The first part of the instructions was compiled by N. N. Mamonova, the second - by G. P. Romanova and V. M. Kharitonov.

Part one

Paleoanthropological materials are one of the the most important sources to study not only anthropological, but also historical problems. Therefore, during archaeological excavations, the same attention should be paid to the method of fixation and processing of paleoanthropological materials as to the method of working with archaeological materials. How paleoanthropological material is collected and documented in the field determines its quantity and quality, and, consequently, the degree of reliability of the information received and the possibility of solving certain issues in the study of ancient populations.

For paleodemographic studies, it is necessary to take into account all bone remains of each burial. For anthropological characterization, a carefully collected skeleton is required: a skull with all small bones and teeth, long bones of both arms and legs, collarbones, vertebrae, pelvic bones (they are especially important for determining sex), bones of the hands and feet. All this applies to the burials of both adults and children.

Well and completely assembled material provides the most precise definition age and sex of the buried person, study him according to a full anthropological program: craniological, osteological, odontological, etc. Therefore, it is very important to methodically correctly and thoroughly clear and dismantle each skeleton.

When clearing, you should use tools of suitable size - knives, scalpels, dental spatulas, tweezers, brushes different sizes. To fix poorly preserved skulls and bones, you should have bandages or gauze and fixatives (buteral, acrylate) on hand. Teeth, even if they are well preserved, should be soaked in a hot mixture of wax (70%) and rosin (30%) to protect the enamel from destruction. During further work, the wax is easily removed. Rigid fixatives are worse for this purpose.

As the frame is cleared, it should be covered with paper so that drying occurs gradually. Under no circumstances should bones be dried under the sun to avoid exfoliation of the compacta, destruction and deformation of thin bones.

After the bones have dried, you can disassemble the skeleton. In this case, you should pay attention to whether there are any stuck arrowheads in the bones, whether there are any traces of wounds, operations, etc. on the bones. Each bone, if there is a group burial, should be disassembled separately and not mixed with neighboring ones.

After disassembling the bones and additional drying, the bones should be freed from the earth, especially the skull, since the earth remaining in it can destroy it with its weight. The number of the grave and skeleton should be written on the bones.

When excavating burial grounds, it is advisable to assign a special person responsible for working with paleoanthropological materials. This will save time for other expedition staff and ensure good quality working with these materials.

Particular attention should be paid to the documentation of the collected material. Each package must contain a label approximately as follows:

Expedition________________________________________________________

Burial ground__________________________________________________________

Grave No.______________________________________________________________

No. of burial (skeleton)________________________________________________

Note________________________________________________________

Date (day, month, year)________________________________________________

Collector's signature__________________________________________________________

It is advisable to indicate in the note: “left foot”, “right hand”, etc. The label should be written clearly and always with a simple pencil. To prevent the label from being erased, it must be folded in half. On the outside of the package, the label should be repeated and, in addition, the contents of the package should be indicated, for example: “long leg bones”, “facial fragments”, etc.

When disassembling the bones, you need to remember the following: 1) the area of ​​the nose, nasal bones, zygomatic arches are very fragile and easily lost, at the same time they are of paramount importance for anthropological research, therefore, when clearing the skull, you should work especially carefully and carefully and make sure that the zygomatic arches did not remain in the ground; 2) the pelvic bones, especially the area of ​​the pubic bones, are very important for determining the sex of the buried, but these bones are very easily destroyed, since they have a thin layer of compacta; they should be carefully cleaned, thoroughly dried and packaged with special care; 3) the epiphyses (heads and condylar parts) of long bones are important in measuring the length of the bones, from which the body length is calculated; these parts of the long bones are the most fragile; 4) a complete set of vertebrae is very important for a more accurate determination of body length, so these bones should also be carefully collected.

Based on the degree of preservation, the skeletons can be divided into four groups; It should be noted that in one burial the degree of preservation of different skeletal bones is often unequal; accordingly, various methods of clearing, fixing, disassembling and packing bones are used.

I. The skeleton is well preserved (the skull and bones are intact, without damage, the bone is hard and strong). After all the archaeological part of the work is completed and the skeleton is dried, you can begin to disassemble it.

You should remove the skull carefully, placing your hand under the back of the head, trying not to hold it by the front part. The lower jaw can be released earlier. Make sure there are no teeth left in the ground. Before finishing clearing the skull and lower jaw, you should remove the teeth from the alveoli, except those that are firmly held in place, and free the inside of the skull, eye sockets and nasal opening from the ground. Let it dry a little. On parietal bone and on the ascending branch of the lower jaw write the name of the burial ground, the number of the burial and the skeleton. Then place tampons made of soft or crumpled newsprint into the eye sockets and nasal opening, then place the crumpled piece of paper on the front part of the skull, especially covering the naso-frontal part. Then wrap the skull in paper. It is better to pack the lower jaw separately.

Clear the long bones of the arms and legs from the ground with the blunt side of a knife, and then with a brush. It is better to pack the bones of the arms and legs separately so that the heavy thigh bones do not break the light bones of the arms; this will also make it easier to pack them into boxes. Clavicles, sternums and shoulder blades can be packed separately or together with vertebrae and ribs. It is better to pack the bones of the hands and feet in four different packages: from the right hand - in one package, from the left - in another, and the same for the feet. Then all four bags can be wrapped in one common one. When wrapping bones, you should pad them a little with soft paper, especially in the foot, where the heel bone can damage the thin phalanges. (This precaution is especially advisable in cases of moderate to poor bone preservation.)

The vertebrae, sacrum and ribs can be combined into one package. It is better to string the vertebrae on twine. Try to fold the pelvic bones compactly and line them with paper, especially protecting the pubic bones. In general, the pelvic bones are fragile, break easily and should be packed with special care.

II. The skeleton is in moderate condition (the skeleton and skull are crushed and fragmented, but the bone is in good condition). In this case, it is necessary to dry the skeleton very carefully, covering it with paper or grass, especially fragmented and children's skulls, in which the bone is very thin.

If the bones of the skull are relatively well preserved, but the skull is divided, after clearing and drying, a piece of wide bandage or gauze of appropriate size should be placed on the front part of the skull, and then the fabric should be soaked with a fixative solution with a brush. After letting it dry, soak it again. When the mask is dry, carefully remove the front part, wrap it in soft paper and pack it in a box, then gradually disassemble the remaining parts of the skull. If the skull is cracked and its fragments are supported by compacted soil located inside the skull, you need to remove easily removable pieces of bone and free the skull from the ground, fill the skull cavity with crumpled paper and pack it, following the above recommendations regarding the facial skeleton. When removing fragments of the skull, it is imperative to check for the presence of zygomatic arches, which are easily lost during disassembly. When packing, it is necessary to isolate the fragments of the skull bones so that the edges of the fragments do not touch each other.

If the epiphyses of the bones are not very well preserved, they should be soaked with a fixative and a “bandage” of gauze should be applied. The same applies to the pelvic bones. Particular attention should be paid to ensure that heavy, thick bones and light and thin bones are not included in the same bag.

III. The skeleton is poorly preserved (the skull may have been preserved intact, but the bone is fragile, the top layer is peeling off, the facial bones are very fragile; the skeleton is especially poorly preserved in the area of ​​the epiphyses and pelvic bones).

If the skull bone is poorly preserved, before applying a gauze bandage, during the clearing process, without waiting for complete drying, you need to saturate the cleared areas with a 20-30-40% fixative solution using a brush. In cases where the bone is very fragile, it is better to drip the fixative (drain from jars) without touching the bone with a brush.

After the exposed and secured part of the skull has dried and become hard, the next section can be cleared and secured. When the entire skull is dry and strengthened, the brain cavity must be carefully freed from the soil. When wrapping such a skull in paper, you should roll it into a rope, make a ring out of it and place the skull on this ring so that the cheek bone is in the center of the ring. Then cover the facial skeleton with paper, wrap the skull in paper and tie the bag with twine. When packing such skulls in a box, they must be positioned so that between two rows of skulls there is a layer of paper rings, which protects the skulls from shocks during loading.

If the preservation of the skull is such that complete clearing could destroy it, then it is better not to clear the lower half of the skull, but to take it as a monolith. To do this, you need to saturate the soil surrounding the skull with a fixative, let it dry, and when everything hardens, dig the skull to such a depth as not to damage it, and with a careful, quick movement turn it over with the bottom side up. Then you need to clear the lower half of the skull from excess soil, but without exposing the bone, and saturate the soil with a fixative. After the entire monolith has dried (in an hour and a half to two hours) and becomes strong, it can be packed. If the monolith is not sufficiently fixed, it should be soaked again. When packing, you need, as usual, to carefully cover the front and entire opened part of the skull with crumpled paper, and then put a rolled-up paper band on the cleared part; the same ring should be placed on the lower half of the skull and only then wrapped in paper. The bag should be tight and tied with twine. When packing in a box, the monolith should be placed with the ground down; in the box under the monolith there should be a layer of paper rolled into a rope.

When disassembling and packing the skeleton, the same precautions must be taken. It is better to secure the bones of the arms and legs, the pelvic bones and the sacrum and, after hardening, wrap them in bags as usual, only line the individual bones even more carefully with paper. Particular care should be taken to secure the pelvic bones and epiphyses.

IV. The skeleton is in very poor preservation (the bone is very fragile, crumbles when cleared, and collapses when it dries). In this case, the skull does not need to be thoroughly cleaned, but having identified the contours, removing excess soil, immediately lay the skull with damp paper in several layers so that a flat surface is obtained. Then apply a layer of gypsum 3-3.5 cm thick on this layer. To do this, pour one and a half to two liters of cold water into an enamel bowl or pan, and then pour gypsum there so that a small dry mound rises above the surface of the water. After this, the plaster needs to be stirred well so that the consistency is similar to thick sour cream, and after allowing it to thicken a little, apply it in an even layer on the prepared surface.

If there is not enough gypsum, you need to prepare another portion and apply another layer, after moistening the first one with water. You need to work with plaster quickly to prevent it from hardening. After the plaster has hardened, you need to carefully dig up the skull and turn the monolith so as not to damage the lower half of the skull. Then, having removed the excess soil, you need to plaster the second half in the same way, while the edges of the plaster cover should be slightly trimmed with a knife and made wavy so that the cover does not slip off. To prevent the edges of the plaster cover from sticking together, they must be lined with wet paper in two or three layers. After the form has hardened, it should be tied tightly, making cuts in the plaster so that the twine holds tightly. Such a plaster case ensures absolute immobility of the skull and its gradual, uniform drying, which is very important when the bones are poorly preserved.

When packing anthropological materials into boxes, you need to pack skulls and mandibles in one box, and skeletal bones in another. The best packaging material is paper. It is better to avoid shavings and straw, as they, when rubbed together, form voids. The boxes should be filled tightly, but do not press too hard on the bags when filling the box. The box must contain an inventory of the contents, a second copy of which must be sent to the collections destination.

It is better to pack skulls in good preservation together, and two or three monoliths (not plaster) can be placed on the bottom of these boxes. Mandibles can be placed in spaces between skulls or in remaining empty spaces. All empty spaces where the bag cannot be inserted must be filled with crumpled paper or some other elastic material.

It is better to pack poorly preserved skulls in small boxes so that the weight of the skulls does not crush each other.

When packing monoliths, you need to take into account that they cannot be stacked in several rows. The monoliths must lie absolutely motionless at the bottom of the box.

As for gypsum monoliths, the same rules apply to them, but they require small strong wooden boxes at the rate of two monoliths per box, otherwise the box will be very heavy. Under the plaster molds in the boxes you need to put paper folded into bundles that fit tightly one to the other.

When packing skeleton bones, you need to make sure that packages with bones from the same skeleton do not end up in different boxes. Packages must be packed tightly.

Part two

This part of the instructions is intended to briefly acquaint field archaeologists with the features of the most important bones of the human skeleton, as well as with elementary techniques for gender and age determinations. It should facilitate initial tentative determinations of anthropological material in the field by archaeologists themselves, although, of course, such determinations can in no way replace the subsequent professional work of an anthropologist on this material. The most important part of the instructions is the illustrations, designed to make it easier for archaeologists to recognize skeletal bones and improve the quality of sketches of bones in the field.

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE HUMAN SKELETON

The formation of the human skeleton begins in the middle of the second month of uterine life. Most bones in early stages embryonic development whole cartilaginous. As the body grows, cartilage is replaced by bone tissue. In adults, cartilage tissue is preserved only at the joints of bones and in growth zones. The microscopic structure of bones makes them light and strong. The strength of bones is also determined by the degree of mineralization, which depends on the magnitude of the mechanical load on them and some other factors. Bones, despite their strength and mineralization, are living organs that can change in external shape and structure. The shape of the bones and the nature of the skeleton of a particular individual depend on hereditary and age-sex characteristics and bear the imprint of the influence of external living conditions. The asymmetry of the skeleton, including the skull, should also be noted. The right side of the skeleton is somewhat more developed due to its developed muscles.

The skeletal system is complex, as it is an ensemble of numerous and varied bones, movably connected into a single whole. The adult human skeleton consists of 206 bones. The skull consists of 29 bones, the spine - of 26 (including the bones of the coccyx and sacrum, each of which is formed from several fused vertebrae), the chest - of 25, each upper limb - of 32, the lower - of 30, pelvic bones 2 .

Based on their shape, the human skeleton is divided into long, short, flat and mixed bones. Long bones are the main bones of the limbs. There are 12 of them in total - three in each limb. Long bones are the most massive in the human skeleton. They have characteristic shape epiphyses. Examples of short bones are the bones of the metacarpus and metatarsus (10+10), the phalanges of the fingers (14+14), and the clavicle (2). Typical flat bones are the scapula (2), sternum, ilium (2), and some skull bones. Mixed bones include the vertebrae (24), sacrum, coccyx, carpal bones (8+8), tarsus (7+7), patella (2), and most skull bones.

Scull

Examining the skull (Fig. 1, 1), in front we see the frontal bone, below it, two orbits separated by the supraorbital edge, and even lower is the pear-shaped foramen. On the sides of the pyriform foramen the maxillary bones are visible, separated from the orbits by the infraorbital margin. The lower jaw is adjacent to the maxillary bones from below.

On the lateral surface of the skull, the temporal bone, zygomatic arch, mastoid process, zygomatic bone and other anatomical formations are visible (Fig. 1, 2). When examining the skull as a whole, all the main sutures are clearly visible. The lower part of the skull makes up its base, which has a complex topography, numerous processes, crevices, and openings (Fig. 1, 3).

The human skull consists of two sections - the brain and the facial. The brain region includes the occipital, sphenoid, frontal, parietal, temporal and ethmoid bones.

The occipital bone (Fig. 2, 1, 2) consists of scales, two lateral parts and a body, delimiting the foramen magnum. Behind the occipital foramen stretches the scales of the occipital bone, on the outer side of which the attachment points of the cervical muscles are visible - the nuchal lines and the occipital protuberance. On the sides of the foramen magnum are the lateral parts of the occipital bone, which bear articular condyles on the outer surface, serving to articulate the skull with the first cervical vertebra. The body of the occipital bone is located in front of the foramen magnum and is connected to the body of the sphenoid bone by the basal occipital suture (Fig. 2, 4).

The main bone (Fig. 2, 4) is located at the base of the skull between the occipital and frontal bones. It distinguishes between the body, small and large wings and pterygoid processes. It has a very complex topography and is involved in the formation of the base of the skull and the inner surface of the eye sockets.

The frontal bone (Fig. 3) occupies the anterior part of the cerebral part of the skull and forms the surface of the forehead. It contains scales, two orbital parts, and a nasal part. On the scales there are frontal tubercles, below which lie the brow ridges. Between the arches is the region of the glabella. The scales of the frontal bone bear the temporal lines. The surface of the scales continues with the orbital surface, forming the supraorbital margin, which has a supraorbital notch or supraorbital foramen. On the right and left, the supraorbital margin passes into the zygomatic process of the frontal bone, connecting with the frontal process of the zygomatic bone.

The parietal bones (Fig. 4) are paired and form the superolateral surface of the skull. The parietal bones are connected to each other by a sagittal suture, in front a coronal suture connects them with the frontal bone, below a scaly suture connects them with the temporal bones, and behind a lambdoid suture connects them with the occipital bone. The most convex part of the parietal bone is called the parietal tubercle.

The temporal bones (Fig. 5) are paired, located on both sides of the skull. The main parts of the temporal bone are the squama and the pyramid. The hearing organ is located in the pyramid of the temporal bone, to which the external auditory opening leads. Behind the opening is the mastoid process. In front of the external auditory canal protrudes the zygomatic process, which together with the zygomatic bone forms the zygomatic arch. Below the zygomatic process there is a depression - the articular mandibular fossa. It includes the articular process of the lower jaw, with the help of which the lower jaw is movably connected to the skull.

The facial part of the skull consists of the maxillary, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, palatine, hyoid bones, nasal concha, vomer, and mandible.

The maxillary bones (Fig. 6, 1, 4) are paired, have a body and four processes: frontal, zygomatic, palatine, alveolar. The frontal processes connect at the top with the frontal bone. The lateral edges of the frontal processes are connected to the outer edges of the nasal bones (Fig. 6, 3, 4), which, fused with each other, form the bony part of the nose. Below, the anterior surface of the maxillary bone has a depression - the canine fossa. Even lower is the alveolar process of the upper jaw. The palatine process of the maxillary bone is a horizontal plate that forms a partition between the nasal and oral cavities. The zygomatic processes of the maxillary bones are fused with the maxillary processes of the zygomatic bones. The zygomatic bones (Fig. 6, 2, 4) are paired and have three processes that connect them to the frontal, temporal and maxillary bones.

The lower jaw (Fig. 7, 1, 2) consists of a horseshoe-shaped body and two branches extending from it at an upward angle. Each branch of the lower jaw ends in a coronoid and articular process. The body bears cellular (alveolar) processes and a mental protuberance. At the point where the body bends in the branch there are the angles of the lower jaw.

We do not provide here descriptions of some bones of the skull - the ethmoid, lacrimal, palatine, nasal concha, vomer and hyoid bone - due to the low value of these bones for the purposes of anthropological study.

Dental system. In paleoanthropology, special attention is paid to the study of teeth, since teeth, due to their strength, are often the only surviving remains of an ancient person. The importance of the morphology of the dental system is also important because the methodology for determining the age of the deceased is based on its age-related changes.

A person has two sets of teeth. The deciduous shift (Fig. 8, 2, 3) is represented by three classes of teeth: incisors, canines, and molars. Permanent teeth (Fig. 8, 4, 5) include another class - premolars. Total number There are 20 teeth in the milk shift, and 32 in the permanent shift.

Milk teeth differ from permanent teeth in their smaller size, more vertical arrangement of teeth in the jaw, and a well-defined narrowing at the border of the neck and crown. The crowns of primary teeth are slightly larger in width than in height. Primary teeth have thinner roots with pointed ends. Primary incisors are similar in shape to permanent incisors, but primary incisors do not have the three teeth on the incisal edge that are characteristic of permanent incisors. The first primary molars (m1) are similar in crown shape to the second premolars permanent shift(p2), and the second primary molars (m2) are very similar to the first permanent molars (p1). They should be distinguished by the oblique curvature of the lateral surface of the crown, which is well pronounced in baby teeth. The roots of baby teeth, compared to the roots of permanent teeth, diverge much more to the sides.

Age characteristics. The formation of teeth in humans begins in the second month of uterine life. In a newborn, the teeth are hidden in the jaw (Fig. 8, 1). The first milk teeth erupt at the age of about 6 months (Fig. 9, 1, 2, 4a). To 2-2. By the age of 5, all baby teeth have erupted. By 12-14. By the age of 5, all baby teeth are replaced by permanent teeth. As permanent teeth grow, milk teeth are resorbed, starting from the apex of the root (Fig. 9, 1, 3).

The process of tooth formation has been well studied in humans, and the timing of the formation and germination of milk and permanent teeth has been established. Based on the state of the dental system, the age of the deceased child can be determined with an accuracy of one year (Fig. 9, 1).

But it should be taken into account that during the formation and eruption of teeth, various deviations and anomalies are possible. The shape of the crown of the teeth can be changed as a result of illness, mechanical damage during life and after death. Possible natural changes in the shape of teeth should not be confused with their artificial deformation, which is found in various peoples of the world.

Determining age from the skull

In humans, the process of ossification of the skull begins with the formation of an ossification center of each bone, from which bone rays gradually grow in different directions. Some bones have several centers of ossification (see, for example, Fig. 3, 4), which merge into one bone with age. Sometimes this does not happen and additional bones and sutures form on the skull (see Fig. 13, 1, 2).

The size and shape of the skull changes throughout a person’s life, especially intensively during the period of growth. In old age, changes in the shape of the skull are associated with loss of teeth and transformation of the structure of the bones of the skull. The uniqueness of the newborn's skull lies in the absence of seams on the skull, the presence of fontanelles and non-fused components bones. Children's and adult skulls differ significantly in proportions and in the ratio of the facial and brain regions (Fig. 1, 4). The existence of temporal patterns of growth and development of the skeleton, including the skull, makes it possible to fairly reliably determine the age of a person at the time of his death from bone remains.

The most accurate determination of the age of deceased children is made by the degree of development of the dental system (Fig. 8, 9). Additional signs of age in children can include: timing of fusion of the frontal and temporal bones at 2-3 years (Fig. 3, 4; 5, 3), fusion of parts of the occipital bone by 4-6 years (Fig. 2, 3), fusion of the styloid process with the temporal bone at 15 years, fusion of the basic-occipital suture at 14-18 years, fusion of the lower jaw, which at the time of birth consists of two halves, in 1-2 years.

Determination of age on adult turtles is carried out by the degree of tooth wear and the degree of obliteration (overgrowth) of the cranial sutures (Fig. 10). Skull growth ends at 18-25 years of age. After 20-30 years, starting from the inner surface, obliteration of the cranial sutures occurs. In women, on average, it begins a little later than in men. Due to the large individual variability in the process of suture healing and the dependence of the degree of tooth wear on many external factors, the accuracy of determining the age of adults lies within a decade.

When determining age by the degree of tooth wear, one should use Fig. 10, 2, establish the abrasion of the crowns of all remaining molars. There may be some differences in the degree of wear of the upper and lower molars, which is associated with earlier eruption of the mandibular teeth. Preference should be given to age determination based on the upper molars.

In Fig. 10, 1 shows a diagram of the obliteration of cranial sutures, in which the sutures are divided into sections and the age interval for their overgrowth is indicated. The scheme should be used with caution due to significant individual variability in obliteration time.

When determining the age of a buried person, it is necessary to take into account both the condition of the bones of the postcranial skeleton and his gender.

Determining sex by skull

Signs of sex are clearly expressed in mature turtles that have completed their growth and development (Fig. 11; 12).

Male skulls are larger and more massive than female ones, have a well-developed relief of the frontal and occipital bones, and clearly defined lines of muscle attachment. The zygomatic arch on male skulls is thicker, mastoid processes larger. Female skulls are distinguished by a straighter forehead, sharp upper edge of the eye sockets, more rounded and higher. The lower jaw of men has a more developed relief, a more direct angle of the jaw branch (Fig. 7, 3c, d).

Possible changes in the shape of the skull bones

On the skulls of ancient people one can often find traces of natural and artificial changes in the shape of bones.

Natural changes are often associated with abnormal deviations in the formation of the skull bones. Such, for example, as an open metopic suture (Fig. 13, 2), the presence of additional bones on the occipital bone (Fig. 13, 1) or abnormal anatomical formations such as torus mandibularis (nut-shaped swellings) (Fig. 13, 3).

It is necessary to distinguish between cavities that destroy bones, formed during life as a result of long-term inflammatory processes, and post-mortem bone destruction (Fig. 13, 4, 5).

In addition to natural ones, ancient skulls show signs of artificial bone destruction. Most often these are traces of the impact of weapons and burr holes (Fig. 14, 1-3).

Various ancient and modern peoples of the world have a known custom of deliberately changing the shape of the head by applying various types of bandages to children. There are several types of artificial deformation of the skull (Fig. 14, 4). The most common is circular deformity, in which the head is tightened around the circumference with a bandage.

Spine and chest

Rice. 15. Spinal column. 1 - view from the right (a) and back (b); 2 - vertebrae (a, b, c - I, II, VI cervical, respectively; d - thoracic, e - lumbar, a, c-e - top view; b - left view); 3 - vertebra of a newborn.

The spinal column consists of 33-34 vertebrae: 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 4-5 coccygeal (Fig. 15, 1). The vertebrae are connected to each other movably, with the exception of the area of ​​the sacrum and coccyx, where they grow together. The size of the vertebrae is associated with the increasing load on the spine from top to bottom. Therefore, the smallest vertebrae are the cervical ones, the largest ones are the lumbar ones. Each vertebra has a body, an arch and processes (Fig. 15, 2). The spinous process extends from the arch posteriorly. Two transverse processes go to the right and left, and two articular processes carrying articular platforms extend up and down. The vertebrae of various parts of the spine, while maintaining common structural features, have their own distinctive features due to the functional load. The first and second cervical vertebrae have a special structure (vertebrae are numbered from top to bottom). The first vertebra is involved in the formation of the connection with the occipital bone; it does not have a body and a spinous process (Fig. 15, 2a). The second vertebra has a small process - a tooth, extending upward from the body (Fig. 15, 26). The first cervical vertebra rotates around the tooth along with the skull. The second to sixth cervical vertebrae have spinous processes forked at the end (Fig. 15, 2c). The thoracic vertebrae have a well-developed body and processes. A feature of the thoracic vertebrae is the presence of additional articular platforms for articulation with the ribs (Fig. 15, 2d). The vertebral body and arch limit the vertebral foramen; these foramina, when connecting the vertebrae, merge into the spinal canal.

Each vertebra develops from three parts: the body and two halves of the arch (Fig. 15, 3). Complete formation of the spinal column occurs by 22-25 years.

The lumbar vertebrae rest on the sacral vertebrae. There are five sacral vertebrae and they are fused into a single bone - the sacrum (Fig. 16, 1, 2). On the sacrum there are pelvic and dorsal surfaces, two lateral parts, a base and an apex. There are four pairs of sacral foramina on the sacrum. On the lateral surfaces of the sacrum there are ear-shaped articular platforms that connect to the pelvic bones. At the base of the sacrum there are two articular superior processes that connect to the last lumbar vertebra. At the top of the sacrum there are two horn-like structures for articulation with the coccyx.

Fusion of the sacral vertebrae begins at 16-17 years of age. The formation of the sacrum ends at 22-24 years.

The female sacrum is wider, shorter and straighter compared to the male one. The articular auricular surface on the female sacrum is shorter and reaches only the 2nd sacral foramen (Fig. 16, 4).

The lower part of the spine - the coccyx - consists of four to five bodies (Fig. 16, 1). The formation of the coccyx begins at 3-4 years and ends at 12-15 years. After 40 years, fusion of the sacrum and coccyx often occurs.

Humans have 12 pairs of ribs. The ribs are flat, of unequal length. The ribs are counted from top to bottom, the largest rib being the seventh. The posterior ends - the heads - of the ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae using joints. The first 10 ribs have a rib tubercle (Fig. 17, 1, 2), with the articular surface of which the rib is connected to the costal articular fossa of the transverse process of the corresponding vertebra.

The sternum is a flat, unpaired bone (Fig. 17, 2). The upper part of the sternum is called the manubrium, the middle part is called the body, and the lower part is called the xiphoid process. The sternum is fused with the seven upper ribs and closes the chest in front. The manubrium of the sternum has special notches for articulation with the clavicles. The sternum develops from several ossification centers (Fig. 17, 4). By the age of 18-20, the manubrium and body of the sternum are formed, the xiphoid process usually remains cartilaginous. The male sternum is narrower and longer than the female.

Upper limbs

The shoulder blades are paired flat triangular bones (Fig. 18), located between the back muscles at the level of 2-8 ribs. There are three edges in the scapula: upper, inner, outer. On the upper edge there is a notch of the shoulder blade. The upper edge passes into the coracoid process from the outside. On the posterior surface of the scapula there is a scapular spine, which in the lateral (outer) part passes into the humeral (acromial) process. The scapula has lower, upper and outer angles. The outer (lateral) angle is thickened, there is a glenoid cavity on it, which articulates with the articular surface of the head of the humerus. At birth, the scapula has cartilaginous areas: both processes, the articular cavity, the inner edge, the upper and lower angles (Fig. 18, 4). The scapula ossifies by the age of 18-22.

The collarbones are small S-shaped curved paired bones (Fig. 19). The clavicle has a body (diaphysis) and two ends - a thickened sternal and flattened humeral. The sternal end articulates with the manubrium of the sternum, the humeral end with the acromial process of the scapula. The body of the clavicle is compressed from top to bottom. The upper surface is smooth, the lower has a nutrient opening and a cone-shaped tubercle at the humeral end.

The clavicle ossifies before birth, the first of all the bones of the skeleton (Fig. 19, 3). Only at the sternal end at 16-18 years old does the epiphysis form, which finally grows to the body at 18-24 years old. The male collarbone is longer and more steeply curved. The relief is more pronounced on her than on women's.

The humerus (Fig. 20) is long, tubular. It distinguishes between a body (diaphysis) and two ends (epiphyses) - upper (proximal) and lower (distal). The body of the bone on its outer side has a deltoid tuberosity. The body is rounded above, widening and flattening below, ending with the internal and external epicondyles. Between the epicondyles there are two articular surfaces of the lower end of the humerus - the trochlea and the capitate eminence. Above them in front is a depression - the coronoid fossa, behind - the ulnar fossa. The proximal epiphysis is thickened and bears the head of the humerus. Somewhat below the head are the greater and lesser tubercles of the proximal epiphysis.

Age-related changes in the humerus are caused by the formation and fusion of the epiphyses with the body. In a newborn, the diaphysis and head of the humerus ossify. The formed upper epiphysis fuses with the diaphysis at 16-19 years. The block fuses with the diaphysis at 11-16 years. Complete fusion of the lower end with the body occurs by 15-17 years (Fig. 20, 2).

The ulna (Fig. 21, 2, 3) is a long tubular bone. The massive upper epiphysis bears the coronoid and olecranon processes, between which there is a semilunar or trochlear notch, which articulates with the trochlea of ​​the humerus. On the outside, the upper epiphysis has a small semilunar or radial notch for articulation with the head of the radius. The lower epiphysis is formed by the head of the ulna, on which the articular platform is located on the outside, and the styloid process on the inside.

Age-related features of the structure of the ulna are determined by the formation and growth of the upper epiphysis at 14-18 years and the lower epiphysis at 16-20 years (Fig. 21, 4).

The radius (Fig. 21, 1, 2) has a body and two ends. At the proximal end of the radius there is a cylindrical head, on the lateral surface of which there is an articular platform for articulation with the radial notch of the ulna. The top of the head is concave and bears an articular surface for articulation with the capitate eminence of the humerus. The tuberosity of the radius protrudes slightly below the head. At the lower end of the radius there is an articular surface for connection with the wrist. On inside the lower end has a small articular platform for articulation with the lower epiphysis of the ulna; the styloid process protrudes on the outer end. The diaphysis of the radius is somewhat flattened downward and has a pointed medial (interosseous) edge (Fig. 21, 1). The upper epiphysis of the radius fuses with the body at 13-18 years (Fig. 21, 4), the lower - at 14-19.

Rice. 22. Bones of the hand. 1 - phalanges of the III finger and III metacarpal bone (on the left - the dorsal surface, on the right - the palmar); 2 - carpal bones; 3 - age-related structural features (the hand of a 10-year-old child).

The bones of the hand are distributed into three sections: the bones of the wrist, metacarpus and phalanges of the fingers (Fig. 22). The carpal bones lie in two rows. In the first row, counting from the thumb to the little finger, are the scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum and pisiform bones; in the second row there are the large and small trapezoid, capitate and hamate (Fig. 22, 2). The bones of the wrist articulate with each other through numerous joints, which give it sufficient flexibility. The first (upper) row of carpal bones articulates with the radius, the second (lower) with the metacarpal bones. The metacarpus consists of five bones, each of which has a body and two ends - a head and a base (Fig. 22, 1-3). The heads articulate with the main phalanges of the fingers.

Each finger, except the thumb, has three phalanges - main, intermediate and terminal (Fig. 22, 1, 3). Thumb has two phalanges - main and terminal. There are a total of 27 bones in the hand. Complete formation of hand bones occurs by 17-20 years.

The phalanges and metacarpal bones of the hand can be easily confused with the phalanges and metatarsal bones of the foot. To distinguish them, you need to pay attention to the cross-section of the diaphysis of the phalanges, which are more rounded in the foot, and the shape of the heads of the metatarsal and metacarpal bones (Fig. 23).

Rice. 23. Distinctive features of the phalanges of the hand and foot. 1 - phalanx of the third finger (a - hand, b - foot); 2 - section of the main phalanx of the finger (a - hand, b - foot); 3 - shape of the head of the metacarpal (a) and metatarsal (b) bones.

Lower limbs

The pelvis is a symmetrical formation, which includes the sacrum with the coccyx and two pelvic bones (Fig. 24, 3).

Each pelvic bone is formed from three - the ilium, the ischium and the pubis, which, fused, form the acetabulum on the outer surface of the pelvic bone (Fig. 24, 1, 2). The ilium is flat, curved, at the top it forms the iliac crest, which ends in a protrusion at the back - the superior posterior iliac spine, and in front - at the anterior superior iliac spine. There are also posterior and anterior inferior iliac spines. Below the posterior spines is the greater sciatic notch. On the inner surface of the ilium above the sciatic notch there is an auricular articular surface that connects to the lateral surface of the sacrum. At the back below, the ilium passes into the ischium, which has a thickening called the ischial tuberosity. Anteriorly and inferiorly, the ilium meets the pubis. Two pubic bones, connecting, form a pubic fusion, with its lower edges forming the pubic angle in men, and the pubic arch in women.

The final fusion of three bones into one - the pelvic bone - occurs by the age of 13-18 (Fig. 24, 4). Complete formation of the pelvic bones ends by age 25. The surface of the pubic fusion changes with age (Fig. 24, 5).

Determining sex by the pelvis. The most reliable determination of the sex of the deceased is carried out using the pelvic bones (Fig. 25). The male pelvis is generally narrower and higher than the female. The shape of the pelvic cavity in women is cylindrical, in men it is cone-shaped. The wings of the ilium in men are set more vertically than in women. The lower branches of the pubic bone unite to form acute angle in men and the pubic arch or obtuse angle in women. If the pelvis is not completely preserved, the sex can be determined by the characteristics of the pelvic bones and sacrum (Fig. 16, 4 and 25).

The femur (Fig. 26) is the longest bone of the skeleton. It distinguishes between a diaphysis and two epiphyses, upper and lower. The femoral neck, crowned with the head, extends from the upper end of the diaphysis at an angle to it. The head enters the acetabulum of the pelvis, forming the hip joint with it. At the junction of the neck and diaphysis there is a massive protrusion - the greater trochanter of the femur. The lesser trochanter is located on the back of the thigh. The head of the femur bears a small fossa of the head on its surface, which differs from the smooth head of the humerus. The rough line of the femur stretches on the posterior surface of the diaphysis. The lower epiphysis is formed by two projections - the medial and lateral condyles. The medial one is larger than the lateral one (Fig. 26, 1, 2).

In front, both surfaces of the condyles form an articular platform for the patella - a small bone pointed downward.

At birth, the diaphysis and head of the femur are in a state of ossification. The head grows to the neck at 14-20 years of age. The greater trochanter grows in at 13-18 years of age. The distal epiphysis fuses with the diaphysis at 16-20 years (Fig. 26, 3).

The tibia (Fig. 27) consists of a diaphysis and two epiphyses. On the body of the bone at the front there is an anterior ridge (edge) that separates the inner and outer surfaces of the bone. On the posterior surface of the bone there is a line of attachment of the soleus muscle and a clearly visible nutrient foramen. The proximal epiphysis is expanded, forms the internal and external condyles, between which the intercondylar eminence is located (Fig. 27, 1, 2). The lower epiphysis has a quadrangular shape. On the outer side there is the fibular notch, on the inner side there is the medial malleolus. The lower epiphysis has an articular surface for articulation with the talus bone of the foot.

The distal epiphysis grows to the diaphysis at 14-19 years, the proximal one at 15-20. The intercondylar eminence is formed after 12 years (Fig. 27, 3).

The fibula (Fig. 27) is adjacent to the tibia on the outside. Its upper epiphysis is formed by the head, the upper end of which is called the apex of the head. The lower epiphysis forms the lateral malleolus. There is a nutrient opening on the posterior surface of the diaphysis (Fig. 27, 2). The distal epiphysis of the fibula fuses with the diaphysis at 14-19 years, the proximal one at 15-20.

The skeleton of the foot consists of the bones of the tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges of the fingers (Fig. 28). The tarsus (Fig. 28, 1, 2) consists of the calcaneal, talus, navicular, three wedge-shaped and cuboid bones. The talus (Fig. 28, 5) rests on the calcaneus and in front comes into contact with the scaphoid. The calcaneus (Fig. 28, 4) protrudes backward, forming the calcaneal tubercle. The sphenoid and goblet bones articulate with the metatarsal bones. There are five metatarsal bones (Fig. 28, 1, 2). The heads of the metatarsal bones are connected to the phalanges of the fingers (Fig. 28, 3). Each finger, except the thumb, has three phalanges; the big finger has two. There are a total of 26 bones in the foot. The formation of the bones of the foot ends at 18-20 years of age.

Age determination from the bones of the postcranial skeleton

When determining the age of the buried by the degree of formation of the skeletal bones, it is necessary to remember that the development of the skeleton does not occur at the same pace in individual individuals and therefore we can determine from the bones only the approximate age group (biological age) of the deceased, and not his individual (calendar) age. Age should not be determined by any one feature or bone; if possible, you need to compare the data obtained with the state of the dental system and skull, and also take into account the sex of the skeleton when determining. In Fig. 29 shows data on the formation and fusion of the epiphyses of individual skeletal bones. Using the table, you should not determine age with great accuracy; division into the six age groups accepted in anthropology is enough. The first children's age group infantilis I includes children before the first teething permanent molars- up to 6-7 years. The second - infantilis II - before the eruption of the second permanent molars, i.e. up to 14 years. The third - juvenis (youthful) - until the occipital suture closes. The fourth - adultus (mature) - up to 30-35 years. The fifth - maturus (mature) - up to 50-55 years. The sixth - senilis (senile) - over 55 years old.

In mature people, all the bones of the skeleton are formed, but traces of the sutures connecting the epiphyses and diaphyses are still visible, the articular surfaces are smooth. On the bones of mature people, the sutures are not visible, the articular surfaces are rough, deformations of the epiphyses of the bones, and changes in the shape of the phalanges of the fingers are possible. With old age, these bone changes intensify and are clearly expressed, and the bone structure also changes.

And women are the same. But there are many other differences between male and female skeletons.

General structure

The male skeleton differs from the female one in being more massive. Men have denser bones than women. This is especially noticeable in people over 30 years of age, because at this age bones lose calcium and their mineralization decreases, but in women this process is more intense than.

Women have a more developed pelvis, and men have a more developed shoulder girdle. True, the difference appears only after puberty; it is impossible to distinguish between a skeleton and a girl based on this feature.

Individual bones

The main differences between the skeletons of men and women are the structure of the pelvic bones. The female pelvis is adapted to pregnancy and childbirth. These biological processes require a fairly large volume of the abdominal cavity, and the fetal head during childbirth must easily pass through the pelvic canal and opening, this explains the features of the female pelvis. It is on average 5 cm wider than the male one; its opening is oval in women, and heart-shaped in men. The pelvic canal in women is cylindrical, and in men it is cone-shaped. The angle of the connection of the pubic bones (pubic arch) in women is more than 100 degrees, and in men it is less than 90.

The structure of the sacrum also differs: in women it is wider, and in men it is more curved, and its articulation with other bones in women is more mobile, which explains the flexibility of the female body.

There are differences in the structure of other bones. The number of vertebrae in men varies from 69 to 71, and in women - from 73 to 75. The sternum in women is shorter and wider than in men. Women's are shorter than men's and have less curvature.

Scull

Determining sex from the skull is less reliable than from other bones, but some differences can still be indicated. In women, the places where muscles are attached to the bones of the skull look smoother.

The upper edges of the eye sockets are blunt in men and sharp in women. In men, the brow ridges and cheekbones located under the brow are more developed. In men, the bump is more pronounced, while in women it can be almost invisible.

As a rule, male skulls differ more large teeth and a massive “square” lower jaw, while women have a pointed chin. The frontal bone in men is sloping, while in women it is rounded and vertical.

The air cavities in the pneumatic bones of the skull are larger in men than in women. This difference is obvious even in .

Despite such a number of differences, an accurate result when determining sex from the skeleton cannot be guaranteed. Both scientists and forensic experts make mistakes.

> Determination of bone age

This information cannot be used for self-medication!
Consultation with a specialist is required!

What's happened bone age?

Bone age is a conditional age that corresponds to the level of development of the child’s bones. It can be established using x-ray examination. There are special x-ray tables that combine normal bone age indicators for children and adolescents. They take into account the child’s weight and length, chest circumference and stage of puberty.

There are several methods for determining bone age, taking into account the time of appearance of the epiphyses (end sections of tubular bones), the stages of their development, and the processes of fusion of the epiphyses with the metaphyses to form bone joints (synostoses). These processes are especially indicative in the bones of the hands due to the presence in them large quantity epiphyseal zones (areas of growing tissue in bones) and ossification nuclei.

Normally, in young children, the proportion of cartilage tissue in the anatomical structures of the skeleton is significantly higher than in adults. In a newborn child, the epiphyses of the tibia, femur and other bones, some bones of the foot (calcaneus, talus, cuboid), spongy bones of the hand, as well as the vertebral bodies and their arches consist of cartilaginous tissue and have only ossification points. As the child grows, dense bone tissue gradually replaces areas of cartilage. Ossification points in cartilage appear in a certain sequence.

Indications for determining bone age

Indications for the study are violations physical development child, slowing of its growth, some diseases of the pituitary gland, hypothalamus and thyroid gland.

Pediatricians, endocrinologists, and orthopedists most often refer for examination. You can undergo it either in the X-ray room of the clinic or in any paid center equipped with an X-ray machine.

Contraindications for this study

Due to the negative effects of ionizing radiation on a growing organism, X-ray examinations of children under 14 years of age should be carried out only as prescribed by a doctor. It is not recommended to repeat it earlier than after 6 months. No special preparation is required for the procedure.

Methods for determining bone age and interpretation of results

To determine bone age, an x-ray of the hand and wrist joint is most often performed. The radiologist compares the results obtained with the standards determined for the child’s age. Delays in growth and physical development associated with pathology of the pituitary gland are characterized by a significant lag in bone age from the real one (more than 2 years). With genetic short stature and skeletal dysplasia, the delay in bone maturation is usually mild or absent.

In addition to age, skeletal features also have gender characteristics. Girls, as a rule, are about 1–2 years ahead of boys in development. Gender-related differences in the rate of ossification usually appear starting from the first year of a child’s life.

Based on radiological data, the dynamics of puberty can be assessed. An increase in the function of the gonads is indicated by the appearance of a sesamoid bone in the metacarpophalangeal joint. Ossification of the metacarpal bone corresponds to the appearance of menstruation in girls and regular emissions in boys. Between these events, a “growth spurt” occurs, when body length increases particularly rapidly. With various forms of premature sexual development, the process of bone maturation accelerates, and with pituitary dwarfism (decreased synthesis of growth hormone) it slows down.

X-ray examination of the skull bones is most often carried out to diagnose the pathology of the sella turcica, which indicates diseases of the pituitary gland. With pituitary dwarfism, a decrease in the size of the sella is detected, with tumors of the pituitary gland - thinning of its walls and widening of the entrance, as well as foci of calcification. For craniopharyngioma (intracranial tumor originating from pituitary gland cells), characteristic signs are dehiscence of cranial sutures and pronounced “finger” impressions on the inside of the skull.

The results of the x-ray must be shown to the doctor who referred you for this study.

Establishing age.

To determine the approximate age, it is necessary to take into account not individual parts of the skeleton, but all bones without exception, which contain the most important features for estimating age. These are primarily the skull, teeth, limbs of the body, pelvis (consisting of both hip bones and the sacrum), and vertebrae.

When determining age, you should avoid precise estimates, up to a year, and use the time frames suggested below.

Establishing age based on the structure of the skull.

The human skull consists of six bones: the frontal, two parietals, two temporal and occipital, connected by sutures. With age, the seams become less pronounced.

Between 20-30 years, they begin to overgrow in the obelion part of the sagittal suture and partially in the temporal part of the coronal suture.

At the age of 30-40 years, this process is already clearly visible in the temporal part of the coronal suture, in the apical and posterior parts of the sagittal suture. The chin hole is gradually leveling out. Until the age of 30 it is located in the middle, and from the age of 40 - in the upper third of the lower jaw.

After 40 years, the orbital and temporal parts of the sphenoid-frontal suture, the lower part of the occipital-mastoid suture, the bregmatic part of the sagittal and coronal sutures, the middle part of the occipital suture on both sides and the sphenoid-parietal suture gradually begin to close.

From 50-55 years of age, the process of overgrowth spreads to other areas of the sutures of the skull. When determining age from the skull, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of premature healing of the sutures due to the occurrence of some serious diseases.

Establishing age based on the structure of teeth.

The most effective method of determining age by teeth is to determine the degree of wear. There are a number of studies on this issue. To solve practical problems in military archeology, it is quite acceptable to use data from M.M. Gerasimov on this issue (see Table 2).

Table 2. Wear of teeth in the upper jaw depending on age.

age	incisors	fangs	small indigenous	first big molars	second major molars
10-13	erasing has not started yet
13-14	0-1	0	0	0	0
14-16	1	0	1	0	0
16-18	1-2	1	1	1	0
18-20	2-3	2	2	2	1
20-25	2-3	2	2	2	2
25-30	3	2	2-3	2-3	2
30-35	3	2-3	2-3	3	2-3
35-40	3	3	3	3-4	3
45-50	3-4	3-4	3-4	4	3-4
50-60	4-5	4	4	5	4-5
60-70	5-6	5	5-6	5-6	6

0 - no erasure; 1 - only the enamel is worn; 2 - erasing the tubercles; 3 - abrasion affected dentin; 4 - abrasion touched the dental canal; 5 - abrasion has reached the full cross-section of the crown; 6 - complete erasure of the crown.

The eruption of wisdom teeth occurs between 18 and 24 years; at 20-25 years they are fully erupted, but are not yet fully developed. By the age of 25-30, the teeth are fully formed (32 teeth).

Establishing age from skeletal bones.

15-19 years:

humerus - the contours are quite smooth, rounded, light. The epiphysis is separated from the diaphysis by a slit-like space.

femur - The contours of the bone are rounded, roughness remains only in the area of ​​the neck and greater tuberosity. The epiphyseal fissure is well defined and the epiphysis is easily separated from the diaphysis up to 18 years. Ossification of the epiphyseal line occurs between 18 and 20 years.

20-29 years:

humerus - the epiphyseal fissure in the form of a narrow line is noticeable until the age of 23; after 23 years it persists only at the lower edge of the head.

femur - The bone surface is mostly smooth, with the exception of slight roughness observed in the anterior neck region.

ilium- the wing of the ilium completely fuses with the ilium by the age of 25.

vertebrae - the radial arrangement of the edges of the vertebrae is clearly visible, and by the end of the decade it is gradually smoothed out.

pubic bone - The wavy pattern on the oval of the pubic bone begins to wear off a little, and by the age of 30 it disappears and becomes unevenly rough.

sacrum - the transverse plates of the sacrum from below begin to close from lower to upper (first sacral vertebra) and may already be fused by the age of 25.

At the age of 25, bone growth is completed and the ribs are already fully formed.

30-39 years:

humerus - The surface of the bone is smooth, but in the area of ​​the greater and lesser tuberosities, angular contours sometimes appear. The epiphyseal line is in the form of a narrow strip, disappearing after 34 years.

femur- the fossa of the head becomes deeper and becomes more pronounced. The boundaries of the head and neck merge.

vertebrae - the radial arrangement of the vertebral planes completely disappears and gives way to uneven upper planes.

sacrum - The transverse plates of the sacrum are still clearly visible up to the age of 35, but by the age of 40 they smooth out and become absolutely smooth; the joints of the sacral vertebrae can no longer be distinguished.

pubic bone - becomes smooth.

40-49 years:

humerus - Until the age of 45, the bone has a rounded shape. After 45 years, it becomes less smooth due to the appearance of small protrusions and roughness.

femur - There are unevenness and roughness on the surface of the neck. The edges of the pit are rough and sharp. The epiphyseal line is completely absent.

50-59 years

humerus - the surface of the bone is rough, with many small holes, growths and ridges, the ridges of the greater and lesser tuberosities are clearly defined. The surface of the bone as a whole becomes rough.

femur - the entire surface of the bone becomes rough. Bone protrusions appear in the area of ​​the head and both trochanters. The fossa of the head is clearly defined, its edges are sharp, sometimes rounded.

60-69 years

humerus - the surface of the bone is rough, porous, the contours are angular. The ridge of the bone is rough and clearly defined.

femur- the number of porous defects increases, bone roughness increases.

hip joint - By age 60 and older, the acetabulum flattens and becomes less deep.

over 70 years

humerus - the phenomena described above are progressing.

femur - There are no significant changes compared to the previous decade.

In left-handers, the left clavicle is more developed than the right. The projections for muscle attachment on the left humerus are more distinct than on the right humerus. Left humerus compared to right hand not shorter and not weaker than the right one.

I. DETERMINATION OF AGE
The skeleton of mammals, including the human skeleton, in addition to supporting, protective and motor functions, active participation in mineral metabolism and the implementation within certain limits of the process of hematopoiesis, as already indicated above, is closely connected with the vital activity of the entire organism. A. A. Kharkov writes about this: “The state of the skeletal system is one of the most accurate indicators of physical development and morphological differentiation of the whole organism, reflecting the stages of puberty and the influence of the endocrine system”1.
Bone tissue changes throughout a person’s life, and these changes relate to the appearance of the bone, its structure and chemical composition.
Progressive processes, as V.A. Dyachenko points out (1954), are clearly manifested in the growth and formation of bones and continue until the period of final formation of the skeleton. Following the progressive development of bone tissue, regressive (involutive) processes, difficult to detect at first, begin to gradually develop.
Involutive changes, according to a number of authors, represent a natural stage in the evolution of organs and tissues and can manifest themselves at any age. Senile changes are a later phase in the development of involutive changes and are observed only in elderly people.
The processes of involutive changes in bone tissue are subject to significant individual fluctuations, both in terms of the timing of onset and their qualitative and quantitative manifestation.
In forensic medical examination, X-ray, anatomical-morphological and anthropometric research methods are of decisive importance in determining age from skeletal bones (regardless of whether we are talking about a living person, a corpse or bone remains). In recent years, histological and spectral methods, which have not yet become widely used in practice, have begun to be used for the same purposes.

1. X-ray and anatomical-morphological methods of determining age.

The skeletal system was one of the first objects of radiological research. Later, a special branch of radiology was identified - x-ray osteology. “The X-ray method has extremely expanded and supplemented the previous teachings about the human skeleton with new knowledge relating mainly to understanding the shape and structure of the bone depending on the function, processes of evolution and involution, understanding the processes of ossification and growth depending on the general development of the body, on the influence external environment, understanding the norm and its variations”2.
The value of the x-ray research method lies in the fact that it allows one to judge age with sufficient accuracy based on the state of development of the skeletal system; according to the timing of the appearance of ossification nuclei, according to the time of appearance and completion of synostosis processes, according to the timing of the final formation of the skeleton and, finally, according to the changes that occur in the bones in later age periods.
Since information about the development and formation of skeletal bones (including the timing of the appearance of ossification nuclei and the onset of synostosis) is presented in Chapter 1, data regarding age-related changes occurring after 25-30 years is presented below.
The basis of involutive changes occurring in the bones, according to the data of L. P. Astanin (1951), V. A. Betz (1887), L. F. Volkov (1948), V. G. Dzhanelidze (1955), V. A , Dyachenko (1954), G. A. Zedgenidze (1950), A. I. Merkulova (1949), D. G. Rokhlina (1936), A. A. Tarashchuk (1950), etc., lie mainly osteoporotic and partly atrophic changes, in which the normal relationships between the processes of creation and destruction of bone tissue are disrupted.
The listed authors have established that signs of aging manifest themselves either in the form of local or widespread osteoporotic bone restructuring, in the latter case accompanied by a violation of mineral metabolism.
With both local and widespread osteoporosis, partial disappearance and thinning of the plates of the spongy substance, disintegration and thinning of the compact substance occur. The total number of bone plates per unit volume of bone decreases. As a result, the size of the cells of the spongy substance increases, and the medullary spaces of the cortical layer of the diaphysis expand. The capacity of the medullary canal of long tubular bones increases, it lengthens, approaching the articular ends of the bones. The size and volume of the bones do not change.
Radiographs show increased relief at the sites of attachment of tendons and ligaments due to their calcification.
The most clearly physiological age-related changes are manifested in the joints, primarily in the articular cartilage, and then in the ends of the bones involved in the formation of joints. As D. G. Rokhlin (1936) points out, articular cartilage in one area or another is subject to fiber disintegration and rupture, and sometimes death. The peripheral layer of cartilage, associated with the bone and with the joint capsule, hypertrophies in places, undergoes calcification and ossification. The joint space narrows to a greater or lesser extent. Along the entire edge of the articular cartilage or part of it, bone growths (osteophytes) are observed, which are the result of calcification and ossification of the overgrown peripheral areas of the articular cartilage. If the marginal growths are significant, the joints can become deformed, and the fingers become knotty as a result of such deformation.
For a long time, atrophy was included among the signs characterizing age-related changes in bones. However, as established by D. G. Rokhlin, “in old age, which is not accompanied by severe illness and associated inactivity, bone atrophy, contrary to popular belief, is weakly expressed. Atrophy is clearly detected only in the lower jaw, if it is toothless.”
Thus, age-related changes in bones, which are clearly visible radiographically, are reduced mainly to osteoporotic restructuring, moderately pronounced marginal growths of articular cartilage, narrowing of the joint space, and calcification of the attachment points of ligaments and tendons. In some cases, osteoporotic processes may be combined with atrophic changes bones (see above).
As a result of these processes, which progress with age, bones acquire a peculiar appearance: their surface becomes rough from smooth, they become lighter, sometimes thinner, become more fragile, can become deformed, and their contours are uneven.
The works of D. G. Rokhlin and A. E. Rubashova (1936), A. I. Merkulov (1949), A. A. Tarashchuk (1951), A. G. Zedgenidze (1950, 1966), V. G. Dzhanelidze (1955), T. P. Vinogradova (1966), V. E. Vlasenko (1966), A. G. Gauzner (1966), M. K. Dahl (1966), V. I. Dobryaka (1966), A. P. Krisyuk (1966), B. A. Nikityuk (1966), D. G. Rokhlina (1966), P. A. Sakuna (1966), Yu. A. Neklyudova (1969 ), 3. L. Lapteva (1971), E. P. Podrushnyaka (1972), I.-V. I. Nainis (1972), A.K. Garmus (1974), etc.; anatomical and morphological - E. P. Podrushnyak (1972), Hansen (1953-1954), etc.
Based on an X-ray study of the bone skeleton, D. G. Rokhlin established that manifestations of physiological aging are detected first of all and with particular frequency in the distal interphalangeal joints of the hand, then in the metatarsophalangeal joint of the 1st toe, and in the shoulder joint.
D. G. Rokhlin attached particular importance to the study of local changes in the distal ends of the middle phalanges of the hand. Radiologically, these changes are detected primarily in the distal joint of the 5th finger, then in the 4th, 2nd and finally in the 3rd fingers. In the X-ray image, as D. G. Rokhlin points out, the distal ends (heads) of the middle phalanges, starting from 12-15 years and throughout the entire period of flowering and maturity, are characterized by the presence of rounded outlines of the radial and ulnar angles, and the radial angle is larger in size and appears more clearly than the ulnar one. The “waist” of the phalanx is also more clearly expressed on the radial side (Fig. 22).
In order to identify the nature, sequence and frequency of various phases of aging in different age periods, D. G. Rokhlin and A. E. Rubasheva performed an X-ray examination of the hands of 571 men and 917 women - Russian residents of Leningrad aged from 26 to 85 years. Based on the frequency of age-related changes and their severity, the authors found it appropriate to distinguish the following age periods: 26-29 years, 30-34 years, 35-39 years, 40-44 years, 45-49 years, 50-54 years, 55- 59 years old, 60-69 years old and 70-85 years old.
It was found that age-related processes come down to changes in the structure and shape of the distal epiphysis of the middle phalanges.
First initial stage, preceding obvious signs aging, in the spongy substance of the upper ulnar and then the upper radial corners of the middle phalanges, small roundish racemose enlightenments are formed. These changes are to a certain extent reversible in the sense of partial restoration of the structure.
This stage, called preliminary by D.G. Rokhlin, is followed by irreversible phases of aging. In the first of them, the so-called initial phase of aging, typical changes in the configuration of the upper ulnar section of the middle phalanx occur.
The rounded outlines of this angle, characteristic of the period of heyday and maturity, are replaced by sharp outlines in the form of a “spike”, resulting from calcification and then ossification of the peripheral part of the articular cartilage. D. G. Rokhlin notes that this relatively early phase of aging is of great practical importance, since it indicates the beginning of aging of the whole organism (Fig. 22b).
The next phase (the onset of which depends on a number of both internal and external factors) - the phase of clear signs of aging of the osteoarticular apparatus - is characterized by the further spread of ossification of the entire peripheral part of the articular cartilage; the upper radial angle of the middle phalanges becomes ground down and pointed (Fig. 22 c).
The last phase - the phase of sharp manifestations of aging - is characterized by the presence of significant bone growths, “spikes”, or “osteophytes” and an increase in racemose changes in the area of ​​​​both angles of the distal epiphysis of the middle phalanx (Fig. 22 d).
D. G. Rokhlin also includes Eberden and Bouchard nodes, named after the researchers who worked to clarify the origin of these nodes, as signs of local manifestations of aging of the skeletal system (Fig. 23).
Based on a systematic X-ray study, D. G. Rokhlin came to the conclusion that the Eberden and Bouchard nodes, formed due to marginal bone growths (osteophytes) and well identified clinically and radiologically, represent age-related changes in certain phases of senile degradation of the skeleton, and not pathological changes in the type of chronic arthritis and gout, as interpreted by clinicians.
Eberden's nodes are found in the proximal part of the ulnar and sometimes the radial side of the epiphysis of the terminal phalanx and most often not on the 2nd and 3rd fingers, as indicated in the literature, but on the 5th finger. Less commonly, they appear on all fingers in the form of small marginal bone growths - exostoses, partly located inside the joint, partly outside it. In the latter case, they are palpated in the form of small hard nodes. X-rays of Eberden's nodes can be detected in earlier stages, when clinically they do not yet make themselves felt. In this case, on the radiograph, along with the presence of wear in the distal epiphysis of the middle phalanx, a slight sharpening of the ulnar angle of the base of the terminal phalanx is detected, and at some distance from the bone - small-point impregnation with lime.
Eberden's nodes should not be confused with osteophytes, which are also observed at the base of the terminal phalanges and represent the site of attachment of calcified ligaments.
Rice. 23. Pronounced bone growths (Eberden and Busher nodes) in the proximal epiphyses of the terminal and middle phalanges of the 1st finger of a 70-year-old woman (D.G. Rokhlin, 1936)
It is characteristic of this kind of osteophytes that their tip is directed distally, while Eberden’s nodes are directed proximally with their tip. These formations are rarely observed on the phalanges of the hand. Almost all adults have osteophytes on the terminal phalanx of the 1st toe (Fig. 24).
Bouchard's nodes are less common than Eberden's nodes and appear no earlier than 50 years in the proximal epiphyses of the middle phalanges. In all phases of their development, these nodes are characterized by the same clinical and radiological features as Eberden’s nodes, differing only in their localization.
Rice. 24. Osteophytes in the area of ​​the base of the terminal phalanx (D. G. Rokhlin, 1936)
Data obtained by D. G. Rokhlin and A. E. Rubasheva on the nature of the sequence and frequency of various phases of aging in men and women of the nine age groups indicated above are given in Table. 17.
Analyzing the presented data regarding the frequency of one or another sign in different age periods, the authors simultaneously noted a clearly pronounced sexual dimorphism regarding the rate of aging of the osteoarticular apparatus, detected already from the age of 30. At first, these differences are insignificant, but from 45 to 64 years of age, they become most pronounced, reaching a maximum at the age of 60-64 years. “Men at this age, if we focus on “bone age,” are 8-10 years younger than women”4.
Sexual dimorphism in the rate of aging of the skeletal system is manifested in the fact that “The normal configuration of the distal epiphyses of the middle phalanges occurs in women one third less often than in men, ulnar undermining was found with equal frequency, however, like all other signs of aging, in women earlier than in men. Eberden's nodes, radial undercuts and osteophytes are observed twice as often in women as in men. Busharovsky - three times6.” The authors attribute the presence of radial undercutting in men aged 35-39 years to an accidental finding, especially since radial undercutting was never detected in the next age group.
4D. G. Rokhlin and A. E. Rubasheva. Manifestations of aging of the osteoarticular apparatus at different age periods. -In the book;
X-ray osteology and X-ray anthropology. M.-L., 1936, p. 211, 212.
D. G. Rokhlin points out “In addition to local changes (both in the distal and proximal epiphyses of the terminal and middle phalanges), illustrating the successive stages of aging of the whole organism, it is possible to detect generalized senile changes in the entire skeleton in late age periods.” To establish the manifestations of physiological aging in the joints of the upper and lower extremities, the author x-ray examined 100 practically healthy residents of Leningrad aged 50 years and older. The obtained data are presented in table. 17 and 18. From them it follows that with age the frequency and severity of manifestations of aging increases, and in women they occur earlier. Practice shows that when using the data of D. G. Rokhlin, in each individual case it is necessary to carry out the appropriate differential diagnosis, keeping in mind that X-ray symptoms in some cases can reflect not only the manifestation of physiological aging of the osteoarticular apparatus, but also be a consequence of pathology.
In addition, the signs of aging described by D. G. Rokhlin have diagnostic value only when they are detected on x-rays, since it is not so rare that these signs may be absent in very elderly people.
Age-related changes in the terminal phalanges of the right hand of 235 men and 251 women aged 15 to 81 years were studied in detail by X-ray, osteometric and morphological methods research by Yu. A. Neklyudov (1969). Thus, he analyzed over 10 age indicators. It turned out that some indicators, such as the size and thickness of the compact layer of the phalanges (despite the fact that the former have a clear tendency to increase with age, and the latter to decrease) are statistically unreliable and, therefore, cannot be recommended for practice.
Such indicators as bone growths (Eberden's nodes, osteophytes), the shape of the base of the phalanges and distal tuberosity, the outline of the distal edge of the phalanx and the outline of the articular surface behave differently. The author has established that each of the listed characteristics is characterized by certain morphological changes, characteristic of a specific age period of a person’s life. These changes are as follows:
Depending on the degree of severity and shape, Yu. A. Neklyudov divides Eberden’s nodes into barely noticeable rounded tubercles, well-developed tubercles and pointed bone growths, with their apex directed towards middle phalanx. In men, typical Eberden's nodes appear on the phalanx of the 2nd and 3rd fingers from the age of 35, and from the age of 40 on all phalanges; in women they occur no earlier than 45 years of age.
The author notes that Eberden's nodes appear on the phalanx of the 5th finger, then 2 and less often the 3rd-4th fingers. They are usually located on the border of the lateral and back sides the base of the phalanx at the edge of the articular surface (Fig. 25 and 26).
Osteophytes are localized in the area of ​​the lateral parts of the base of the phalanx. In the initial stage, they have the appearance of barely noticeable bone growths of a rounded shape, and in the final stage - sharply pointed spines directed distally (Fig. 27 and 28).
Until the age of 20, osteophytes are absent in men, but in women they are sometimes observed on the phalanges of the 1st, 2nd and 5th fingers in the form of rounded formations. From 20 to 45 years in men and up to 40 years in women, either small or noticeably rounded osteophytes are found on the phalanges of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th fingers, and pointed osteophytes begin to appear only on the phalanges of the 1st and 5th fingers.
Beginning at age 40 in women and 45 in men, pointed osteophytes can be found on the phalanges of all fingers.
6D. G. Rokhlin. X-ray diagnostics of aging. Support points from the skeletal system. - In the book: X-ray osteology and X-ray anthropology M.-L., 1936, p. 188.
Rice. 25. Rounded Eberden knots. Male 37 years old, phalanx of the 3rd finger
Fig. 26 Pointed Eberden knots. Woman 70 years old, phalanx of the 5th finger
When determining age, Yu. A. Neklyudov considers it possible to use only the presence of one or another form of osteophytes, but not their absence. He explains this by saying that although the absence of osteophytes always occurs at a young age, at the same time
in some cases they were not detected in older age groups. And only the absence of osteophytes before 55 years of age on the phalanges of the 1st and 5th fingers can serve as a diagnostic sign of age. After 55 years, osteophytes were always found on the phalanges of these fingers.
The shape of the base of the phalanges up to 39 years of age, as the author’s observations have shown, is trapezoidal, and over 55 years of age this form is usually not found. After 35 years, the most characteristic is a flattened shape; the transitional one occupies an intermediate position between the two mentioned (Fig. 29-31).
The outline of the articular surface of the phalanx, according to Yu. A. Neklyudov, can be represented by five main forms: smoothly convex, in the form of a curly brace, convex, straight and concave (Fig. 32-35). The first two occur mainly at a young age, the last two - in the elderly.
The shape of the distal tuberosity of the phalanges (located mainly on the palmar surface) is divided by the author into four types: olive-shaped, spherical, mushroom-shaped and transitional (Fig. 36-38). The olive-shaped form is most typical for young people; after 30-34 years it is extremely rare and mainly on the phalanx of the 5th finger. The presence of a spherical shape is relatively often noted up to 40-44 years of age; in subsequent age groups it was observed rarely (0-15%), and in 55 years and older - in isolated cases and only on the phalanx of the 1st finger. The mushroom form has never been found in men under 20 years of age, or in women under 25 years of age. Starting at this age, it grows rapidly and by the age of 35-40 it is the most common form of distal tuberosity.
In accordance with the above, the author came to the conclusion that the olive-shaped tuberosity on the phalanges of the 1st-4th fingers may indicate an age no older than 30-35 years; the same shape of the phalanx of the 5th finger - no older than 45-50 years. The spherical shape can be diagnosed in people no older than 50 years, and the mushroom-shaped - in men over 20 years old, in women - 25 years old. At a young age, as a rule, the surface of the tubercles is smooth; with age, it becomes uneven due to the increasing number of tubercles.
The outlines of the distal edge of the phalangeal tuberosity: in young people the edge is smooth or slightly wavy, in older people the contour of the edge is uneven. This sign has no independent significance for determining age; no sexual dimorphism was detected in the outlines of the distal margin.
The author did not establish any clear age-related patterns in the structure of the spongy substance of the distal phalanges.
Since, as noted by Yu. A. Neklyudov, in the age dynamics of the studied signs there is a clear relationship (i.e., the appearance of some of them on a certain part of the phalanx is accompanied, as a rule, by the appearance of others in the remaining parts of the phalanx), nevertheless, sometimes some signs (any of those studied) may lag behind in their development (“delayed”) and in this regard, against the background of the main complex of signs characteristic of old age, isolated signs characteristic of young people may be observed, and, conversely, the interval in this case is significantly increases and the results of the study are ineffective. In order to narrow the interval, the author considered it possible to introduce a second age limit, beyond which this single sign will cease to be characteristic and where it can be assessed as late or prematurely developed. In the summary tables of age intervals, compiled separately for men and women, the white areas correspond to the age at which the analyzed trait was not encountered; the age intervals at which this or that trait was encountered, but was not characteristic of them, are shaded (i.e., it was not encountered more than 15% of cases); black areas - age intervals when the trait was common or most characteristic (Table 19).
In the work of G. A. Zedgenidze (1950) on involutive changes interphalangeal joints IV finger of the left hand in middle-aged and older persons, established by anatomical and radiological methods, it is indicated that the initial signs
aging appears at 35-40 years old. By the age of 50-55 they become more distinct, and by the age of 60-70 they reach their maximum. The author includes involutive changes: osteoporosis, changes in the shape of the bone marrow spaces, changes in the epiphyseal edge, calcification and thinning of the articular cartilage, and narrowing of the joint space.
With the development of osteoporosis, the bone structure acquires a peculiar large-loop pattern due to an increase in bone marrow spaces and a decrease in bone beams, which are shortened, less often flattened and curved. In the area of ​​the edges and corners of the epiphysis, small, round bone marrow cavities characteristic of the aging process are formed. At the same time, the usually rounded edge of the ulnar angle wears away and takes on a pointed appearance; later, similar changes occur in the area of ​​the radial angle. In the overwhelming majority of cases, wear and sharpening of the ulnar angle and uneven contours of the entire edge of the epiphysis are detected at 40-49 years of age, and of the radial angle at 50-59 years.
Thus, the age-related changes discovered by G. A. Zedgenidze are basically the same nature and sequence of occurrence as the changes established by D. G. Rokhlin and A. K. Rubasheva (1936) when studying the phalanges of the hand.
V. G. Dzhanelidze (1955), studying radiographically involutive changes in the ankle joint, did not bone structure, did not reveal any age-related changes in articular cartilage up to 35 years of age.
At the age of 36-40 years, in some individuals it was possible to detect focal osteoporosis in the small bones of the joint, in the cartilage - asbestos-like degeneration of the main substance of the cartilage, vacuolization of cells - mainly the superficial layer, and increased calcification.
At the age of 41-50 years, the described changes in bone and cartilage tissue are more pronounced. Along with osteoporosis, small cyst-like formations are found, located in areas of greater rarefaction of the bone structure. In cartilage, these phenomena are significantly enhanced.
At the age of 51-60 years, osteoporosis is observed in almost all bones of the ankle joint. The spongy substance of the epiphyses of the tibia, talus, calcaneus and navicular bones is subjected to sharp rarefaction; The thinning of the cortical layer is insignificant. The brush-shaped cavities acquire a multiple character. In the talus around the carpal cavities, sclerotic restructuring in the form of a sclerotic block is observed. The width of the joint space in the majority of the studied individuals was reduced.
At the age of 61-70 years, the symptoms of osteoporosis increase. It is most pronounced in the area of ​​the ankles and talus.
The cortical layer becomes thinner. The author includes deformation of bones, primarily the talus and calcaneus, as involutive changes characteristic of this age. The deformation manifests itself in a decrease in the height of these bones and sharpening of the articular edges. On the surface of the cartilage there are often notches, defects and patterns. The described involutive changes reach the greatest intensity and are observed in all cases without exception. This gave the author the right to call involutive changes after 60 years senile and to believe that senile changes represent the final phase of pronounced involutive changes.
After 70 years, senile changes continue to increase, but not very intensely. They are characterized mainly by increasing deformation of the bones (especially the talus and calcaneus) - flattening, angularity of the articular surfaces and increased relief of the bones of the ankle joint.
The dissertation of A. I. Merkulov (1949) presents data regarding involutive changes in the lumbar spine in an x-ray image. Using a large amount of experimental material, the author established the following.
Until the age of 30, no changes in the structure of the vertebral bodies and intervertebral spaces could be detected.
At the age of 31-40 years, it was sometimes possible to detect deformation of the bodies of the 1st and 2nd vertebrae, a decrease in the height of their anterior section, a mild and uneven decrease in the intervertebral space between them, the presence of focal osteoporosis with a predominant localization in the anterior sections of the vertebral bodies and in the region of their anterior angles.
At the age of 41-50 years, involutive changes are more pronounced compared to the previous one age period and are manifested by deformation of the vertebral bodies, pronounced osteoporosis with predominant localization in the anterior parts of the vertebrae, a decrease in the height of the intervertebral spaces and calcification of the cartilage tissue of the discs.
At the age of 51-60 years, the intensity of the described changes increases. Increasingly developing osteoporosis is characterized by a large-loop structure. Bone beams and trabeculae change both qualitatively and quantitatively, and these changes are manifested in all parts of the vertebral bodies. In the hyaline plates of the bodies of the IV and V vertebrae, in some cases, the presence of so-called “clumps” of calcification is noted.
At the age of 61-70 years, the observed changes are most pronounced compared to the previous groups. Osteoporosis is becoming widespread, and only in some cases is it detected in the form of lesions in the anterior parts of the vertebral bodies. Multiple cartilaginous nodules are often detected in the vertebral bodies. The height of the intervertebral spaces is clearly reduced.
At age 71 and older, osteoporosis reaches extreme levels. The end plates of the upper and lower surfaces of the vertebral bodies not only become thinner, but are also interrupted over large areas. Bone beams and trabeculae sharply decrease in size and number. The cells of the spongy substance increase, the vertebral bodies are deformed.
A. A. Tarashchuk (1951), during an X-ray study of age-related changes in the vertebrae, confirmed the data of A. I. Merkulov. In addition, the author notes that the water content in intervertebral discs decreases after 40 years. At a later age, they dry out, lose elasticity, and decrease in height. Sometimes, on the contrary, the amount of water in the intervertebral discs increases; at the same time, racemose changes are formed in the nucleus pulposus, which leads to an increase in the height of the disc and the formation of the so-called fish vertebrae. Such vertebrae are characterized by a sharp concavity of the bodies. Such vertebrae are more often observed in lumbar region. With age, the connection between the disc and the vertebral body is disrupted, and wedge-shaped outgrowths and osteophytes appear at the edges of the vertebral bodies.
The data presented in the work of Hansen (1953-1954) are devoted to the issue of determining age from the proximal ends of the humerus and femur. The author studied 500 humeri and 500 femurs from cadavers of individuals aged 15 to 85 years. As age indicators, we took into account the totality of data established during the study of macerated bones and their cuts, namely: the appearance of the bones, the nature of the epiphyseal line, the border of the location of the upper edge of the medullary cavity, the nature of the compact and spongy substance of the bones. It turned out that the listed indicators, taken together, make it possible to determine age with an accuracy of up to 5 years.
Below are the main data obtained by the author.
Proximal humerus 15-19 years old. The contours of the bone are quite smooth and rounded. The boundaries of the greater tuberosity are not clearly defined. At the age of 15-16 years, the bones are light and seemingly porous. By age 19, the surface of the bones becomes smoother and denser, but the bones continue to remain light. The epiphysis is separated from the diaphysis by a slit-like space. The spongy substance of the head is arranged randomly, the beams are thick, with a cartilaginous sheen. By the end of 18 years or at the beginning of the 19th year, the beams become somewhat thinner and tend to be arranged radially. The upper border of the medullary cavity is located significantly lower surgical cervix(Fig. 39).
20-29 years old. The surface of the bone is smooth, the contours are rounded. The border between the head of the humerus and its greater tubercle looks like a flat line. Sometimes remnants of porosity are visible in the area of ​​the surgical neck. The epiphyseal fissure in the form of a narrow line is noticeable until the age of 23; after 23 years, it persists only at the lower edge of the head. The structure of the spongy substance is still rough. By the age of 22, its radial structure is clearly visible. The upper border of the medullary cavity is located slightly below the surgical neck (Fig. 40).
30-39 years old. The surface of the bone is smooth, but in the area of ​​the greater and lesser tuberosities, angular contours sometimes appear. The head of the humerus is clearly separated from the greater tuberosity. The epiphyseal line appears as a narrow strip, disappearing after 34 years. The spongy substance has the appearance of a dense, finely porous network of beams. The upper border of the medullary cavity is a transverse finger below the surgical neck.
40-49 years old. Until the age of 45, the bone has a rounded shape. After 45 years, it becomes less smooth due to the appearance of small protrusions and roughness. The epiphyseal line on the cut looks like a narrow ossified strip. The structure of the spongy substance up to 45 years is thick, thin, fine-mesh, then gradually begins to coarse, as a result of which its radial structure becomes more distinct. The upper border of the medullary cavity has not yet reached the surgical neck (Fig. 41).
50-59 years old. The surface of the bone is rough, with many small holes, growths and ridges. The ridges of the greater and lesser tubercles are clearly defined. There are small porous defects along the edge of the head and in the area of ​​the tubercles. The surface of the bone as a whole becomes rough. The structure of the spongy substance is coarse-celled, the beams are rough, and the radial structure is well defined. The compact layer at the beginning of the specified period is strong and
powerful, and towards the end it becomes porous and thins; longitudinally running tubules are visible on the cut. Bones become lighter and more brittle, especially in women. By the end of this period, the upper border of the bone marrow cavity reaches the level of the surgical neck.
60-69 years old. The surface of the bone is rough, porous, and the contours are angular. The ridge of the bone is rough and clearly defined. The structure of the spongy substance of the head is rough, the radiality is well defined. The compact layer becomes thinner, the number of longitudinal tubules increases. The upper border of the medullary cavity is above the surgical neck (Fig. 42).
Over 70 years. The phenomena described above are progressing. Vacuoles appear in the spongy substance. The compact layer becomes very thin. The upper border of the medullary cavity is above the surgical neck, sometimes reaching the epiphyseal line. After 75 years, bone disorders come to the fore: the spongy substance of the epiphysis largely disappears, the compact layer is sharply thinned, the bones are brittle, thin, and translucent.
Proximal femur 15-19 years old. The contours of the bone are rounded. Until the age of 15-16, its surface is rough and porous, and from the age of 18 it becomes smooth, similar to ivory. Roughness remains only in the area of ​​the neck and greater tuberosity.
By the age of 20, the bone becomes strong and its surface is smooth. The epiphyseal fissure is well defined, and the epiphysis is easily separated from the diaphysis until 18 years of age.
Between 18 and 19 years of age, in most cases, the epiphyseal fissure completely disappears. Ossification of the epiphyseal line occurs no earlier than 18 and no later than 20 years. The beams of the spongy substance of the head are rough and arranged randomly. At the age of 18-19, a radial structure begins to appear - at first in the middle part of the head, in the form of a narrow strip. At the age of 19, vertically located beams appear in the corner of the upper medial part of the cervix. The compact layer is strong, sometimes with a tone
20-29 years old. The surface of the bone is mostly smooth, with the exception of a slight roughness observed in the anterior part of the neck, which persists up to 30 years. The bone is heavy, strong, massive. The epiphyseal line is without features. From the age of 21, the beams of the spongy substance become thinner, and their radial arrangement is more clearly visible. The compact layer is hard and strong. The upper border of the medullary cavity is located under the smallest trochanter or at its lower edge (Fig. 44).
30-39 years old. Externally, the bone is without any features. By the end of this period, the fossa of the head becomes deeper and becomes more pronounced. The boundaries of the head and neck merge. The structure of the spongy substance of the head becomes coarser, in the lower part of the head the beams are located transversely. The compact layer is hard, strong, with barely noticeable longitudinal slits and tubules. The upper edge of the medullary cavity is located directly below the lower edge of the lesser trochanter.
40-49 years old. Irregularities and roughness are noted on the surface of the neck. The edges of the pit are rough and sharp. The epiphyseal line is completely absent. The structure of the spongy substance is fine-celled. The beams are rough. In the middle of the head
they are located in the form of stripes, and on the lateral side and around the fossa they have a radial direction. The compact layer is hard and strong. The cut shows a small number of longitudinal slots. The upper edge of the medullary cavity is at the level of the lower edge of the lesser trochanter (Fig. 45).
50-59 years old. The entire surface of the bone becomes rough. By the end of the decade, bony protrusions appear in the area of ​​the head and both trochanters. The intertrochanteric ridge is thick and rough. The fossa of the head is clearly defined, its edges are sharp, sometimes rounded. The structure of the spongy substance becomes rough and disorderly, the compact layer is still quite powerful and hard. The upper edge of the medullary cavity is located either at the lower edge of the lesser trochanter, or slightly above it
60-69 years old. All the changes described above are more pronounced. The number of porous defects increases, and bone roughness increases. The spongy substance acquires a coarse cellular structure, with no vacuoles. There are no visible changes on the compact layer side. The upper border of the medullary cavity reaches the middle of the lesser trochanter, and in some cases is located even higher (Fig. 46).
70-75 years old. There are no significant changes compared to the previous decade. But, as a rule, during this period, large cells appear in the spongy substance of the femoral neck. After 75 years, the processes of bone destruction progress. A large number of larger cells appear in the spongy substance of the head, neck, both trochanters and in the diaphysis. The compact substance gradually becomes porous and loosens, especially in the medial part. The bone becomes lighter. Typical senile porosity and lightness of bone are clearly evident after 80 years.
In table 20-21 show the distances between the upper edge of the medullary cavity and the epiphyses of the humerus and femur depending on age.
According to Hansen's observations, the described age-related changes in the proximal humerus and femur in young and middle-aged women occur 2-3 years earlier than in men of the same age. In later years, the difference in the timing of the occurrence of these changes becomes less noticeable and practically difficult to diagnose.
The data of E. P. Podrushnyak (1966) on age-related changes in the human hip joint are worthy of attention. The author found that by the age of 60 years and older, the acetabulum flattens and becomes less deep. With age, bone growth progresses sharply along the outer and inner edges of the lunate surface; the head acquires some flattening in the cranial-caudal direction, as a result of which its rounded shape begins to approach ellipsoidal. Along the edges of the head and fossa there are often bone growths, sometimes protruding above the curvature of the head.
— The cartilage of the head becomes fibered and becomes rough. The neck often changes from an oval shape in cross section to a round one without pronounced bone ridges. After 65 years, osteochondral growths of various shapes appear on the medial surface of the neck. Less commonly, they spread to the lateral and even less often to the posterior surface of the neck.
T. P. Vinogradova (1966) considers cracks that appear mainly in the interstitial plates of the cortical layer and some of the osteons to be signs of senile changes in the osteochondral apparatus in elderly people. Similar changes can be observed in the articular cartilage of a number of bone organs in persons over 65-70 years of age. Their intravital origin is evidenced by the presence of dense homogeneous content in the cracks, revealed by Van Gieson staining. The presence of dystrophic areas in articular, costal and intervertebral cartilages is usually detected after 50 years.
According to V. E. Vlasenko (1966), changes observed in the knee joints of elderly (60-74 years old) and senile (over 74 years old) people manifest either with a predominance of osteoporosis of bone tissue or with a predominance of dystrophic changes in articular cartilage - narrowing of the joint space, the appearance of marginal growths of various shapes and severity, defects on the surface of the cartilage and fiber disintegration of the free meniscus.
The first stage of osteoporosis is local in nature. In places of clearing (usually the lower pole of the patella, condyles, cortical layer of the epiphyses), the trabeculae are somewhat thinned, the spaces between them are enlarged.
In the second stage, the zone of osteoporosis extends to the epimetaphyses and patella. The cortical layer becomes thinner, the number of bone trabeculae decreases, the intertrabecular spaces increase, and the medullary canal expands.
The third stage is characterized by the spread of osteoporosis to the diaphysis of the bones, to the articular and anterior surfaces of the patella. There is a sharp thinning of the cortical layer, noticeable thinning and deformation of the trabeculae, and expansion of the medullary canal.
2. Anthropometric method of determining age
A comprehensive study of variations in human structure in their mutual dependence, taking into account factors of social order, allowed scientists to establish that during the normal development of the body, certain regular relationships exist between the sizes of individual organs and systems.
At the same time, numerous authors from among anthropologists, anatomists, radiologists and pediatricians (V. A. Bets, 1887; A. P. Bondyrev, 1902; V. V. Bunak, 1941; V. P. Vorobyov, 1932; N. P. Gundobin, 1906; P. P. Dyachenko, 1954; D. N. Zernov, 1949; Y. Ya. Roginsky, 1955; 1936; V. N. Tonkov, 1953; A. A. Kharkov, 1953; V. G. Shtefko, 1935) it has been proven that the growth and development of organs in different periods is not the same, therefore the size of each organ in different age periods has certain fluctuations. In short, since the growth and development of organs and systems of the human body occur with a certain pattern, which is not the same in different age periods, then each age must correspond to certain sizes of individual organs and systems, including the bone skeleton. These dimensions are determined using the anthropometric research method - somatometry, osteometry and craniometry. The data obtained in this case is used as the basis for determining not only age, but also gender and height. Anthropometry can act not only as an additional, but also as an independent research technique.
The tools for measuring bones are: sliding and thick compasses, calipers (see Fig. 12), a measuring or osteometric board and a metal millimeter tape.
The measuring device consists of horizontal and vertical boards, fastened together at the left end of the horizontal board at a right angle. A millimeter scale is applied along the horizontal board (by drawing or attaching graph paper). On the vertical wall to the right of the midline, at a distance of 4.5 cm from the rear edge, a through hole is made 5.5 cm high and 5 cm wide. The lower edge of this hole is a horizontal board. To fix the bones being measured, a movable board in the form of a triangle or rectangle is used (Fig. 47).
Considering that the correctness of solving many issues when
examination of personality identification by anthropometry method depends largely on the accuracy of measurement of the objects of study, we considered it necessary to supplement this section with information about the technique for measuring skeletal bones adopted in anthropology.
The technique for measuring the bones of the torso and limbs7 is given in accordance with the data of V.P. Alekseev (1966). From the detailed list of skeletal bones contained in the monograph by V.P. Alekseev, we provide only those bones and their sizes that are most often used in forensic medical identification of a person from bone remains, and information about which in forensic There are no literature.
Vertebrae
The anterior height of the vertebral body is the distance between the upper and lower surfaces of the vertebral body (corpus vertebrae), measured in the median-sagittal plane of the anterior surface of the body. Sliding compass.
The anterior height of the body of the second cervical vertebra (axis) is the distance between the point at the base of the odontoid process on the anterior side of the vertebra in the median-sagittal plane and the point of intersection of this plane with the lower edge of the vertebral body. Sliding compass.
The distance between the apex of the odontoid process and the point of intersection of the lower edge of the vertebral body with the median-sagittal plane is the greatest anterior height of the body of the second cervical vertebra. Measured on the anterior surface of the vertebra. Sliding compass.
Posterior height of the vertebral body is the distance between the upper and lower surfaces of the vertebral body, determined by the posterior surface of the body. Sliding compass.
The superior sagittal diameter of the vertebrae is the distance between the points of intersection of the median-sagittal plane with the anterior and posterior edges of the upper surface of the vertebral body. Sliding compass.
The lower sagittal diameter of the vertebrae is the distance between the points of intersection of the median-sagittal plane with the anterior and posterior edges of the lower surface of the vertebral body. Sliding compass.
The upper width of the vertebral body is the distance between the most distant points on the lateral edges of the surface of the vertebral body. This measurement should not take into account the upper costal facets. Sliding compass.
The lower width of the vertebral body is the distance between the most distant points of the lateral edges of the lower surface of the vertebral body. In this case, the lower costal facets should not be taken into account. Sliding compass.
The average width of the vertebrae is the distance between the midpoints of the lateral surfaces of the vertebral body. Sliding compass.
Sagittal diameter of the vertebral foramen - the distance between the most posterior point on the posterior edge of the upper surface of the vertebral body (or the anterior arch of the first cervical vertebra) and the point at the intersection of the median-sagittal plane with the vertebral arch or, if the measurement is made on the anterior cervical vertebra, with the posterior arc. Sliding compass or vernier caliper.
The width of the vertebral foramen is the distance between the most distant points from each other located on the lateral edges of the vertebral foramen. Sliding compass or vernier caliper.
Indicators of the vertebral body: sagittal - the ratio of the posterior height of the vertebral body to their anterior height;
altitude-longitudinal index - the ratio of the anterior height of the vertebral body to the average width of the vertebral body. The vertebral foramen index is the ratio of the sagittal diameter of the vertebral foramen to its width.
Sacral and coccygeal bones
The length of the pelvic surface of the sacral bone is the distance from the most forward point on the upper edge of the base of the sacral bone (basis ossis sacri), located on the median-sagittal plane, to the most forward point on the top of the sacral bone, located in the same plane. A tape that should fit tightly to the curve of the pelvic surface of the bone.
The anterior height of the sacrum (or the anterior straight length of the sacrum) is the distance between the same points as the previous one, but not along the curve of the pelvic surface, but in a straight line. Sliding compass.
Posterior height of the sacrum (or posterior straight length) is the distance between a point lying in the median-sagittal plane at the posterior edge of the base of the sacrum and a point lying in the same plane at the anterior edge of the apex of the sacrum. Thick or sliding compass.
The upper width of the sacral bone is the distance between the most distant points from one another on the anterior edges of the articular surfaces with the iliac bones. Sliding compass.
The height of the articular surface with the ilium is the distance between the highest point on the upper edge of the articular surface with the ilium and the lowest point on its lower edge. Sliding compass.
Ribs
The width (height) of the ribs is the distance between the upper and lower edges of the body of the ribs (corpus costae) at the widest point (but not in the area of ​​the widened sternal end). Sliding compass.
The thickness of the ribs is the distance between the front and back surfaces of the ribs, which is measured along the middle of the body of the ribs. Sliding compass.
7 The technique for measuring the skull is described in Chap. 4.
The length of the outer surface of the ribs is the distance from the most protruding point in the direction of the neck (collum costae) on the head of the rib (caput costae) to the anterior sternal end of the rib, measured along the outer surface of the rib. Ribbon.
Length of the inner surface of the rib - the same distance as the previous one, but measured along the inner surface of the rib. Ribbon.
The straight length of the ribs is the distance from the most protruding point in the direction of the rib neck on the rib head to the most forward point on the lower edge of the anterior sternal end of the rib. Sliding compass (Fig. 48).
Sternum
The total length of the sternum is the distance from the point lying lowest on the edge of the jugular notch (incisura jugularis) of the sternum to the point lowest on the lower edge of the body of the sternum (corpus sterni). When determining this size, the xiphoid process is not taken into account. Sliding compass.
The length of the manubrium is the distance from the lowest point on the edge of the jugular notch to the same point on the lower edge of the manubrimu sterni (manubrimu sterni). Sliding compass.
The length of the body of the sternum is the distance from the point of intersection of the upper edge of the body of the sternum with the median sagittal plane to the lowest point on the lower edge of the body of the sternum. The xiphoid process is not taken into account. SLIDING COMPASS.
The greatest width of the manubrium of the sternum is the distance between the points most distant from each other on the lateral edges of the manubrium of the sternum. The plane of this measurement, like the previous two, is perpendicular to the median-sagittal line. Sliding compass.
The smallest width of the manubrium of the sternum is the distance between the points least distant from each other on the lateral edges of the manubrium of the sternum, at its base. In practice, these are the deepest points of the notches of the second ribs (incisurae costales). Sliding compass.
The thickness of the manubrium of the sternum is the distance between the anterior and posterior surfaces of the manubrium of the sternum at the base of the manubrium, i.e. approximately between the deepest points of the notches of the second ribs. Sliding compass.
The greatest width of the body of the sternum is the distance between the points most distant from each other on the lateral edges of the body of the sternum. Sliding compass (Fig. 49.)
Collarbone
The greatest length is the distance between the most medially located point of the sternal end of the clavicle (extremitas sternales) and the most lateral located point of its humeral end (extremitas acromialis). Sliding compass or measuring board. In the latter case, the measurement plane must extend longitudinally to the vertical wall of the measuring board. One end of the bone is pressed against a vertical transverse wall, and a movable board of the device is applied to the other end. The size is measured on the measuring scale of the horizontal board.
Clavicle thickness (aka vertical diameter) is the distance between the cranial and caudal surfaces in the middle of the bone body. Sliding compass.
Spatula
Morphological height of the scapula (synonym - morphological width of the scapula) is the distance from the highest point of the upper angle of the scapula (angulus superior scapilae) to the lowest point of the lower edge of the scapula (angulur inferior scapulae). Sliding compass.
Morphological width of the scapula (synonym - morphological length of the scapula), - the distance between the midpoint of the glenoid cavity (cavitas glenoidalis) and the point lying on the medial edge of the scapula (margo medialis) - at the base of the scapular spine (spina scapulae) just in the middle between the upper and lower edges. Sliding or thick compass.
The width of the scapula is the distance between the point located lowest on the lower edge of the glenoid cavity and the point lying (as in the previous measurement) on the medial edge of the scapula at the base of the scapular spine in the middle between its lower and upper edges. Sliding or thick compass (Fig. 50).
Humerus
The greatest length of the humerus is the distance between the most protruding point of the head of the bone (caput humeri) and the lowest point of the shoulder block (trochlea humeri). In this case, you should ensure that the body of the bone (corpus humeri) is positioned strictly parallel to the vertical longitudinal wall of the measuring board.
The total or physiological length of the humerus is the distance between the highest point of the head of the humerus and the lowest point of the capitulum humeri. When measuring, the bone is placed on a horizontal board with its back surface down so that the capitate eminence is at the top.
The width of the middle of the diaphysis of the humerus is the direct distance between the medial (margo medialis) and lateral (margo lateralis) edges of the humerus.
The greatest width of the head of the humerus is the distance between the most distant lateral points of the head of the humerus. Sliding compass.
The vertical diameter of the humerus is the distance between the highest point on the upper surface of the humerus and the lowest point on its lower surface. Sliding compass.
The smallest circumference of the diaphysis of the humerus - the size is determined empirically. It usually lies at a level that is located a few millimeters below the deltoid roughness. Ribbon.
Humeral mid-shaft circumference - the circumference of the humerus at the level of the mid-shaft, determined either visually or by half the greatest length of the humerus. Ribbon.
Humeral head circumference - the largest circumference of the head of the humerus, found empirically. Ribbon. (Fig. 51).
Ulna
The greatest length of the ulna is the distance from the highest point of the olecranon process (olecranom) to the lowest point of its styloid process (processus styloideus). Measuring board.
The physiological length of the ulna is the distance between the lowest point of the outer edge of the coronoid process (processus coranoodeus) and the lowest point of the head of the ulna (caput ulnae). Sliding compass,
Radius
The greatest length of the radius is the distance from the highest point of the head of the radius (caput radii) to the top of the styloid process of the radius (processus styloideus radii). Measuring board.
The physiological length of the radius is the distance between the deepest points of the articular surfaces - the fovea radii and the articular carpal surface (facies articularis corpea). Thick compass.
Metacarpal bones
The greatest length of the metacarpal bones is the projection distance between the most distant points from one another on the head (caput) and base (basis) of the bone. Sliding compass with vernier or vernier caliper.
The width of the metacarpal body is the distance between the ulnar and radial sides in the middle of the diaphysis. The measurement is made in a plane perpendicular to the plane of measurement of the greatest length. Sliding compass with vernier or vernier caliper.
The height of the body of the metacarpal bones is the distance between the dorsal and volar surfaces of the body of the bone, measured at the same location as the width of the body, but perpendicular to the plane in which the width is measured. Sliding compass with vernier or vernier caliper.
Femur
The greatest length of the femur is the distance between the highest point of the femoral head (caput femoris) and the lowest point of the medial condyle (condylis medialus), or lateral - in those rare cases when it is more developed than the medial one. Measuring board. The bone is located strictly parallel to the longitudinal vertical wall of the board.
The total length of the femur in its natural position is the distance from the highest point of the femoral head to the plane passing through the lowest points of the lateral and medial condyles. In this case, the femur should be placed on the measuring board so that both condyles, with their most protruding parts, are tightly pressed against the transverse vertical wall of the board. The movable board of the measuring stand is pressed against the point on the head of the bone that is most distant from them in a position perpendicular to the longitudinal vertical wall.
The width of the lower epiphysis of the femur is the distance between the points most distant from each other on the lateral surfaces of the internal and external condyles. Measuring board or sliding compass.
The width of the mid-shaft of the femur is the distance between the lateral surfaces of the femur exactly at the middle of the diaphysis, determined either by the length of the bone or visually. Sliding compass.
The sagittal diameter of the middle of the diaphysis of the femur is the distance between the anterior and posterior surfaces of the femur exactly along the middle of the diaphysis, determined visually or measured along the length of the bone. Sliding compass.
Femoral midshaft circumference - The circumference of the femoral shaft exactly at the midpoint of the bone, determined either visually or by the length of the bone. Ribbon.
The vertical diameter of the femoral neck (synonym - neck height) is the distance between the upper and lower surfaces of the femoral neck, measured at the narrowest point. Sliding compass.
Sagittal diameter of the femoral neck (synonyms - width of the femoral neck, depth of the femoral neck) - the distance between the anterior and posterior surfaces of the neck, determined at the same place as the previous size. Sliding compass.
Femoral neck angle is the angle formed by the longitudinal axis of the femoral neck and the longitudinal axis of the femoral diaphysis. The longitudinal axis of the neck is marked with a steel needle reinforced with wax or plasticine on the front surface of the neck. The needle should bisect the femoral neck. The longitudinal axis of the diaphysis is also marked with a needle, which is fixed in the plane dividing the diaphysis in half and on its anterior surface. The angle between the needles is measured with a protractor (Fig. 52).
Tibia
The total length of the tibia is the distance from the articular sites of the upper articular end to the lowest point on the inner malleolus. This size does not take into account the intercondylar eminence, which is placed in the hole of the short vertical wall of the board, so that the articular platforms rest against the board.
The greatest length of the tibia is the distance from the lowest point of the medial malleolus to the highest point of the intercondylar eminence.
The width of the upper epiphysis of the tibia (or the upper width of the tibia) is the distance between the most medially located
the point of the internal condyle (condylus medialis) and the most lateral point of the external condyle (condylus lateralis). It is measured either on a measuring board or with a sliding compass.
The width of the lower epiphysis of the tibia (or the lower width of the tibia) is the distance between the most medial point of the medial malleolus and the most lateral point of the lateral surface of the lower epiphysis of the tibia. Measuring board or sliding compass.
The width of the middle of the diaphysis of the tibia is the distance between the medial (margo medialis) and interosseous (margo inter ossea) edges in the middle of the body. At the same level, the circumference of the mid-diaphysis is measured. Sliding compass.
fibula
The greatest length of the fibula (or lateral length of the fibula) is the distance from the highest point of the apex of the head (apex capitis fibulae) to the lowest point of the lateral malleolus (malleolus lateralis). The bone is placed on the measuring board randomly, but strictly parallel to the vertical longitudinal wall.
The medial length of the fibula is the distance from the highest point of the apex of the head of the fibula to the lowest point of the articular surface of the lateral malleolus (facies articularis malleoi). The bone is placed parallel to the vertical longitudinal wall of the board so that its head rests against the vertical transverse wall, and the articular surface of the outer ankle is on the side, on the side opposite the wall of the measuring stand. The movable board of the tripod is placed at the lowest point of the articular surface of the outer ankle, and the size is measured on the scale of the horizontal board.
Metatarsus bones
The length, width and height of the metatarsal bones are measured in the same way as for the metacarpal bones, with the only difference being that when determining the length, the distance from the most forward point of the head and the middle of the upper edge of the base of the bone is taken into account.
When measuring bones, the rules outlined above must be strictly followed. The error allowed in this case should not exceed 1 mm. Otherwise, as Ya. Ya. Roginsky and M. G. Levin point out, “... the research results are unreliable in themselves and are incomparable with the measurements of other researchers”8.
8 Y. Ya. Roginsky and M. G. Levin. Fundamentals of Anthropology, 1955, p. 8.
As already mentioned above, determining age by the size of individual bones gives the most good results in children and persons who have not reached puberty, i.e. during the period of growth of the body, when the relationships between individual organs change all the time depending on age. In persons who have reached puberty, these ratios, having reached a certain limit, different for each individual, remain approximately the same throughout subsequent life. Osteometric data in such cases are used as indicators of sex and height, but not as indicators of age.
When determining the age of fetal and newborn corpses, forensic experts rarely resort to x-ray diagnostics and bone measurements. In the overwhelming majority of cases, when carrying out this kind of examination, age is determined by the length and weight of corpses, since in both fetuses and newborns, during normal development, the relationship between body length, weight and age is more regularly expressed than in subsequent age periods. This pattern makes it possible to determine age quite accurately using existing formulas. In addition to weight and body length, the expert takes into account the size of the head, the width of the shoulders, the length of the umbilical cord, etc.
A small number of works are devoted to determining the age of fetuses of newborn children and adolescents from the bone skeleton. Some information on this issue is contained in the pediatric and forensic literature.
At the end of the last and at the beginning of the present century, V. A. Bets (1887), A. P. Bondyrev (1902), N. P. Gundobin (1906) independently conducted significant research in the direction of establishing relationships between individual organs and systems of the human body at different age periods.
A.P. Bondyrev (1902) in his doctoral dissertation “Materials for measuring height and individual parts of the body in children” provides significant factual material reflecting the dynamics of weight, height, size of the head, chest, upper and lower extremities in children aged from birth up to 15 years (in total, the author studied 1887 children, for each age there were 100 people - 50 boys and 50 girls) (Table 22).
In addition to his own extensive observations, A.P. Bondyrev also provides numerous data from Russian and foreign authors. Despite the fact that the observations of A.P. Bondarev are based on the results obtained from measuring living children, they contain fairly regular indicators of bone sizes at different age periods (Tables 83-87), as well as the relationship between bone sizes and growth.
Along with measuring the limbs, A.P. Bondyrev studied the length of the spinal column. He took measurements with a centimeter tape from the VII cervical vertebra to the end of the coccyx, following the natural curves of the spine (Table 24).
The most recent works devoted to the issue of determining the size of the spine at different age periods in males include the work of the famous Russian anthropologist V.V. Bunak (1941). He measured the spinal column along the sagittal line of the anterior wall, following its curves. The upper border was the upper bony edge of the anterior surface of the III cervical vertebra, the lower border was the lower edge of the disc lying below the V lumbar vertebra (Table 24).
From the data in table. 25 it follows that the most intensive growth of the spine occurs in the first year of life. After 14 years, the increase in height is insignificant and does not exceed 1.5% per year during puberty and about 0.6% in the post-puberty period. The final development and establishment of curvature in the cervical and thoracic regions occurs by the 7th year of life.
In 1936, data by D. G. Rokhlin and E. E. Leventhal on the size of the hand bones in different age periods were published.
The authors studied 1167 hand radiographs in individuals aged 4 to 21 years. Each group consisted of an average of 30 people. Bone measurements were made with a sliding compass directly on the radiographs, since the authors believe that with a distance from the anticathode to the film of 60 cm, “the radiological data are generally consistent with those that could be obtained by measuring the corresponding bone preparations”9. The length of each bone was determined by measuring the distance from the middle of the proximal end to the corresponding extreme point at the distal end, i.e. from the middle of the base of the bone to the middle of its head. The material was processed using variation statistics methods. As a result of their work, D. G. Rokhlin and E. E. Leventhal obtained data illustrating the dynamics of the size of each bone in the range from 4 years to 21 years (Table 25).
Since 1951, at the departments of forensic medicine of the Voronezh, Stavropol and Gorky medical institutes, a number of works have been carried out on the issue of determining age using the x-ray osteometric method of studying the size of the long tubular bones of the upper and lower extremities of fetuses, newborns and children of the first year of life.
The first work in this direction belongs to L.A. Dmitrienko (1952) and concerns the determination of age by the size of the bones of the lower extremities. To accomplish this task, the author studied the sizes of the bones of the lower extremities of the corpses of newborns and children of the first year of life. The results of measurements obtained on X-ray photographs allowed the author to compile
vD.G. Poxlin and E.E. Leventhal. Dimensions of phalanges and metacarpals at the ages of 4 to 21 years. - In the book: X-ray osteology and X-ray anthropology. M.-L., p. 120.
table (Table 26) with bone length indicators depending on the child’s age, separately for boys and girls.
At the XI student scientific conference of Voronezh medical institute L.D. Alpatova (1952) reported on her work on determining age based on the size of the bones of the lower extremities. The author determined the bone sizes of 811 fetuses and newborns under 15 days of age using radiographs. The data obtained in this case (Table 28) allows us to determine the length of the fetal body based on the size of the bones under study, and the age based on the body length, since, as already mentioned above, a certain pattern is observed between the body length and the age of the fetus.
In 1956, L.A. Kosova and V.E. Tsybulsky carried out work to determine age based on the size of the long tubular bones of the upper and lower extremities depending on body length. The material for the study was the corpses of 700 fetuses and newborns. The principle of determining age by the size of the bones of the extremities is the same as that of L.D. Alpatova, i.e., the length of the body is determined by the size of the bone being examined, and age by the length of the body.
The main information obtained by the authors is presented in table. 28 and 29.
Similar work was carried out by L. A. Kosova and V. E. Tsybulsky in relation to determining age by the size of the bones of the lower extremities. Since the information obtained in this case has a very slight discrepancy with the results obtained by L. D. Alpatova, they are not presented in this case.
In 1959, the work of N. M. Romanova was published on determining the uterine age of the fetus from the bones of the skeleton. The author skeletonized 127 corpses of fetuses and embryos, starting from 11 lunar month development. In addition to anatomical description and photography, the bones were measured and weighed. In table 30 shows the average bone length by month of fetal development.
Photographs of fetal bones in various months of intrauterine development were compiled by N. M. Romanova in the form of an atlas.
To determine the age of fetuses and newborns based on the size of the diaphyses of long tubular bones, you can use the data contained in the works of Smith (1945) and Palmieri (1951), intended to determine the length of the fetus (Tables 32 and 33).
To determine the length of the fetus, the length of the diaphysis of the bone under study should be multiplied by the coefficient corresponding to this bone. Knowing the length of the fetus, you can determine its age using the method outlined above.
Of the remaining bones of the skeleton, the size of which allows us to judge age to a certain extent, we should name the clavicle, femur and hyoid bones. On this issue, the literature provides data from P. P. Dyakonov (1950), N. S. Mechanics (1948), U. A. Aripov (1957) and Yu. M. Gladyshev (1961).
P.P. Dyakonov believes that determining age by the collarbone is most successfully carried out in the early stages of human development (Table 34).
In 1948, N.S. Mechanics’ data concerning the age-related anatomy of the clavicles were published. The author examined 100 pairs of clavicles belonging to 59 male cadavers and 41 female cadavers aged from 1.5 months of extrauterine life to 56 years (Table 31).
As a result of the observations, the author found that the greatest growth of the collarbones in length occurs during three periods of life: from 1.5 to 7 months, from 7 to 8 years and from 16 to 19 years. The most intensive growth occurs in the first period. In addition, it turned out that in most cases (63%) the left clavicle is longer than the right. In approximately 30% of cases, the length of both clavicles was the same; in the remaining cases, which is less than 10%, the length of the right clavicle was greater than the left.
Data from a study by U. A. Aripov, devoted to the study of the growth dynamics of the human femoral neck using the osteometric method, are presented in Table. 35.
The dissertation of Yu. M. Gladyshev (1961), devoted to the anatomical and radiological study of gender and age-related features of the structure of the human hyoid bone, provides data that makes it possible to determine age from the first days of life to 26 years. As diagnostic signs, the author used 11 sizes of the bone nuclei and cartilaginous framework of 251 hyoid bones (including 153 belonging to men and 98 to women), determined on radiographs.
The measurement results, processed statistically, are presented in table. 36.
To determine the age of the hyoid bone, it is necessary to compare its dimensions with the age period whose arithmetic mean, minimum and maximum indicators are closest to them, as well as with the indicators of two adjacent periods - younger and older. Given the great variability of characteristics, it is necessary to take into account the maximum indicators that allow us to attribute the studied hyoid bone to a particular age period.
The method proposed by Yu. M. Gladyshev for determining age using the hyoid bone, as the author himself notes, can be used in forensic practice as an additional method. However, in cases where only one hyoid bone is presented for examination, or when it is not possible to judge the age from other bone remains, the author allows the x-ray anatomical method of determining age from the hyoid bone as an independent research method.
3. Histological method of establishing age
Identification of age-related changes in the microscopic structure of human bone tissue, in addition to morphologists (N. Machinsky, 1891; A. I. Grekov, 1903; N. I. Anserov, 1934; G. A. Zedgenidze, 1934, 1950; L. P. Astanin, 1936, 1951; A. I. Strukov, 1936; M. N. Orlov, 1937; P. P. Loschakov, 1948; 1951, etc.) during 1966-1974. The work of many forensic doctors is devoted to this. During this period, the following were studied: the hyoid bone (Yu. M. Gladyshev, 1966), long tubular bones of the upper and lower extremities (Yu. M. Gladyshev, V. I. Dobryak, 1968), sternum (3. L. Laptev, 1970 ), distal phalanges of the hand (Yu. A. Neklyudov, 1969), femur and humerus (I. V. -
I. Nainis, 1966), ribs (A.I. Turovtsev, 1970), lower leg bones (A.K. Garmus, 1974). It turned out that the microscopic structure of bone tissue can provide significant assistance in determining age at all stages of a person’s life, as well as in cases of a limited number of study objects, when other methods are ineffective.
The significant volume of each of the listed studies, and most importantly, the diversity and specificity of the microstructural differential features of bone tissue depending on age, did not allow the results of the listed studies to be formalized in the form of clear and practical indicators. In such cases, direct appeal to primary sources is apparently the most correct and appropriate way.
4. Spectral method of age determination
The study of the chemical composition (based on nine elements and six of their ratios) of bone tissue (mainly ribs) of corpses of persons from birth to 80 years of age using the spectral research method (V.M. Kolosova, 1965) has so far revealed the possibility of reliable differentiation of children bones and bones of the same name, adults according to the quantitative content of potassium and strontium.
The bone tissue of children is rich in potassium and poor in strontium. With age, the amount of potassium decreases, strontium increases. In adults, compared to children, the quantitative indicators of these two elements are the opposite - a lot of strontium, a little potassium. Perhaps further processing of the material will allow us to establish additional signs according to the age-related content of micro and macroelements in the bones of the skeleton.
5. Other age-related bone changes
Among the signs that allow us to judge age from bone remains, we should also include some changes observed in the process of formation of the upper and lower surfaces of the vertebral bodies, iliac crests, the formation and subsequent development of the symphysis of the pubic bone, revealed by their direct study. On the upper and lower surfaces of the vertebral bodies in children, striations in the form of radially located grooves are clearly visible. By the end of the first decade of life, these grooves become clearly defined and remain until the marginal ridge is completely fused with the vertebral body (Fig. 53).
On the crest of the iliac bones, the striations take the form of oblique grooves, clearly visible in children and young people. With the onset of synostosis, the grooves become less noticeable or disappear altogether.
According to the observations of M. S. Romanova (1958), the border between the bones and cartilage of the symphysis pubis in children under 2 years of age is smooth and convex. From the age of 4 in girls and from the age of 6 in boys, the edge of the pubic bone in the symphysis area becomes wavy.
The waviness, intensifying with age, becomes striated in the form of horizontal grooves. After the end plate is fully formed, the adjacent surfaces of the symphysis pubis become smooth. In old age, these surfaces become uneven again, but unlike in childhood and adolescence, there is no waviness.
The most complete information about age-related changes in the articular surfaces of the symphysis of the pubic bones is presented in the work of V. I. Dobryak (1968). The author chose as differential features: the state of the relief of the articular surfaces of the symphysis, the nature of its ventral and dorsal edges, the degree of expression of the anterior surface of the descending branch of the bone, where the longitudinal ridge is formed.
The data revealed during the study of the process of formation and involution of the symphysis of the pubic bones allowed V.I. Dobryak to identify the following age periods:
1 - smoothed relief of the pubic bones with barely pronounced transverse ridges on the articular surfaces is characteristic of the age of up to 3 years;
2 - the beginning of the formation of the dorsal edge, the severity of grooves and ridges about 1 mm high in the area of ​​the upper and middle parts of the articulation indicate a period of 3-5 years;
3 - the beginning of the formation of the ventral edge in the upper and middle sections of the articulation, the spread of grooves and ridges over three quarters of the surface of the articular platform and the appearance of individual tubercles on them are characteristic of the period from 5 to 8 years;
4 - well-defined ventral and dorsal edges, the appearance of large tubercles in the upper part of the articular surface, fragmentation of the transverse ridges indicate a period from 9 to 14 years;
5 - the formation of large tubercles along the dorsal edge of the articular surface, rarefaction and retraction of the cortical layer on the ventral surface below the pubic tubercle characterize the period from 14 to 16 years;
6 - smoothing of the relief or disappearance of the ventral edge, the beginning of the development of bevel here near the lower parts of the articular surface, the fusion of some ridges with each other are typical for the age of 17-20 years;
7 - the appearance of bone growths on the dorsal edge, the smoothness of the surface of the articulation and the development of limitation in its lower parts with unclear contours of the upper parts indicate a period of 21-26 years;
8 - all contours of the articular surface, clearly expressed in the form of an oval or fusiform area with a tuberous surface, and the formed bevel of the ventral edge are observed at 28-30 years;
9 - the formation of a bone ridge on the ventral surface of the pubic bone and its spread downward along the descending branch mark a period of 30-35 years;
10 - the severity of the boundaries of the articular platform, the presence of bone growths on the pubic tubercle and dorsal edge, the appearance of erosions and defects in the cortical layer on the articular surface, the expansion of the zone of rarefaction of bone tissue below the pubic tubercle indicates a period of 35-40 years;
11 - strengthening of the contours of the articular platform and bone growths on the pubic tubercle and the ventral surface of the pubic bone, as well as the spread of erosions and defects of the cortical layer along the articular surface are typical for the age of 40-45 years;
12 - the formation of a bone rim along the edges of the articular platform characterizes the age of 45-50 years;
13 - destruction of the ventral edge, deepening erosion on the articular surface and its deformation are typical for the period after 50 years.
II. DETERMINATION OF GENDER
Determining sex from the bone skeleton in persons who have not reached puberty presents significant difficulties, since before this period there are no clearly defined signs on the bones characteristic of one sex or another. In such cases, it is necessary to proceed from radiological data on the timing of the appearance of ossification nuclei and the onset of synostosis, and also take into account the size of the bones being studied (see Table 3, 26-30, 36-37).
During puberty and upon reaching it, the skeleton acquires a number of anatomical and morphological characteristics characteristic of a particular sex.
The female skeleton is smaller and lighter than the male. Each individual bone, as well as the dimensions between the anatomical and topographic points of the bones, are smaller in women. The exception in this regard is the size of the female pelvis, which more sizes male The bones of the female skeleton are thinner than those of men, their surface is smoother and smoother. The articular ends of bones, tuberosities and roughness on the male skeleton are much more pronounced. This especially applies to long tubular bones, the bones of the pelvis and skull.
1. Determination of sex by pelvic bones
Some researchers believe that in early childhood the pelvis in boys and girls is almost the same, others, such as D. N. Zernov (1939), G. f. Ivanov (1949), indicate that already in fetuses and newborns the pelvis has some gender differences. Thus, G.F. Ivanov10 writes: “No special sex differences were found in the pelvis of newborns, however, it can be assumed that in boys the pelvis is somewhat more massive and higher than in girls, and that it has a more pronounced funnel-shaped shape. The iliac wings in boys are straighter, the pubic arch is sharper, the sacrum is wider than in girls, due to the slightly larger volume of the sacral vertebral bodies. The entrance to the pelvic cavity in boys has the shape of an almost triangle, in girls it is transversely oval. The anterior wall of the pelvis in fetuses and newborns differs in some sexual characteristics characteristic of adults; Thus, in girls, parts of the pubic bones are more developed than in boys of the same age. The maximum pubic angle reaches 67° in boys and 77° in girls.”
According to V.N. Tonkov (1953), sexual characteristics on the pelvic bones begin to appear at the age of 10
10 G. F. Ivanov Fundamentals of normal anatomy. T. 1. M., p. 254.171
As the body develops, the sexual characteristics of the pelvis become more and more apparent and are fully formed at the end of puberty.
The female pelvis is lower and wider than the male. The bones that make it up are thinner and smoother in women. The branches of the pubic bone are narrower and longer, and their cartilaginous connection is wider and shorter. The height of the symphysis pubis in women is about 4 cm, in men about 5 cm. The body of the pubic bone in women is wider and has a more square appearance; the descending branch of the body extends from its outer edge, while in men this branch serves as a continuation of the body. The angle of convergence of the branches of the pubic bones in women is straight or obtuse, in men it is acute. The apex of this angle is rounded in women.
The greater sciatic notch in women is much wider and forms an almost right angle; in men, its end bends downward, forming a more acute angle. The obturator foramen in women is wider and has the shape of a triangle, with its apex facing forward, while in men it is higher and has a more rounded shape with the base facing upward.
The acetabulum in women is narrower, on average the diameter of each of them is 46 mm, in men - 52 mm, they are located more anteriorly and are located much further apart than in men; the distance from the symphysis to the anterior edge of the acetabulum in men is approximately equal to the largest diameter of this cavity; in women this distance is 1.5-2 cm greater than the indicated diameter. The greater distance between the articular cavities in women is explained by the significant divergence of their ischial tuberosities.
The articular surface of the sacroiliac joint on the sacrum of women usually extends to the II vertebra, and on the sacrum of men - to the III (respectively to the III and IV vertebrae if there are 6 vertebrae in the sacrum). The sacrum in women is wide and short, in men it is narrow and long. The protrusion formed by the junction of the fifth lumbar vertebra with the sacrum (promontorium) is larger in men.
The entrance to the small pelvis in women has a transverse oval shape, in men it has a longitudinal oval shape. The exit from the small pelvis is narrower in men, wider in women due to some divergence of the ischial tuberosities and less protrusion of the coccyx. In general, the pelvic cavity in men is less spacious and has a funnel-shaped shape, while in women it is more cylindrical.
Preauricular groove, i.e. the groove located anterior to sacral joint The ilium is wide and deep in most women, but in men the depth and width of this groove is much smaller and its edges are less pronounced. The iliac wings of the female pelvis are more deployed and strongly inclined outward, while in the male they are located more vertically.
The main signs characterizing the gender of the pelvis are contained in table. 37.
In addition to the listed morphological characteristics, fairly accurate information about the differences between the male and female pelvis is provided by its dimensions between certain anatomical points accepted in anatomy and obstetrics. From the table 37a it is clear that the size of the female pelvis is 1-2 cm larger than the size of the male pelvis.
2. Determination of sex based on individual bones of the skeleton
As already mentioned above, the bones of the male skeleton differ from the bones of the female skeleton in anatomical and morphological structural features and sizes. In this direction, not a single bone of the skeleton is an exception. The most detailed information has been developed in relation to the sexual characteristics of the skull (see above), humerus and femurs, sternum, clavicle, hyoid bone, ribs and nail phalanges of the hand.
Humerus and femur
The humerus and femur of the male skeleton are markedly massive. Their length and thickness, as a rule, exceed those of women. The surface of the bones in men is less even and smooth than in women, due to the sharper expression of ridges, lines and tubercles at the attachment points of muscle tendons and fascia.
According to I.-V. I. Nainisa (1966) with an average body length of 168.9 cm for men and 156.7 for women, the average dimensions of the humerus are: 33.6 cm for men and 31.0 for women; the femur is 45.4 and 42.1 cm, respectively.
According to Pearson and Bell, the most indicative signs of sex on the femurs are the size of the head, neck and condyles (see Table 38).
Similar data are given by Dwight (Dwigth, 1894) for the head of the humerus: its vertical diameter is on average 48.7 mm in men, 42.6 mm in women, and horizontal diameter is 44.6 mm and 38.9 mm, respectively.
The sexual characteristics of the humerus and femur have been studied quite fully by M. Cherny (1971). The average values ​​for individual sizes of these bones are presented in Table. 39.
L.K. Semenova (1953), studying age-related features of form and structure individual elements of the upper epiphysis of the femur, found that the absolute dimensions of the head, neck and condyles average 50 mm on male bones and 45 mm on female bones.
There are repeated indications in the literature that the long axes of the body and femoral neck in men are located at an obtuse angle, while in women this angle approaches a right angle.
However, the work of G.P. Nazarishvili (1952), carried out on a large material, did not confirm the noted circumstance. The author found that the femoral neck angle in newborns of both sexes is 150°. The arithmetic mean value of the femoral neck in boys and girls remains the same until the age of 7, the angle by this time decreases to 139°. Then there is a further sharp decrease in the angle, and by the age of 10 it is 129° for boys and 128° for girls. At 16 years of age, the femoral neck angle in boys is on average 127°, in girls - 122°. By the age of 19, the femoral neck angle becomes equal, reaching 124° in both sexes. During the period of highest differentiation and completion of skeletal formation (20-22 years), the angle of the femoral neck in individuals of both sexes is on average 122°, and does not change until approximately 50 years of age. After age 50, the femoral neck angle decreases by 1-2° in each subsequent decade.
When determining sex using individual bones of the skeleton, the method of diagnostic coefficients (DC), developed by I.-V., is highly recommended. I. Nainis (1966) for the humerus and femur.
To solve the problem, the author studied the dimensions of the humerus and femurs of 224 corpses (117 men, 107 women) of persons aged 16-90 years. When processing measurement data, a statistical technique was used in the form of a sequential analysis of the probability ratio. During the study, 9 sizes were taken for each bone (Nos. 1-9 for the humerus, 10-18 for the femur), which have statistically significant values. For each size, the diagnostic coefficient (DC) was calculated.
Diagnostic indicators are:
On the humerus: 1) the greatest length, 2) the circumference and middle of the diaphysis, 3) the minimum circumference of the diaphysis, 4) the circumference of the head, 5) the width of the distal epiphysis, 6) the area of ​​the compact substance on the cross-section of the middle of the diaphysis, 7) the area of ​​the cross-section of the middle diaphysis, 8) diameter of the narrowest part of the diaphysis on a radiograph, 9) thickness of the compact substance at the same level of the diaphysis on a radiograph.
On the femur: 10) length in natural position, 11) circumference of the middle of the diaphysis, 12) circumference of the head, 13) width of the distal epiphysis, 14) degree of bending of the diaphysis, 15) area of ​​the compact substance on the cross-section of the middle of the diaphysis, 16) area of ​​the cross-section the middle of the diaphysis, 17) the diameter of the diaphysis in the narrowest part on the radiograph, 18) the width of the proximal epiphysis on the radiograph.
Of all the listed sizes, the most reliable gender difference is on the humerus in the sizes of all three circles and the width of the distal epiphysis, on the femur - the circumference of the head and the width of the distal epiphysis.
Bone measurements are made in their natural state, on radiographs and on cross-sections.
In the process of determining height from the humerus and femur, not all three types of measurements are required. So, for example, an expert begins to measure bones on an x-ray only when the established dimensions of the bone in its normal state do not allow one to come to definite conclusions about gender. The uncertain conclusions obtained from the first two types of measurements dictate the need to carry out measurements on cross-sections of bone.
The measuring instruments are; osteometric board, metal millimeter tape, sliding or caliper, transparent ruler and planimeter commonly used in surveying.
Bone measurement technique11.
Humerus:
a) The dimensions of the bone in its natural state.”
1. The greatest length is the distance between the highest point of the head and the lowest point of the shoulder block. Osteometric board.
2. The width of the distal epiphysis is the distance between the most medially located point of the internal condyle and the most lateral located point of the external condyle. Osteometric board.
3. Head circumference - along the edge of the articular surface. Metal tape.
11Sm. also ch. 5.
12 When measuring fresh bones, 2 mm are subtracted from the resulting length of the bone, and 1-2 mm from the circumference.
4. The circumference of the middle of the diaphysis is determined by half of the greatest length of the bone located on the osteometric board. It is usually located a few millimeters above the lower border of the deltoid surface. Metal tape.
5. The smallest circumference of the diaphysis - this size is usually located several millimeters below the deltoid roughness and is determined empirically or on an osteometric board.
b) X-ray measurements.
Shooting conditions (for both bones): the bone is placed on the cassette with its back surface, focal length 85 cm. The central beam is directed to the middle of the diaphysis.
6. The diameter of the humerus at the narrowest part of the diaphysis - it is located approximately on the border of the middle and lower third of the bone.
7. The thickness of the compact layer is at the same level. It is determined by summing up the indicators when measuring the thickness of the compact layer on the medial and lateral sides of the bone.
Femur
A. Measurements of bone in its natural state
10. Length in natural position - the distance from the highest point of the femur to the plane passing through the lowest points of the lateral and medial condyles, tightly pressed against the vertical wall of the osteometric board.
11. The degree of bending is the distance from the most upwardly projecting point on the anterior surface of the diaphysis to the osteometric board on which the femur is located with its posterior surface.
12. The width of the distal epiphysis is the distance between the most distant points on the lateral surfaces of the medial and lateral condyles. Osteometric board or sliding compass.
13. The circumference of the middle of the diaphysis is determined visually or by the length of the bone. Metal tape.
14. Head circumference - along the edge of the articular surface. Metal tape.
B. X-ray measurements of the femur
15. The diameter of the bone in the narrowest part of the medullary cavity is approximately at the border of the upper and middle third.
16. The width of the proximal epiphysis is the distance between the end point of the axis of the femoral neck on the lateral side of the bone and the point most distant from it on the femoral head.
B. Measurements of the humerus and femur on cross-sections of the diaphysis
This measurement for both bones determines:
Dimensions 8 and 17 are the surface area of ​​the entire cut of the diaphysis;
Dimensions 9 and 18 are the area of ​​the compact substance.
The latter is established by subtracting the indicator obtained by measuring the contour of the bone marrow cavity from the indicator obtained by measuring the contour of the outer surface of the cut. Measured with a planimeter. The planimeter leg is strengthened, and the needle is used to trace the contour of the outer surface of the cut. The counter multiplies the specified number of divisions by the set coefficient (it is more convenient to adjust so that one division corresponds to 5 mm2). Then the contour of the bone marrow cavity is outlined and the resulting area is subtracted from the area of ​​the entire cross-section. The difference established in this case shows the area of ​​​​the compact bone substance on the cut in the region of the middle of the diaphysis.
To determine the gender of the humerus or femur based on the dimensions obtained when measuring them according to the table. 40 find the corresponding DCs.
In this case, you can use both individual characteristics and a combination of two or three characteristics, the correlation coefficients between which do not exceed 0.413.
Such signs on the humerus are:
longest bone length (1) and minimum diaphysis circumference (3);
the greatest length of the bone (1), the width of its distal epiphysis (5) and the area of ​​the compact bone substance on a cross-section of the middle of the diaphysis (6);
longest bone length (1) and cross-cut area of ​​the middle of the diaphysis (7);
head circumference (4) and area of ​​compact bone substance on a cross section of the middle of the diaphysis (6);
the greatest length of the bone (1) and the diameter of the narrowest part of the diaphysis on the radiograph (8);
head circumference (4) and diameter of the narrowest part of the diaphysis on the radiograph (8);
head circumference (4) and compact thickness
cross-section of the diaphysis on an x-ray (9);
On the femur:
the length of the bone in its natural position (10) and the circumference of the mid-shaft (11);
length in natural position (10), degree of bending of the diaphysis (14) and area of ​​the compact substance on the cross-section of the diaphysis (15);
the length of the bone in its natural position (10) and the cross-cut area of ​​the middle of the diaphysis (16);
head circumference (12) and degree of diaphysis bending (14);
circumference of the head (12) and the area of ​​the compact substance on the cross section of the middle of the diaphysis (15);
13 The combinations of several characteristics given below can be used to determine sex from bone fragments.
the degree of bending (14) and the area of ​​the compact substance on the cross-section of the middle of the diaphysis (15);
width of the distal epiphysis (13) and diameter of the narrowest part of the diaphysis on the radiograph (17).
If the DC (regardless of whether it is obtained from one or more characteristics, or from a combination of characteristics) is equal to +128 or more, then the bone under study belongs to the skeleton of a woman, and -128 and more - to a man, with the probability of an incorrect diagnosis in both cases being 0.05 , i.e. no more than 5% of erroneous conclusions. With a DC amount exceeding ±200, the probability of an incorrect diagnosis is no more than 1% (0.01), and ±300 is 0.1% (0.001), i.e., one error per thousand cases.
A DC level of ±300 in the absence of pathological changes in the bone can be considered reliable. For mass studies of skeletonized corpses, a level of ± 128 is sufficient, since in this case possible errors will be equalized by deviations in both directions.
Examples. 1. The greatest length of the left humerus is 349 mm; DC of this length is - 128; the circumference of the middle of the diaphysis is 76 mm - DC of this size is 116; the circumference of the head of the humerus is 145 mm - DC, this value is -176, the minimum circumference of the diaphysis is 68 mm - DC is -148.
Further calculations for individual characteristics do not need to be made, since the DC for three characteristics (-128, -176 and -148) out of four indicate (95% probability) that the bone under study belongs to a man. When checking this case by a combination of signs, it was found that the DC of the bone length was equal to -128, and the minimum circumference of the diaphysis was -148, which in total amounted to -276; head circumference -176 and diaphysis diameter on the radiograph -124, which in total amounted to 300. Consequently, two combinations of signs exceeded DC -200, and one of them turned out to be equal to -300, that is, the initial conclusion that the bone under study belonged to the corpse of a man was confirmed and in addition, higher DC values.
2. The width of the lower epiphysis of the femur was 70 mm. According to Table 44, this size corresponds to a DC equal to +, which means that the fragment of the femur under study belongs to the skeleton of a woman.
The developed DCs are suitable for all humerus and femurs, which do not differ significantly in size from the one studied by I.-V. I. Nainis series.
The possibility of determining sex using the DC of the humerus and femur reaches 97.6±1.1%, which is significantly higher than the method of R. Iordamidis (1962) - 39.6% for the femur and 21.1% for the humerus and W. Krogman ( 1962) -80% for long tubular bones.
Shin bones
A similar work on establishing sex based on the size of the long tubular bones of the leg using diagnostic coefficients was carried out by A. K. Garmus (1974).
The author studied the tibia and fibula of the corpses of men (138) and women (101) who died between the ages of 15 and 91 years. Of the total number of osteometric indicators for determining sex, A.K. Garmus took 10. For the tibia: total length, articular length, width of the proximal epiphysis, width of the distal epiphysis, sagittal diameter of the external condyle, bone circumference at the level of the nutrient foramen, bone diameter at radiograph and cross-sectional area of ​​the mid-diaphysis cut; for the fibula: the greatest length and width of the proximal epiphysis (Table 41).
When calculating sex using DC, you can use either individual characteristics or a combination of several characteristics, summing up their values. The most complete sexual dimorphism of the tibia is reflected by such combinations of characters as: the total length and width of the distal epiphysis; total length and circumference at the level of the nutrient opening; total length and diameter of the bone on x-ray; articular length and width of the proximal epiphysis; articular length and diameter on radiograph; width of the proximal epiphysis and bone diameter on a radiograph; the width of the proximal epiphysis and the cross-cut area of ​​the middle of the diaphysis. The sexual dimorphism of the fibula is most clearly reflected by the combination of only two characters: the greatest length and width of the proximal epiphysis.
Evaluation of the results of determining gender based on the bones of the leg using DC is carried out in the same way as recommended by I.-V. I. Nynis for the humerus and femur.
Sternum
The chest bone in men is absolutely and relatively longer and narrower than in women. The length of the sternum, according to V. A. Betz (1887), in men ranges from 16.5-20 cm, in women - 14-15.5 cm and on average is equal to: for the former - 18.6 mm, for the latter - 14.7 cm. In relation to the length of the skeleton, the sternum of men is 10.9%, in women - 9.6%.
To distinguish the male sternum from the female, a number of authors suggest using percentage ratios of the length of the manubrium to the length of the body of the sternum. The resulting coefficient is on average 45 for the male sternum and 55 for the female, according to M.A. Gremyatsky (1950), and, respectively, 46.2 and 54.3, but according to Martin (1928). Clarifying these relationships, V.I. Dobryak (1958) conducted observations on 96 sternums of corpses of persons aged from 20 to 86 years, natives of the central regions of Ukraine. The author found that the percentage relationship between the length of the manubrium and the length of the sternum body varies widely, namely: from 30.1 to 73.1 in men and from 40.2 to 84.7 in women, with a range of fluctuations from 40.2 up to 73.1 is indeterminate in terms of gender, since ratios lying within these limits occur in men and women. Ratios of less than 40.2 are typical only for men, and ratios of more than 73.1 are characteristic only for women. Next, the author checked on his material the instructions of Simpson (Simpson, 1952) about the different ratios of the length of the body of the sternum to the length of the manubrium in men and women. It turned out that these ratios range from 1.36 to 3.32 for men and from 1.18 to 2.48 for women. Thus, concludes V.I. Dobryak, ratios of the length of the sternum body to the length of the manubrium from 1.36 to 2.48 can be observed in both sexes, while ratios greater than 2.48 are more common on male sternums, and ratios less than 1.36 -on women's.
The work of Durwald (1960) presents data regarding sex determination based on the sternum. The following dimensions were taken as diagnostic signs:
1) the total length of the sternum along the midline without the xiphoid process;
2) the width of the body of the sternum between the II and III costal notches;
3) the width of the body of the sternum between the III and IV costal notches;
4) the smallest thickness of the manubrium of the sternum along the midline;
5) the thickness of the body of the sternum in the first segment between the II and III costal notches along the midline (Fig. 54).
The sum of these dimensions, lying in the range of 226-262 mm, indicates that the sternum belongs to the skeleton of a man, and lying in the range of 192-223 mm indicates that the skeleton belongs to a woman; or otherwise - the sum of dimensions of more than 225 mm indicates that the sternum belongs to the skeleton of a man and less than 223 mm - to the skeleton of a woman.
Of the 358 sternums studied (205 male and 153 female), in 80% of cases the total sizes of male sternums were in the range from 230 to 260 mm, and in 90% of cases the sizes of female sternums were from 190 to 220 mm. Thus, a significantly larger part of the sternum is separated from the boundary figure of “225 mm,” which increases the reliability of sex determination.
Collarbone
Men's collarbones are usually longer than women's. According to the data of S. T. Dzhigora (1961), who studied 220 pairs of clavicles of corpses of persons aged 25 to 50 years, it follows that the length of male clavicles is in the range of 12.9-18.9 cm, female - 12.1-16 .2 cm. In 70% of cases (of the total number of clavicles measured by S. T. Dzhigora), the length of male clavicles was in the range of 14.5-16.4 cm, female - 13.5-15.4 cm. In addition to the sizes, to Diagnostic indicators of gender should also include the shape of the collarbones. There are indications in the literature that male clavicles differ from female ones in a more pronounced curvature. S. T. Jigora established that the depth of bending of the sternal end is 1.4-2.1 cm in men, 1.2-1.9 cm in women.
According to Prokop and Vamosi (1968), the sizes of the clavicles (they studied over 1000 clavicles of the corpses of men and women aged 15 to 91 years) are: for women - from 12 to 16 cm, for men - from 13 to 17 cm; the weight of women's collarbones ranges from 15 to 55 g, men's - from 21 to 77 g. When converted to a five-point system, a clavicle length of less than 13 cm corresponds to a reliable female sign; from 13.1 to 14.2 cm - female probable; from 14.3 to 15.2 cm - undefined; from 15.3 to 16.0 cm - probable male; more than 16 cm - male authentic.
3. L. Laptev (1975) studied the sexual dimorphism of 600 pairs of male and female clavicles after their maceration in natural conditions within 2-3 years. The author found that the gender difference in the clavicles is most pronounced in the width of their diaphysis, the magnitude of the bend, the width of the humeral end and the total length. By summing up these four indicators, Z. L. Laptev derived the so-called sex coefficient (PC). It turned out that its size at the right clavicles ranges from 178 to 261 mm. In this case, a PC equal to 206 mm or less is characteristic only of female clavicles, and a PC exceeding 216 mm is only characteristic of male ones (in 93% of cases). An amount from 207 to 216 mm is characteristic of both male and female clavicles. The size of the PC of the left clavicles lies in the range of 179-257 mm. PC not exceeding 212 mm is found only in women, and 218 mm or more - only in men. An amount equal to 212-217 mm was observed equally on both female and male clavicles.
Hyoid bone
Sexual features of the structure of the hyoid bone in domestic forensic medicine were first studied in detail by Yu. M. Gladyshev (1961). Using a large experimental material using a complex research method - anatomical, radiological and osteometric - the author established a number of morphological and measurement features characteristic of the hyoid bone of men and women. The morphological features of the structure include following signs: the male hyoid bone is more massive than the female one and, as a rule, has uneven contours; the body of the hyoid bone resembles a rectangle with well-defined angles;
the upper and lower edges of the body are thickened; on the front surface of the body there are clearly visible roughnesses - places of muscle attachment; the large horns of the hyoid bone in men have a massive, wide base with well-defined external projections; The contours of the hyoid bone in women are usually smoothed, the body of the bone resembles an oval.
However, all of the listed morphological features of the bone structure, according to the observations of Yu. M. Gladyshev, are not constant, and the characteristic structural features found on male hyoid bones can be observed on female ones and vice versa. An exception is the occasional complete bilateral ossification of the stylohyoid ligaments, observed only in men aged 40 years and older.
The main role in determining sex by the hyoid bone, as noted by Yu. M. Gladyshev, belongs to measuring characteristics. The author measured radiographs of 200 hyoid bones (100 male and 100 female) of cadavers of individuals aged 23 to 88 years. He used six dimensions as measuring features: the length and width of the body of the bone, the total length of the large horn, the length of the large horn from the edge of the body of the hyoid bone, the distance between the ends of the large horns and the diagonal from the middle of the lower edge of the body to the end of the large horns.
Mathematical processing of the material showed a statistically stable difference in the size of male and female hyoid bones. This allowed Yu. M. Gladyshev to recommend the method he developed for determining sex using the hyoid bone as an independent study. The final results of the measurements are presented in table. 42. Information on gender differences in the size of the hyoid bone in children and young men is presented in table. 37.
Ribs
In 1966, A.I. Turovtsev proposed osteometric data as indicators that determine the species, age and sex diagnosis of ribs. He measured complete sets of ribs from 100 male and 100 female corpses. Of the 22 measurements taken to diagnose gender, the author recommends 17, including:
1. Total arc length - the distance from the articular platform of the head to the anterior end of the middle of the outer surface (Fig. 55, I).
2. Arc length (except for the XII rib) is the distance from the corner of the rib along the middle to the front end along the outer surface (Fig. 55, 2).
3. Arc length (except for the XI-XII ribs) - the distance from the articular platform of the tubercle to the anterior end (Fig. 55, 3).
4. Length of the neck (except for the XI-XII ribs) - the distance from the articular area of ​​the head to the articular area of ​​the tubercle. Measuring tape (Fig. 55, 4).
5. Distance from the highest point of the head to the front end along the bottom edge (straight line). Vernier calipers or ruler (Fig. 55, 5).
6. Straight length (except for the XII rib) - the distance from the outer surface of the rib angle to the front end. Vernier calipers or ruler (Fig. 55, 6).
7. Straight length (except for the XI and XII ribs) - the distance from the outer surface of the tubercle to the anterior end. Measuring board (Fig. 55, 7).
8. Depth of bend (except for the XII rib) - measured simultaneously with measurement No. 6 on the measuring board by the perpendicular value from the highest point of the outer surface of the rib to measurement line No. 6 (Fig. 55, 8).
9. Bend along the plane (except for the XII rib) - the maximum perpendicular from the inner surface of the rib to dimension No. 5, connecting the highest point of the head with the anterior end along the lower edge (Fig. 55, 9).
10-13. Rib thickness: at the costal cartilage in the middle of the body, in the area of ​​the angle and neck. Calipers.
14-17. The width of the ribs is in the same places as when measuring the thickness. Calipers.
To determine sex based on the measurement characteristics listed above, A. I. Turovtsev used a system of five-point intervals developed by V. M. Kolosova (1958), and tested for the first time when assessing the sex of the skull14.
Below are tables (43-54), built according to the specified system, to determine the sex for each rib separately. Evaluation of results: if there is one or more reliably male characteristics and the remaining probable (male and partially female) ribs are determined to belong to a man. The same criteria apply to the ribs belonging to the female skeleton. If only probable signs are present, the sex of the ribs is determined by their absolute majority. Uncertain indicators are not taken into account.
Hand bones
Yu. A. Neklyudov (1965-1969), studying the x-ray anatomical method of the nail phalanges of the human hand, identified a number of indicators characterizing their gender, age and individual structural features, which have a certain significance in forensic medical identification of a person from bone remains.
So, for example, during osteometry of 16 phalanges in 100 men and 100 women, the author found that based on measurement characteristics alone (length, width of the base, width of the body and width of the head (Fig. 56) of the terminal phalanges I-V fingers hands) a reliable solution to the question of gender is: for men - 55, for women - 46%, probable: for men - 34, for women - 41%.
If all five (or several) phalanges are present, isolated from the rest of the bones of the hand, it is first established that each phalange belongs to a specific finger. In this case, one should proceed from the fact that the phalanges of the 1st and 5th fingers easily differ both from each other and from the remaining phalanges in their sizes. The phalanges of the 2nd-4th fingers are close to each other in size and shape and differ: the phalanx of the 2nd finger from the phalanges of the 3rd and 4th fingers - in the smallest width of the base (its remaining dimensions, as a rule, are also smaller). The phalanx of the 3rd finger differs from the phalanx of the 4th finger in having a larger body width and a smaller index of the ratio of body length to its width.
The average sizes of the distal phalanges of the hand are presented in table. 55. For expert practice, the results of the work are presented, like the previous author, by a system of five-point intervals, table. 56.
14 V. I. Pashkova. Determination of sex and age from the skull. Stavropol, 1958.
Similar work was done by Yu. A. Neklyudov and L. A. Koshelev (1971) in relation to the middle phalanges of the hand. The dimensions (as opposed to the distal phalanges) were set directly on the phalanges themselves using a sliding compass. At
16 The measurement of the phalanges was carried out on exactly three-fold magnified photographic prints made from radiographs. X-ray examination of the phalanges was carried out at a distance of at least 60 cm from the X-ray tube.
this determines the length, width of the body at the narrowest part, width of the head and width of the base (Fig. 56).
When using the table. 56 the results obtained are assessed as follows: if there are several reliable signs or one reliable and several probable signs in the same sex, a conclusion is made that the phalanges belong to this sex; the presence of five or more probable indicators gives grounds to make a presumptive conclusion about the belonging of the phalanges to the gender to which the probable indicators belonged; if there are less than five probable indicators in the same sex, or they are in the same number are found in both probable male and probable female intervals - no assessment is made of the gender of the phalanges.
Shoulders
In 1971, L. A. Koshelev’s work on sexual dimorphism of the shoulder blades was published. The author studied 100 male and 100 female scapulae of corpses of persons aged from 20 to 87 years using 11 measuring characteristics. The measurement was carried out according to the method proposed by V.P. Alekseev (1966) (Fig. 57). As a result, significant gender differences were established, presented in table. 57 and 58.
The boundaries of intervals both in the works of L. A. Koshelev and K). A. Neklyudov were determined by the formulas M ±  and M ±. Values ​​smaller than Mhusband -  were taken as reliable female indicators; for reliable male indicators - values ​​greater than Mfen + ; for probable female - values, identities lying within the limits (Mmale -3  - (Mmale - 2); for probable male - values ​​within the limits (Mmale + 2) - (Mmale + Z).
When experimentally testing the method, L.A. Koshelev in 80% of cases gave a categorical conclusion about the gender of the scapula, in 8% - probable, and in 12% - the result was uncertain. Moreover, if there was at least one reliable indicator out of 11, a categorical conclusion was given regarding the identity of this indicator; in the absence of a reliable sign, but in the presence of four or more probable ones, a conclusion was given in a probable form; if there were less than four probable and if the rest were uncertain, no conclusion was given about the gender of the scapula.