on differences in subject areas. In addition, A.I. Soloviev distinguishes open and closed political processes. Closed political processes “mean that type of change that can be fairly clearly assessed within the criteria of better/worst, desirable/undesirable, etc. Open processes demonstrate a type of change that does not allow us to assume what character - positive or negative for the subject - the existing transformations have or which of the possible strategies in the future is more preferable... In other words, this type of process characterizes changes that occur in extremely unclear and uncertain situations, which imply increased hypotheticalness of both performed and planned actions.” Also, he distinguishes between stable and transient processes. Stable processes presuppose “stable reproduction of political relations,” while transitional processes imply the absence of “a clear predominance of certain basic properties of the organization of power,” which is carried out in conditions of “imbalance political activity main subjects".

The political process is a dynamic characteristic of politics. Therefore, it can be argued that the forms of existence of the political process are political change and political development. Many researchers highlight various types political processes, understanding by them the types of political changes and political development.

Depending on the nature of the changes, evolutionary and revolutionary types of political development are distinguished. By evolutionary we mean a type that includes gradual, step-by-step qualitative changes. Revolutionary is a type of development focused on scale and transience. Despite the heuristic significance of identifying these types, one should recognize the conventions of their distinction in relation to political development. In reality, political development is evolutionary in nature, revolutions are only part of the evolutionary path. Their scale and transience are fundamentally important only from the point of view of everyday life and history.

Quite often, stable and crisis types of development are distinguished. It is assumed that a stable type of political development is characteristic of societies where there are sufficient institutional guarantees and social consensus that prevent sudden changes in political course, and even more so sudden change political regime. At the same time, it is assumed that the basis for stable development is the ability of the system to adequately respond to environmental challenges. This contributes to the gradual and smooth nature of the changes.

The crisis type of development is characteristic of societies where there are no such necessary conditions and the system is unable to provide adequate responses to external changes. Then political development takes place in the form of a crisis, which can affect both individual aspects of political life and the entire system. The development of a full-scale crisis leads to an unstable state of the system or even to its collapse.

The distinction between these two types of political development should also be considered conditional. In fact, stable or crisis development is very often understood not as the evolutionary dynamics of a political system, but as a characteristic of everyday and historical political processes occurring within its framework. However, reports, for example, about a government crisis do not at all indicate the crisis nature of the political development of a given political system.

It should also be noted that in practice, the impetus and, in a certain sense, the engine of development of any political system are systemic crises. Crises arise as a result of inconsistency between structures and methods of communication between elements of the system and emerging needs. Their resolution requires qualitative changes in the system or its individual parts. In practice, we can usually observe an alternation of crises and periods of relative stability. Thus, the crisis nature of changes should be considered and political stability not as characteristics of political development as a whole, but as features of its individual moments.

Types of political development are also distinguished based on its content. Among them, globalization deserves special mention. Other types of political development are political modernization, democratization.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE KRASNOYARSK REGION

MOSCOW PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL INSTITUTE

ABSTRACT

subject: "Political Science"

on the topic: “The concept, types and varieties of the political process”

Completed:

studentNadezhina A.A.

specialty of State Medical University

correspondence department

Checked:

teacherKiselman A.V.

Kansk

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………3

2. The concept of the political process..……………………….………………4

3. Structure and factors of the political process………………………….6

4. Features of the political process…………………………………..13

5. Typology of the political process……………………………………..12

6. Political changes and their types……………………………………..16

7. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………20

8. List of references……………………………………..22

Introduction

The word "process" (from the Latin prossesus - continuation) means:

1) the dynamic, developing state of any object (let us immediately note that in this case the concept of “object” is infinite in its content, just as the universe itself is infinite);

2) a set of sequential actions to achieve a certain result. Thus, this concept is universal in nature, since it reflects the real and permanent state of nature and society.

The concept of "process" is widely used in all social sciences: in economic theory, history, philosophy, psychology, legal sciences, etc. This is understandable, since social processes in their totality constitute the FORM of the existence and functioning of society. For example, in the economic sphere, large-scale and constant processes are the production of goods and services, their distribution, exchange and consumption. Numerous and diverse social processes constantly take place in the social, cultural, and all other spheres of society. Of course, the political sphere of society is no exception. Moreover, political processes indicate that the political system exists, functions, develops and improves. In other words, they serve as a form of functioning of the political sphere (system) of society. The political life of society manifests itself in political processes.

In the broadest sense, political processes are a form of political activity of society. The exceptional diversity of this activity and the fact that each individual case has its own cause and purpose, varying degrees of predictability of the result and many other differences, make scientific research of political processes very difficult and give rise to a variety of points of view on the same issues. It can be said without exaggeration that if a competition is held for the highest level of debatability of the problems considered by political science, then the topic devoted to political processes will take first place. And, nevertheless, the degree of scientific development of political science problems in general and political processes in particular allows us to quite clearly see the varieties of political processes and classify them.

Concept of political process

Characteristics of politics as a process, i.e. the procedural approach allows us to see the special facets of interaction between subjects regarding state power. However, due to the fact that the scale of the political process coincides with the entire political sphere, some scientists identify it either with politics as a whole (R. Dawes), or with the entire set of behavioral actions of subjects of power, changes in their statuses and influences (C. Merriam ). Proponents of the institutional approach associate the political process with the functioning and transformation of institutions of power (S. Huntington). D. Easton understands it as a set of reactions of the political system to challenges environment. R. Dahrendorf focuses on the dynamics of competition between groups for status and power resources, and J. Mannheim and R. Rich interpret it as a complex set of events that determines the nature of the activities of state institutions.

All these approaches in one way or another characterize the most important sources, states and forms of the political process. However, their most significant differences from other fundamental interpretations of the world of politics are that they reveal the constant variability of various features and characteristics of political phenomena. Focusing on the approaches considered, we can assume that the political process is a set of all dynamic changes in the behavior and relationships of subjects, in performed by them in the roles and functioning of institutions, as well as in all elements of the political space, carried out under the influence of external and internal factors. In other words, the category “political process” captures and reveals the real state of political objects, which develops both in accordance with the conscious intentions of the subjects and as a result of diverse spontaneous influences. In this sense, the political process excludes any predetermination or predetermination in the development of events and places emphasis on practical modifications of phenomena. Thus, the political process reveals the movement, dynamics, evolution of political phenomena, specific changes in their states in time and space.

Due to this interpretation of the political process, its central characteristic is change, which means any modification of the structure and functions, institutions and forms, constant and variable features, rates of evolution and other parameters of political phenomena. Changes mean transformation of properties that do not affect the basic structures and mechanisms of power. (for example, leaders, governments, individual institutions may change, but leading values, norms, methods of exercising power remain in the same quality), as well as modification of the supporting, basic elements, which together contribute to the achievement of a new qualitative state by the system.

Science has developed many ideas about the sources, mechanisms and forms of change. For example, Marx saw the main causes of political dynamics in the influence of economic relations, Pareto associated them with the circulation of elites, Weber with the activities of a charismatic leader, Parsons with the performance of various roles by people, etc. However, conflict is most often cited as the main source of political change.

Conflict is one of the possible options for interaction between political actors. However, due to the heterogeneity of society, which continuously generates people’s dissatisfaction with their position, differences in views and other forms of discrepancy in positions, as a rule, it is the conflict that underlies changes in the behavior of groups and individuals, the transformation of power structures, and the development of political processes. As a source of the political process, conflict is a type (and result) of competitive interaction between two or more parties (groups, states, individuals) challenging each other for the distribution of power or resources.

Structure and factors of the political process

Some researchers believe that the political process is a spontaneous phenomenon of an irrational nature, depending on the will and character of people, especially political leaders. The significance of random phenomena and events is especially noticeable at the micro level. However, the general nature of political activity as goal achievement, as well as the institutional and other contexts of this activity (rules, certain forms and modes of behavior, traditions, dominant values, etc.) make the political process as a whole orderly and meaningful. Therefore, the political process is a logically unfolding sequence of interactions between factors.

Thus, the political process is a holistic phenomenon that can be structured and scientifically analyzed. The unpredictability and apparent inexplicability of certain events should be considered mainly as a consequence of the imperfection of the scientific apparatus and instruments.

The structure of the political process can be described by analyzing the interaction between various political factors, as well as by identifying the dynamics (main phases of the political process, changes in these phases, etc.) of this phenomenon. It is also of great importance to clarify the factors influencing the political process. Thus, the structure of the political process can be defined as a set of interactions between factors, as well as their logical sequence (“plot” of the political process). Each individual political process has its own structure and, accordingly, its own “plot”. Factors, the totality of their interactions, sequence, dynamics or plot, time units of measurement, as well as factors influencing the political process - parameters of the political process.

The main factors of the political process are political systems, political institutions (state, civil society, political parties, etc.), organized and unorganized groups of people, as well as individuals.

A political institution is a set of norms and rules, reproduced over time, as well as organizational potential that regulates political relations in certain area political life.

The main power institution, one of the main factors in the political process, is the state. Another important factor in the political process is civil society, which can also be considered a political institution. It should be noted that the state and civil society as political factors are formed in Europe and the United States around the modern period under the influence of ongoing modernization changes. It was from this time that the main institution of power in society emerged, which had a monopoly on coercive violence in a certain territory - the state. At the same time, under the influence of this process, the formation of a kind of antithesis of the state - civil society - occurs.

Smaller-scale factors in the political process include parties, interest groups, as well as individuals and groups of people.

Individuals and groups can participate in politics not only in an institutional form, for example by voting in elections, but also in non-institutional forms, in the form of spontaneous mass actions.

People have varying degrees of political activity. Many are not very active, but generally participate in most institutionalized processes. Some only observe from the sidelines, not only not taking an active part in political life, but also not participating in elections, not reading newspapers, etc. Others, usually a minority of citizens, on the contrary, take the most active part in political life.

To achieve group goals, individuals can create special groups that differ in varying degrees of institutionalization - from a random group formed at a rally to a highly organized, permanent one and operating according to the strict rules of an interest group. Not only the achievement of specific goals depends on the degree of institutionalization of political activity (it, as a rule, is more effective, the higher the degree of institutionalization), but also the reproducibility, repeatability, regularity of any political relations, their consolidation in rules and norms.

The development of any state is a process that can consist of a variety of components. It involves the authorities solving a variety of problems, the participation of the wide range subjects. The same can be said about one of the aspects of state building - the development of the political system. It also builds into a process. What might its characteristics be?

What is the political process?

Let's explore the process. What could be its definition? IN Russian science This is understood as a sequence of events, phenomena and actions that characterize the relationships of various subjects - people, organizations, authorities - in the sphere of politics.

The process in question can take place on different levels and in different spheres of social life. So, for example, it can characterize communications between subjects within one government agency or the entire state system, take place at the municipal, regional or federal level.

The concept of a political process may imply a rather broad interpretation of the corresponding term. Moreover, each of its interpretations may mean the formation of independent categories within the framework of the phenomenon under consideration. Thus, various types of political processes are distinguished, which can be characterized by significant dissimilarity among themselves. Let's consider this feature more details.

Classification of political processes

In order to explore the types of political processes, it is necessary first of all to determine the possible grounds for classifying this phenomenon. What criteria might be applicable here?

In Russian science, there is a widespread approach according to which the political process can be divided into domestic political and foreign policy, depending on the nature of the key subjects directly influencing its course.

Another basis for classifying political processes is classifying them as voluntary or controlled. Here, the described phenomenon is considered in terms of the characteristics of the mechanisms of participation of subjects in relevant communications.

There are such forms of the political process as open and shadow. The key criterion here is the publicity of the subjects influencing the relevant phenomena.

There are revolutionary and evolutionary types of political processes. The key criterion in this case is the time frame during which certain changes are implemented at the level of communication between subjects, and in many cases, the methods by which they are implemented.

Political processes are also divided into stable and volatile. In this case, what matters is how stable and predictable the behavior of the subjects influencing the course of the phenomenon under consideration can be.

Let us now study the specifics of the development of political processes within the framework of the noted classification in more detail.

Foreign policy and domestic political processes

So, the first basis for classifying the phenomenon under consideration is the classification of its varieties as foreign policy or domestic policy. The process classified as the first type involves the participation of subjects who are directly related to the institutions of government and society that function within a single state. These could be people holding any positions in government bodies, heads of enterprises, public structures, parties or ordinary citizens. The foreign policy process assumes that its course is influenced by subjects foreign origin— heads of state, foreign corporations and institutions.

Some researchers highlight communications carried out exclusively on international level. Thus, a process is formed. Events and phenomena characteristic of it may at the same time influence the state of affairs in individual states - for example, if we're talking about about discussions regarding the writing off of a country's external debts, or the imposition of sanctions.

Voluntary and controlled processes

The next basis on which certain types of political processes are determined is the classification of the phenomena under consideration as voluntary or controlled. In the first case, it is assumed that subjects influencing the course of relevant events act on the basis of personal political will, guided by their beliefs and priorities. This can be expressed, for example, in the participation of people in the elections of the head of state. Attendance at them is voluntary, as is the choice of candidate. Controlled political processes assume that the subjects influencing them act based on the requirements of the law or, for example, due to administrative influence from authorized structures. In practice, this can be expressed, for example, in the presence of visas required by one state for the entry of citizens of another: in this way the migration aspect of the international political process is controlled.

Public and shadow processes

The next basis for classifying the phenomenon under consideration is classifying its varieties as open or shadow. Political processes of the first type assume that the subjects influencing it conduct their activities publicly. This is what happens in most developed countries: in particular, people elect a president from among candidates who are known to everyone. The procedures for electing the head of state are fixed in laws and are available to everyone for review. The president, whom the people elected, has powers known to everyone and implements them. But there are countries in which senior officials are also elected, but real ones can be accepted by non-public entities, the essence of which is incomprehensible to ordinary citizens, and access to relevant information is closed. In the first case, the political process will be open, in the second - shadow.

Revolutionary and evolutionary political processes

Political processes may vary depending on the methods by which their subjects carry out certain activities, as well as the speed of changes that characterize certain aspects of communications. Regarding evolutionary processes: methods, as a rule, are based on the provisions of sources of law - laws, regulations, orders. Changing them involves quite time-consuming parliamentary and administrative procedures. But in case of instability in the state, the sources that predetermine the methods used by the subjects of the political process can become slogans, manifestos, demands that are not related to existing laws. As a result, events and phenomena that are not typical for the first scenario are possible. Thus, a revolutionary political process is formed. It often happens that significant changes affect the entire structure of government.

Stable and volatile processes

The political process - in society, in the international arena - can be characterized by stability or, conversely, volatility. In the first case, the subjects influencing the relevant events and phenomena will rely on norms and customs that do not change noticeably over a long period of time.

In the second scenario, it is possible to turn to sources containing provisions that can be interpreted or changed quite freely due to the preferences of the subjects of the political process.

Structural components of the political process

Let us now study the structural aspect of the phenomenon under consideration. What are the common theses of Russian researchers regarding this issue? The structure of the political process most often involves the inclusion of the following components:

Subject (authority, public, political structure or specific citizen capable of influencing the course of relevant events and phenomena);

Object (the area of ​​activity of the subject, characterizing the purpose of his actions, priorities, preferences);

Methods on which the subject relies when solving his problems;

Resources at the disposal of the subject of the political process.

Let's study in more detail the specifics of each of the noted points.

The essence of the subjects of the political process

So, the structure of the political process presupposes the inclusion of subjects in it. These most often become government bodies as independent institutions or specific ones. The political process in Russia, as many researchers note, is characterized by the significant role of the individual in the relevant sphere of communications. On the scale of the entire state, the key role can be played by the president, in the region - by its head, in the city - by the mayor.

Objects of the political process

Their nature may be different. Thus, some researchers consider economic and political processes in a single context, considering the former to be a type of object for the latter. The development of the national economic system, business, solving problems of employment of citizens - these problems are relevant for any state.

Accordingly, the goal of the subjects of the political process, who are senior officials, may be to achieve positive results in relevant areas of work. That is, the economy in this case will be the object of the political process.

Methods of the political process

The essence of the methods in question can also vary significantly. A subject of power, called upon to solve problems of modernizing the economic system of the state and other problems, must first of all somehow obtain his position. In this case, we are talking about methods based on which a person can take power into his own hands.

The political process in Russia assumes that these will be elections - at the level of a municipality, region or country as a whole. In turn, the actual solution of problems, for example, in modernizing the economy, will be implemented on the basis of a different method - lawmaking. For example, it can initiate the adoption of certain legal acts aimed at stimulating the development of the country’s economy.

Resources for the Political Process

A subject of power may have at his disposal the most effective methods solving the assigned tasks, however, if he does not have the necessary resources at his disposal, then he will not be able to implement his plans. How can the corresponding component of the political process be represented?

First of all, this is, of course, capital. If we talk about politics, then these could be budget funds or borrowed. The term “resource” can also be interpreted in a slightly different way - as a certain source for maintaining the legitimacy of power. This will no longer necessarily be finance. Such a resource can be the expression of the will of people, citizens of the state. It is formed in this way, implying constant interaction between government and society. At the same time, by analogy with the financial sector, a resource in this case can be understood as a credit of trust on the part of citizens, which the subject public administration must justify.

So, the term “political process” we are considering can be understood, on the one hand, as a set of events and phenomena that are observed at one or another level of communication, and on the other hand, as a category with a complex structure, including rather dissimilar elements. In turn, the individual components of the political process will also be characterized by complexity, and their essence can be interpreted through a variety of approaches.

Political process– is the total activity of social communities, public organizations and groups, individuals pursuing certain political goals; activities of social actors to implement political decisions. Therefore the main purpose of the political process consists in making and implementing political decisions that should combine the various interests of citizens in the interests of the progress of the whole society. The political process covers all the real actions of ordinary citizens and representatives of elites who can both support ruling regime, and be in opposition to it.

Main types of political processes:

– formation of bodies of the political system (institutions) – previously non-existent political institutions are created and relations between them are established, regulated by special norms;

– reproduction of components and features of the political system in the process of its functioning – political life consists not only of continuous renewal, the emergence of previously non-existent political relations and institutions, but also of actions to maintain these relations in a stable state. Mechanisms such as traditions, procedures, legal and ideological regulations are used here;

– adoption and execution of political decisions that define tasks and methods for solving them, choosing means to achieve political goals, and directions of political action.

Interacting, these processes give rise to actions aimed at ensuring the constancy, inviolability of political relations and their changes, giving them dynamics and renewal.

From the point of view stability of basic forms the relationship between social and political structures, the certainty of functions and relationships between subjects of power, stable and unstable political processes can be distinguished.

Stable political process characterized by stable forms of political mobilization and behavior of citizens, as well as well-developed mechanisms for making political decisions. Unstable political process usually occurs in conditions of a crisis of power. This could be caused by a complication of international relations, a recession material production, social conflicts.

The failure of the regime to respond properly to the new needs of society or its main groups causes instability in the political process.

From the point of view organization of political power There are two main types of political processes: democratic and non-democratic.

combine various forms of direct and representative democracy. Undemocratic political processes characterized by the presence of totalitarian or authoritarian regimes; the activities of relevant political parties and public organizations and leaders, the existence of an authoritarian political culture and the mentality of citizens.