The bones of the skull, with the exception of the lower jaw, are tightly connected by sutures.

Cerebral the department consists of paired bones: temporal and parietal, and unpaired bones - frontal, occipital, sphenoid and ethmoid.

IN occipital bone there is a large foramen magnum. Thanks to its presence, the cranial cavity is connected to the spinal canal.

There is an opening in the temporal bone for the external auditory canal.

There are small openings in the bones of the base of the skull through which cranial nerves and blood vessels pass.

Facial department The skull consists of six paired bones:

• maxillary,
• nasal,
• tearful,
• zygomatic,
• palatal,
• inferior nasal concha,

as well as three unpaired ones:

• lower jaw,
• ploughshare,
• hyoid bone.

Skeleton of the torso

The human skeleton consists of spine and bones chest.

The spinal column contains 5 sections:

• cervical (7 vertebrae),
• chest (12),
• lumbar (5),
• sacral (5),
• coccygeal (4 - 5).

The vertebrae consist of a body and an arch, from which 7 processes extend.

The vertebral body and arches form the vertebral foramina, which, when adjusted, form the spinal canal in which the spinal cord.

The vertebrae are connected to each other by cartilage, due to which the spine is flexible.

Rib cage formed by the unpaired breast bone (sternum), 12 pairs of ribs, connected semi-movably thoracic vertebrae and sternum.

Skeleton of the upper and lower limbs

Skeleton upper limbs consists of a skeleton shoulder girdle:

• spatula,
• collarbone

And free upper limbs:

• humerus,
• two bones of the forearm: ulna and radius,
• hand bones.

Brush educated:

• wrist bones (8 bones),
• metacarpus (5 bones),
• phalanges of the fingers (the first thumb has two phalanges, the remaining fingers have three).

Skeleton lower limbs human consists of the bones of the pelvic girdle and free lower extremities.

To the pelvic girdle There are two pelvic spines, which are connected to the sacral bone on the dorsal side by inactive joints, and connected to each other in front.

Note 1

In children, the hip bone is formed by separate bones: the ilium, ischium and pubis, which are separated from each other by cartilage. They grow together to form a single bone after 16 years.

Skeleton of free lower limbs consists of:

• femur,
• patella,
• tibia (tibia and fibula),
• bones of the foot.

Stop form the bones of the tarsus (7 bones), metatarsus (5 bones) and phalanges of the fingers.

Age characteristics of bones

2/3 of the child’s bones consist of organic matter, giving them firmness and elasticity, therefore even with frequent falls in childhood Fractures are very rare.

In the bones of older people, cell division of the periosteum occurs slowly, and low content organic substances and significant inorganic substances leads to bone fragility. This is why bone fractures in older people heal slowly.

Structure of the human skeleton

The skeleton is divided into four sections: the skeleton of the body, the skeleton of the head (skull), the skeleton of the upper and lower extremities.

Skeleton of the torso

Skeleton of the torso make up spinal column And rib cage(12 pairs of ribs and breastbone):

A) Spinal column is like the axis of the whole body; it connects to the ribs, to the bones of the pelvic girdle and to the skull. There are cervical (7 vertebrae), thoracic (12 vertebrae), lumbar (5 vertebrae), sacral (5 vertebrae) and coccygeal (4-5 vertebrae) sections of the spine. The spinal column consists of 33-34 vertebrae connected to each other. The spinal column occupies about 40% of the length of the body and is its main rod, support. A vertebra consists of a vertebral body, a vertebral arch and processes. The vertebral body is located anterior to other parts.

Above and below the vertebral body has rough surfaces, which, through intervertebral cartilage, connect the bodies of individual vertebrae into a flexible, durable column. Posterior to the body is an arch, which, together with the posterior surface of the body, forms the vertebral foramen. The vertebral foramina form the spinal canal along the entire length of the spine, which houses the spinal cord. Muscles are attached to the processes of the vertebrae. Between the vertebrae are located intervertebral discs made of fibrous cartilage; they promote mobility of the spinal column.

With age, the height of the discs changes.

The process of ossification of the spinal column begins in the prenatal period and ends completely by the age of 21-23. In a newborn child, the spinal column is almost straight; the curves characteristic of an adult are only outlined and develop gradually. The first to appear is cervical lordosis (a curve with the convexity directed forward) when the child begins to hold his head (6-7 weeks). By six months, when the child begins to sit, thoracic kyphosis (curvature directed backwards) is formed. When a child begins to walk, lumbar lordosis forms. With education lumbar lordosis the center of gravity moves posteriorly, preventing the body from falling in an upright position.

The curves of the spine are specific feature human and arose in connection with the vertical position of the body. Thanks to the bends, the spinal column is springy.

Impacts and shocks when walking, running, jumping are weakened and attenuated, which protects the brain from concussions. Movements between each pair of adjacent vertebrae have a small amplitude, while the entire set of segments of the spinal column has significant mobility. In the spinal column, movements are possible around the frontal axis (flexion 160 degrees, extension 145 degrees), around the sagittal axis (abduction and adduction with an amplitude of 165 degrees), around the vertical axis (sideways rotation up to 120 degrees) and finally, springing movements due to changes in the curves of the spine.

As a person grows, bones grow in length and thickness. Bone growth in thickness occurs due to the division of cells in the inner layer of the periosteum. Young bones grow in length due to cartilage located between the body of the bone and its ends. Skeletal development in men ends at 20-25 years, in women - at 18-21 years.

b) Rib cage forms a bone base chest cavity. Consists of the sternum, 12 pairs of ribs connected at the back to the spinal column. The rib cage protects the heart, lungs, liver and serves as the attachment point for the respiratory muscles and muscles of the upper limbs. The sternum is a flat, unpaired bone located in the midline in the area of ​​the anterior chest wall. There are three parts in the sternum: the manubrium, the body and the xiphoid process, as well as the anterior (convex) and posterior (concave) surfaces.. The manubrium of the sternum on top edge has a jugular notch, on the sides of which there are clavicular notches, which participate in the formation of joints with the clavicles. On the lateral surfaces of the sternum there are 7 costal notches - the places where the cartilaginous parts of the 7 upper ribs attach to the sternum. Among them, one pair of notches is located on the lateral surfaces of the manubrium (the place of attachment of the first ribs), the second pair of costal notches is located on the border of the handle and the body (the place of attachment of the second ribs), and there is a seventh pair of costal notches on the border of the body and the xiphoid process. The xiphoid process is located in the lower part of the sternum and has a different shape. The manubrium and body of the sternum meet at a slight angle, open posteriorly.

The angle of the sternum can be easily felt and corresponds to the level of the connection with the sternum of the 2nd ribs. The manubrium and the xiphoid process are connected to each other through cartilage, which is replaced by bone tissue with age. The shape of the chest changes. Under the influence physical exercise it may become wider and more voluminous. The ribs are represented by 12 pairs of symmetrically located flat bones. Each rib has bone and cartilage parts. Bone part the ribs, longer, are supplemented with a cartilaginous part in front. The bony and cartilaginous parts of the rib are firmly fused to each other, while the periosteum of the rib at the junction of these parts passes into the perichondrium.

The bony part of the rib is a long, curved plate, which distinguishes between the head, neck and body.

Each pair of ribs is different in shape and size. The ribs at their posterior ends connect directly to the sternum; these edges are called true. The costal cartilages of the 8th, 9th and 10th ribs are attached to the cartilaginous parts of the overlying ribs; they do not have a direct connection with the sternum and therefore are called false ribs, and the 11th and 12th ribs, unlike the rest, freely end in the thickness of the muscles of the abdominal wall, they are called oscillating.

Head skeleton develops into close connection with the development of the brain, sensory organs, and the initial parts of the respiratory and digestive tracts. The skeleton of the head is the skull, the individual bones of which are divided into bones brain skull and facial bones. The bones of the skull form the base and the vault, or roof. Inside the skull there is a cavity in which the brain is located; the bones of the skull are involved in the formation of the cavities of the nose, mouth and eye sockets. The bones of the brain skull include:

1) unpaired bones: occipital, frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid;

2) paired bones: parietal, temporal. All bones of the brain skull are connected motionlessly. Inside the temporal bone is the organ of hearing; a wide auditory opening leads to it. Through the large foramen of the occipital bone, the cranial cavity connects with spinal canal. The bones of the facial skull provide support for the soft tissues of the face and limit the initial sections of the digestive and respiratory tract. The bones of the facial skull include:

1) unpaired bones: the lower jaw is the only movable bone in the skull, the hyoid bone and the vomer;

2) paired bones (most in the facial region): maxillary, palatine, zygomatic, mandibular turbinate, lacrimal and nasal bones.

In children in early age the cerebral part of the skull is more developed than the facial part. The bones of the skull grow most rapidly during the first year of life. With age, especially from 13-14 years, the facial region grows more vigorously and begins to predominate over the brain. In a newborn, the volume of the brain skull is 8 times larger than the facial one, and in an adult it is 2-2.5 times larger. In a newborn, the cranial bones are connected to each other by a soft connective tissue membrane. This membrane is especially large where several bones meet. These are fontanelles. Located at the corners of both parietal bones, forming unpaired frontal and occipital and paired anterior lateral and posterior lateral fontanelles. Thanks to the fontanelles, the bones of the roof of the skull can overlap each other with their edges. It has great value as the fetal head passes through birth canal. Small fontanelles overgrow by 2-3 months, and the largest one - the frontal one - is easily palpable and overgrown only by one and a half years.

The qualitative composition of bone changes depending on the composition of food. The outstanding Russian anatomist P.F. Lesgaft performed an interesting experiment. He fed four groups of puppies different foods: dairy, meat, mixed and vegetable. In the bones of puppies fed milk or meat, the ratio of inorganic substances was approximately 1:1. Significantly less inorganic substances in the bone with mixed diet and especially when it comes to nutrition plant foods, where this ratio is expressed as 1:2. Various composition The strength of bones also explains their strength. Animals that feed on milk have stronger, larger, and heavier bones. In puppies kept on plant-based diet, bones are softer and underdeveloped. They are more likely to experience curvatures and fractures of their limbs.

All these changes are similar to those that occur with rickets. The basis of this disease is a lack of lime and phosphorus salts in the bones. Salts are not absorbed due to lack of vitamin B and sunlight. As a result, in rachitic bone the ratio of inorganic to organic salts is 1:4, while in normal bone it is 3:1. The bones of a child with rickets are soft, the bones of the skull, pelvic girdle, chest, and lower extremities are deformed.

Bone is a complex living organ, and its life requires certain conditions of nutrition and movement.

Skeleton of the upper and lower extremities.

Humans have anatomical and functional features limbs were formed under the influence of upright walking and labor. During the process of anthropogenesis, the forelimbs lost their importance for movement (locomotion) and turned into upper limbs. Their structure was mainly influenced by labor, under the influence of which the upper limb and especially the hand adapted to labor activity, turned into an organ of labor.

The human hand is capable of not only grasping an object, as is the case in various animals, but also clasping it. Grasping is ensured by opposition thumb the remaining fingers of the hand. The lower limbs are adapted for movement and support of a vertically located body. This explains the structural features of the lower extremities: their massiveness, the appropriate location of the arch to the support. The foot has largely lost its grasping function. Despite the functional differences, the upper and lower limbs have a common structural plan. The skeleton of each limb is divided into the skeleton of the belt and the skeleton of the free limb. The upper limb includes the skeleton of the shoulder girdle and the skeleton of the free upper limb; the lower limb has a skeleton of the pelvic girdle and a skeleton of the free lower limb.

Both belts are connected to the body.

A) Upper limb skeleton: on each side there are bones of the shoulder girdle (scapula and clavicle) and bones of the free upper limb (humerus, forearm and hand bones). Bones of the shoulder girdle: *Scapula-flat triangular bone is located on the back side of the chest in the superolateral part of the body at the level of 2-7 ribs, connected to the spinal column and ribs with the help of muscles. The scapula has two surfaces (costal - anterior and dorsal - posterior), three edges and three angles. The shoulder blade connects to the collarbone. *The collarbone is a C-shaped, curved long bone that connects to the sternum and ribs. Bones of the free upper limb: *Humerus - refers to the long bones; it has a middle part (diaphysis) and two ends (upper - proximal and lower - distal epiphyses). *The bones of the forearm are the ulna, radius, also long bones; accordingly, they are distinguished between the diaphysis, proximal and distal epiphyses. *The brush includes small bones the wrists, the five long bones of the metacarpus and the bones of the fingers. The bones of the wrist form an arch, concavely facing the palm. In a newborn they are just beginning; gradually developing, they become clearly visible only by the age of seven, and the process of their ossification ends much later (at 10-13 years). By this time, ossification of the phalanges of the fingers ends. 1 finger is of particular importance due to labor function. It has great mobility and is opposed to all other fingers.

b) Skeleton of the lower limb: each side includes the bones of the pelvic girdle (pelvic bones) and the bones of the free lower limb ( femur, bones of the leg and foot). The sacrum is connected to the pelvic bones Bones of the pelvic girdle: *The pelvic bone consists of three bones - the ilium (located in the upper position), the ischium and the pubis (located at the bottom). They have bodies that fuse with each other at the age of 14-16 years in the area of ​​the acetabulum. They have round depressions into which the heads of the femoral bones of the legs enter. Bones of the free lower limb: *The femur is the most massive and longest tubular bone among the long bones of the skeleton. * Bones of the lower leg, which include the tibia and fibula, which are long bones. The first one is more massive than the second one. *The bones of the foot are formed by the bones: tarsus (proximal part of the foot skeleton), metatarsus and phalanges of the toes. The human foot forms an arch that rests on the heel bone and the anterior ends of the metatarsal bones.

There are longitudinal and transverse vaults feet. The longitudinal, springy arch of the foot is unique to humans, and its formation is associated with upright walking. The weight of the body is evenly distributed over the arch of the foot, which is of great importance when carrying heavy loads. The arch acts like a spring, softening the shock of the body when walking. The arched position of the foot bones is maintained a large number strong articular ligaments. With prolonged standing and sitting, carrying heavy loads, or wearing narrow shoes, the ligaments are stretched, which leads to flattening of the foot, and then they say that flat feet have developed. Rickets can also contribute to the development of flat feet.

Connection of bones: fixed, semi-movable, joints

1) Fixed (continuous) connection occurs through their fusion, is characterized by a limited range of movements and relatively little or no mobility. Depending on the nature of the tissue that connects the bones, continuous connections are divided into three types: syndesmoses - the connection of bones with connective tissue (ligaments connecting bones to each other, membranes, sutures), synchondrosis - the connection of bones with cartilaginous tissue (which can be 2 species: hyaline and fibrous cartilage) and synostosis - the connection of bones with the help of bone tissue, this is the result of the fusion of previously separated bones or their parts (fusion of the diaphysis with the epiphyses in an adult and the formation of a long bone).

2) Semi-mobile(half-joints) - this is a transitional form of connections between continuous and discontinuous. In semi-joints between the bones there is cartilage tissue, in the thickness of which there is a cavity, there is no articular capsule and articular surfaces, covered with cartilage (the pubic symphysis, the connection of the sacrum with the body of 1 coccygeal vertebra).

3) Movable bone connections are more common; they are provided by true joints. The articulating ends of the bones are covered with hyaline cartilage 0.2-0.6 mm thick. This cartilage is elastic and has a smooth shiny surface. Which significantly reduces friction between the bones and thereby facilitates their movement. The area of ​​bone articulation is surrounded articular capsule(capsule) made of very dense connective tissue. The outer, fibrous layer of the capsule is strong and firmly connects the articulating bones to each other. The inner layer of the capsule is covered with a synovial membrane lining the joint cavity.

The synovial fluid found in the joint cavity acts as a lubricant and also helps reduce friction. Externally, the joint is strengthened by ligaments consisting of dense connective tissue.

Books:

X-ray anatomical atlas of the skeleton. Norm, options, interpretation errors. An indispensable reference book for your work.

Human skeleton and muscles. There is also . The Facts On File illustrated guide to the human body. Skeletal and muscular systems. A brief illustrated guide to the anatomy, physiology, health and dysfunction of the musculoskeletal system.

The human skeleton is an amazing system of bones that allows us to run, jump, walk, and move. He protects ours internal organs from damage and serves as a framework for the entire body.
One of the most important parts of the skeleton is axial skeleton, or rather even a part of it, called the “skeleton of the torso” of a person (see photo on the left). For those who are interested in the structure of the skeleton, we will tell you and clearly show in pictures what it consists of.

The structure of the human torso skeleton

The description of the human torso skeleton is very simple, because it is formed by only two groups of bones - the rib cage and the spinal column. Essentially, the spinal column is the rod on which all other parts of the body are “attached”. Remember the children's toy “pyramid” - a stick on which you had to put round disks? The spinal column is something similar. The spinal column is the central axis of our body. The nerve canal (spinal cord) passes through it and is attached to shoulder girdle, head, hip joint and... of course the chest! The human chest can be compared to armor that protects our vital organs - the heart and lungs.

What does the spinal column consist of?

On the right in the picture you see part of the human skeleton, his spinal column. It is usually divided into 5 departments, here they are:
1 - cervical (7 vertebrae)
2 – thoracic (12 vertebrae)
3 – lumbar (5 vertebrae)
4 – sacral (5 vertebrae)
5 – coccygeal (3 or 5 vertebrae)
A very curious fact is that the coccygeal region can consist of a different number of vertebrae, depending on whether they are fused or not.
The spinal column has a natural curvature, bends that form in children, starting from birth. The bends are called “Lordosis” and “Kyphosis”. Lordosis is a forward bending (neck and lower back), and Kyphosis is a backward bending of the spinal column (chest and).

What does the rib cage consist of?

The rib cage is made up of 12 flat bones - the ribs, the sternum (the bone in the front to which the ribs are attached), and the thoracic vertebrae (to which the ribs are attached to the back).
Ribs can be divided into 3 groups according to their meaning:
1 - true (7 edges)
2 - false (3 ribs)
3 - oscillating (2 ribs)
The true ribs are attached to the sternum. False ribs are shorter, they are attached to the true ribs, never reaching the sternum. And the tips of the oscillating ribs remain free; these ribs are the most mobile.
The rib cage is a unique group of bones. It can be deformed during our breathing while at the same time remaining rigid. To ensure that your child’s chest is formed correctly, make sure that he sits correctly at his desk and table. Avoid developing the habit of writing “lying on your desk,” as this will contribute to the formation of a flat chest.

What are "ribs" called in Latin?
In Latin and Greek the edge is called COSTA. Doesn't it sound similar to the familiar word "BONE"?

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Human anatomy (from the Greek ανά, aná up and τομή, tomé cut) the science of origin and development, forms and structure human body. Human anatomy studies external forms and proportions of the human body and its parts, individual organs, them... ... Wikipedia

The fundamental processes of genetic variation, adaptation and selection that underlie the vast diversity of organic life also determine the course of human evolution. The study of the processes of formation of man as a species, as well as... ... Collier's Encyclopedia

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Human skeleton The human skeleton (skeletos, Greek dried) is a collection of bones, the passive part of the musculoskeletal system. Serves as a support for soft tissues, a point of application of muscles (lever system), a container and protection for internal organs.... ... Wikipedia

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What composition does a human bone have, their name in certain parts of the skeleton and other information you will learn from the materials of the presented article. In addition, we will tell you how they are connected to each other and what function they perform.

General information

The presented organ of the human body consists of several tissues. The most important of them is bone. So, let's look together at the composition of human bones and their physical properties.

It consists of two main chemicals: organic (ossein) - about 1/3 and inorganic (calcium salts, phosphate of lime) - about 2/3. If such an organ is exposed to a solution of acids (for example, nitric, hydrochloric, etc.), then the lime salts will quickly dissolve, and ossein will remain. It will also retain the shape of the bone. However, it will become more elastic and soft.

If the bone is burned well, it will burn, but inorganic ones, on the contrary, will remain. They will maintain the shape of the skeleton and its hardness. Although, in this case, human bones (photo presented in this article) will become very fragile. Scientists have proven that the elasticity of this organ depends on the ossein it contains, and its hardness and elasticity depend on mineral salts.

Features of human bones

The combination of organic and inorganic substances makes human bone unusually strong and elastic. They are also fully convinced of this age-related changes. After all, young children have much more ossein than adults. In this regard, their bones are particularly flexible, and therefore rarely break. As for old people, the ratio of inorganic and organic substances changes in favor of the former. This is why the bone of an elderly person becomes more fragile and less elastic. As a result, old people experience a lot of fractures even with minor injuries.

Human bone anatomy

The structural unit of an organ, which is visible at low magnification of a microscope or through a magnifying glass, is a peculiar system of bone plates located concentrically around the central canal through which nerves and vessels pass.

It should be especially noted that the osteons do not adhere closely to each other. Between them there are spaces that are filled with bone interstitial plates. In this case, osteons are not arranged randomly. They fully correspond to the functional load. So, in tubular bones osteons are parallel to the length of the bone, in spongy bones they are perpendicular to the vertical axis. And in flat ones (for example, in the skull) - its surfaces are parallel or radial.

What layers do human bones have?

Osteons, together with interstitial plates, form the main middle layer of bone tissue. From the inside it is completely covered with an inner layer of bone plates, and on the outside - by the surrounding one. It should be noted that the entire last layer is penetrated by blood vessels that come from the periosteum through special channels. By the way, larger skeletal elements, visible to the naked eye on an x-ray or on a cut, also consist of osteons.

So, let's look at the physical properties of all bone layers:

• The first layer is strong bone tissue.
• The second is connective, which covers the bone from the outside.
• The third layer is loose connective tissue, serving as a kind of “clothing” for blood vessels that fit the bone.
• The fourth is that covering the ends of the bones. It is in this place that these organs increase their growth.
• The fifth layer consists of nerve endings. In case of problems of this element receptors send a kind of signal to the brain.

The human bone, or rather its entire internal space, is filled with yellow). Red is directly related to bone formation and hematopoiesis. As you know, it is completely permeated with vessels and nerves that nourish not only itself, but also all the internal layers of the organ represented. Yellow bone marrow promotes skeletal growth and strengthening.

What are the different shapes of bones?

Depending on location and functions, they can be:

• Long or tubular. Such elements have a middle cylindrical part with a cavity inside and two wide ends, which are covered with a thick layer of cartilage (for example, human leg bones).
• Wide. These are the pectoral and pelvic bones, as well as the bones of the skull.
• Short. Such elements are distinguished by irregular, multifaceted and rounded shapes (for example, carpal bones, vertebrae, etc.).

How are they connected?

The human skeleton (we will look at the names of the bones below) is a set of individual bones that are connected to each other. This or that order of these elements depends on their direct functions. There are discontinuous and continuous connections of human bones. Let's look at them in more detail.

Continuous connections. These include:

• Fibrous. The bones of the human body are connected to each other using a lining of dense connective tissue.
• Bony (that is, the bone is completely fused).
• Cartilaginous (intervertebral discs).

Intermittent connections. These include synovial, that is, between the articulating parts there is an articular cavity. Bones are held in place by a closed capsule and supporting muscle tissue and ligaments.

Thanks to these features, the arms, bones of the lower extremities and the torso as a whole are capable of moving the human body. However motor activity people depends not only on the compounds presented, but also on the nerve endings and bone marrow that are contained in the cavity of these organs.

Skeletal functions

In addition to mechanical functions that maintain shape human body, the skeleton provides the ability to move and protect internal organs. In addition, it is a site of hematopoiesis. So, in bone marrow new blood cells are formed.

Among other things, the skeleton is a kind of repository for most of the body's phosphorus and calcium. That's why he plays vital role in the metabolism of minerals.

Human skeleton with bones name

The adult human skeleton consists of approximately 200-odd elements. Moreover, each part of it (head, arms, legs, etc.) includes several types of bones. It should be noted that their name and physical features vary significantly.

Head bones

The human skull consists of 29 parts. Moreover, each section of the head includes only certain bones:

1. Brain department, consisting of eight elements:

2. The facial region consists of fifteen bones:

• palatine bone (2 pcs.);
• vomer;
• (2 pcs.);
• upper jaw (2 pcs.);
• nasal bone (2 pcs.);
• lower jaw;
• lacrimal bone (2 pcs.);
• inferior nasal concha (2 pcs.);
• hyoid bone.

3. Middle ear bones:

• hammer (2 pcs.);
• anvil (2 pcs.);
• stirrup (2 pcs.).

Torso

Human bones, the names of which almost always correspond to their location or appearance, are the easiest organs to study. So, various fractures or other pathologies are quickly identified using a diagnostic method such as radiography. It should be especially noted that some of the largest human bones are the bones of the torso. These include the entire spinal column, which consists of 32-34 individual vertebrae. Depending on the functions and location they are divided into:

• thoracic vertebrae (12 pcs.);
• cervical (7 pieces), including epistropheus and atlas;
• lumbar (5 pcs.).

In addition, the bones of the body include the sacrum, coccyx, rib cage, ribs (12 × 2) and sternum.

All of these skeletal elements are designed to protect internal organs from possible external influence(bruises, blows, punctures, etc.). It should also be noted that in case of fractures, the sharp ends of the bones can easily damage soft fabrics body, which will entail severe internal hemorrhage, most often leading to fatal outcome. In addition, the fusion of such organs requires much more time than for those located in the lower or upper extremities.

Upper limbs

The bones of the human hand include the most large number small elements. Thanks to this skeleton of the upper limbs, people are able to create household items, use them, etc. Like the spinal column, the human arms are also divided into several sections:

• Shoulder - humerus (2 pieces).
• Forearm - ulna (2 pieces) and radius(2 pieces).
• Brush that includes:
  - wrist (8 × 2), consisting of the scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum and pisiform bones, as well as the trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate;
  - metacarpus, consisting of metacarpal bone(5 × 2);
  - finger bones (14 × 2), consisting of three phalanges (proximal, middle and distal) in each finger (except the thumb, which has 2 phalanges).

All the human bones presented, the names of which are quite difficult to remember, allow you to develop hand motor skills and perform simple movements that are extremely necessary in everyday life.

It should be especially noted that the constituent elements of the upper extremities are most often subject to fractures and other injuries. However, such bones also grow together faster than others.

Lower limbs

The bones of the human leg also include a large number of small elements. Depending on their location and functions, they are divided into the following departments:

• Lower limb belt. This includes pelvic bone, which consists of the ischium and pubis.
• The free part of the lower limb, consisting of the hips (femur - 2 pieces; patella - 2 pieces).
• Shin. Consists of tibia(2 pieces) and fibula (2 pieces).
• Foot.
• Tarsus (7 × 2). It consists of two bones each: calcaneus, talus, navicular, medial sphenoid, intermediate sphenoid, lateral sphenoid, cuboid.
• Metatarsus, consisting of metatarsal bones(5 × 2).
• Finger bones (14 × 2). Let's list them: middle phalanx(4 × 2), proximal phalanx (5 × 2) and distal phalanx (5 × 2).

The most common bone disease

Experts have long established that it is osteoporosis. It is this deviation that most often causes sudden fractures, as well as pain. Unofficial name the disease presented sounds like a “silent thief.” This is due to the fact that the disease proceeds unnoticed and extremely slowly. Calcium is gradually washed out of the bones, which entails a decrease in their density. By the way, osteoporosis often occurs in old age or adulthood.

Aging bones

As mentioned above, in old age the human skeletal system undergoes significant changes. On the one hand, bone thinning begins and the number of bone plates decreases (which leads to the development of osteoporosis), and on the other hand, excess formations in the form bone growths(or so-called osteophytes). Calcification of articular ligaments, tendons and cartilage also occurs at the site of their attachment to these organs.

Aging of the osteoarticular apparatus can be determined not only by the symptoms of the pathology, but thanks to this diagnostic method, like radiography.

What changes occur as a result of bone substance atrophy? Such pathological conditions include:

• Deformation of the articular heads (or the so-called disappearance of their rounded shape, grinding of the edges and the appearance of corresponding angles).
• Osteoporosis. When examined on an x-ray, the bone of a sick person looks more transparent than that of a healthy person.

It should also be noted that patients often exhibit changes in bone joints due to excessive deposition of lime in the adjacent cartilaginous and connective tissue tissues. As a rule, such deviations are accompanied by:

• Narrowing of the articular x-ray gap. This occurs due to calcification of the articular cartilage.
• Strengthening the relief of the diaphysis. This pathological condition accompanied by calcification of the tendons at the site of bone attachment.
• Bone growths, or osteophytes. This disease is formed due to calcification of the ligaments at the site of their attachment to the bone. It should be especially noted that such changes are especially well identified in the hand and spine. In the remaining parts of the skeleton, 3 main ones can be traced X-ray sign aging. These include osteoporosis, narrowing of joint spaces and increased bone relief.

For some people, these symptoms of aging may appear early (around 30-45 years old), while for others they may appear late (around 65-70 years old) or not appear at all. All the changes described are completely logical normal manifestations of activity. skeletal system at an older age.

• Few people know, but the hyoid bone is the only bone in the human body that is in no way connected to the others. Topographically, it is located on the neck. However, traditionally it is classified as facial area skulls Thus, the hyoid element of the skeleton is suspended from its bones with the help of muscle tissue and connected to the larynx.
• The longest and strong bone skeleton is the femur.
• The smallest bone in the human skeleton is located in the middle ear.