International economic relations

The main forms of international economic relations are:

International trade in goods and services;

International capital migration and international credit;

International monetary relations;

International labor migration:

International scientific and technical relations.

Historically, the primary and most important type of international economic relations is world trade. According to modern classification foreign trade activities divided into trade in finished products, machinery and equipment; raw materials; services.

The emergence of the world market was accompanied by the development of theories of international trade. A. Smith formulated the provisions of the theory of absolute advantage. According to this theory, goods should be imported from a country where the production costs of any goods are lower, and those goods should be exported whose costs are lower for exporters.

D. Ricardo substantiated the theory of comparative advantage, which still occupies a central place in studies of foreign economic interaction. According to this theory, a necessary prerequisite for foreign trade is the production of the same product with different comparative costs in different countries. Each country specializes in the production of those goods for which its costs are relatively lower, although absolute costs may be higher than abroad. Riccardo illustrated his theory with the following example: suppose that in England the production of 25 m of cloth requires the labor of 100 workers over the course of a year. For this amount of cloth, England can purchase 50 liters of wine in Portugal, the own production of which would require the labor of 120 workers for a year. Portugal employs 90 and 80 people per year respectively to produce the same quantities of cloth and wine. If we calculate the comparative costs of cloth and wine for England and Spain, it turns out that it is profitable for England to import wine in exchange for cloth, and for Portugal - cloth in exchange for wine.

D. Ricardo's theory was developed and supplemented by modern economists. The American economist E. Haberler put forward the theory of opportunity costs, in which to determine the comparative advantages in the production of similar goods in different countries

the basis is the volume of production of one product, which has to be reduced to produce another (provided that all resources and the best technology are used).

In the 30s of the twentieth century it was created new theory international trade, named after its creators - Swedish scientists Eli Heckscher and Bertel Ohlin. This theory was developed and mathematically refined by Paul Samuelson. Therefore, it is often called the Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theory. This model considers the ratio of factors of production. Countries are differently endowed with labor resources, capital, and land. If a country is abundantly endowed with labor (low wages), then labor-intensive goods will be cheaper, and she will export them. In countries with excess capital, capital-intensive goods will be cheaper. She will take them out.

The Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theory was developed by V. Leontiev, who discovered the inconsistency of this theory with the real situation in the United States, whose exports were dominated by labor-intensive goods and imports by capital-intensive goods. This fact was called the “Leontief paradox”. V. Leontiev proved that this contradiction can be resolved if the analysis takes into account more than two factors of production.

A special place in international trade studies in recent decades has been occupied by theories reflecting the influence scientific and technological progress, for example, M. Posner’s technology gap model. This model considers as the cause of international trade technological changes that occur in individual countries, which as a result acquire comparative advantages and receive additional profits by exporting a new product.

Since ancient times, the state has been actively intervening in international trade relations and regulating them in order to obtain the greatest benefits for the national economy. Trade policy is a variant of the state's fiscal policy. Historically, two types of government policies in foreign trade have developed:

protectionism and free trade policies.

Protectionism (from Latin - defense) is a policy of protecting national producers from foreign competitors. Its essence is to limit the import of goods from abroad and stimulate the export of domestic goods. This policy developed in the era of primitive accumulation of capital, when the formation of national production in various countries took place.

The most important instruments of such a policy are taxes on exports and imports - tariffs, customs duties, non-tariff barriers, and export support.

Customs duties are taxes levied by government agencies (customs services) on goods transported through state border goods at customs tariffs. Customs tariff - a list of goods on which duties are levied, indicating rates customs tax per unit of goods.

Non-tariff restrictions include import quotas, import licensing, outright bans on the import of certain goods, the use of strict quality standards and norms, sanitary and veterinary requirements in relation to undesirable goods.

Export support is a system of government assistance in promoting goods to world markets, including tax benefits, cheap loans, political and legal support.

Foreign trade policy measures to conquer markets also include dumping - the sale of goods at artificially low prices.

Free trade policy or free trade means the free movement of goods and services between countries without trade barriers. For the first time, this form of foreign trade policy arose in England, which, as a result of the industrial revolution, became the first world power and ceased to be afraid of competition from other, less developed countries at that time.

The participation of countries in foreign trade relations modifies the structure of the gross product of society. In a closed economy it is calculated by the formula GNP = C + I + G. IN open economy when calculating it, it is necessary to take into account net exports - the difference between exports and imports GNP = C + I + G + EX. This ratio is also called the trade balance. It reflects the relationship between cash receipts and payments for commodity transactions.

This ratio can be passive when imports exceed exports. In this situation, the country becomes a debtor to the world economy, the size of the gross product of society decreases by the amount of the trade deficit. The trade balance can be active if exports exceed imports, as well as equilibrium when exports equal imports.

Net exports, like other components of total expenditure, have a multiplier effect on national income and gross product.

Passive trade balance does not always mean an outflow of monetary reserves from the country. The balance of payments, which characterizes the ratio of the amounts of payments made by the country abroad during a certain time, and the amounts received into the country during the same period, allows a more complete reflection of the country's participation in international economic relations. The balance of payments covers the following types of payments and receipts:

Cash payments and receipts from commodity transactions;

Payments and receipts for services: chartering ships, servicing them in ports, postal, insurance, engineering, etc. services):

Cash flows associated with the movement of capital and loans: investments, payments and receipts on loans, deposits, profits, etc.;

Calculations for the maintenance of diplomatic services, money transfers, pensions, foreign tourism, etc.

Current Account;

Capital account;

Change in official reserves.

The balance of payments (the difference between foreign income and expenses) can be active (income exceeds expenses) and passive (expenses exceed income). Negative balance the trade balance can be offset by a positive balance of other payments and receipts included in the country’s balance of payments.

An important form of international economic relations is international credit - the provision of monetary or commodity resources by countries to each other on the basis of payment, repayment and urgency. Lenders and borrowers can be states (represented by governments and institutions), banks, firms, other legal entities and individuals, as well as international organizations (IMF, World Bank).

International credit has important macroeconomic significance. It promotes the growth of international trade, facilitates international payments, and means the emergence of additional financial sources for solving national problems(used to cover the state budget deficit), allows you to regulate the balance of payments, helps support the national currency and fight inflation. At the same time, if a country receives too many loans, it can turn it into an insolvent debtor, undermine its socio-economic development, and make it dependent on creditors.

Of great importance in the modern world economy is

international movement of capital - its movement from one country to another. The reasons for the export of capital are: their low profitability in their own country and more favorable investment conditions abroad; pooling the capital of firms from different countries to implement large projects. The incentives for the import of capital are: the opportunity to obtain additional loans, expansion of production through foreign investment, and therefore obtaining new jobs, access to modern scientific and technical achievements.

There are types of capital export: private, state, international. Forms of exported capital: loan and entrepreneurial capital, which, in turn, is exported in portfolio form (investments in shares, bonds and other securities foreign enterprises), as well as in the form of direct investment in production in host countries.

The export of capital is associated with the emergence of transnational corporations (TNCs), large international companies,

operating in several countries where they have a network of branches and facilities. It is TNCs that largely carry out the internationalization of economic life, although their activities may also have negative consequences: monopolization of markets, redistribution of income, etc.

International economic relations are accompanied by the movement of money, which is called international monetary relations. Currency (from the Italian valuta - value) is the country's monetary unit used in international circulation. Currencies are divided into different types. By representation, national, foreign and collective currencies are distinguished. According to reversibility, currencies are divided into convertible, partially convertible and irreversible. Convertibility (convertibility) of a currency is its ability to be exchanged for the currencies of other countries.

Exchange rate is the price monetary unit one country, expressed in monetary units of other countries.

The nominal exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another.

The real exchange rate is the proportion of exchange of goods in two countries. Measured by the formula:

where Er = En Pd / Рf where Er is the real exchange rate; En - nominal exchange rate;

Pd - index (level) of domestic prices in national currency;

Рf - index (level) of prices abroad in foreign currency.

Based on this ratio, it is possible to assess the impact of changes in the exchange rate on foreign trade and domestic consumption.

The high real exchange rate of the national currency makes imported goods relatively cheap and national ones relatively expensive. Consumers prefer foreign goods, and the export of national goods is difficult.

The low real exchange rate of the national currency stimulates exports from the country and causes an increase in prices for imported goods. The population prefers domestic goods.

Depending on the currency regulation regime, the following types of exchange rates are distinguished: fixed (based on gold parity or purchasing power); free floating; controlled floating; target zone rate (currency corridor); mixed course.

State regulation of exchange rates is carried out through foreign exchange interventions (state intervention in trading on the foreign exchange market); control over foreign trade (regulation of export and import); exchange control (for example, the obligation of exporting firms to sell part of their foreign exchange earnings): internal macroeconomic regulation

through monetary and fiscal policies.

Forms of international economic relations

The world economy or world economy is the totality of national economies of individual countries, connected by the system international economic relations. The world economy as an integral system emerged at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. as a result of the strengthening of the international division of labor and the creation of international corporations: first, MNCs - transnational corporations, the capital structure of which contains capital from different countries; and then TNCs - transnational corporations that are mononational in the nature of capital, but operating in different countries.

The unification of national economies into a single world economy is based on the international division of labor (ILD). MRI is the concentration of production certain types products in the economy of certain countries for the purpose of subsequent profitable sale on the world market. The essence of MRI is manifested in the dynamic unity of two production processes - its dismemberment, i.e. specialization (subject, sub-detail, unit, technological) and association, i.e. cooperation of a dismembered process. In other words, MRT is a method of simultaneous division and combination of labor, which makes it possible to increase the efficiency of the national economy.

Using the principles of MRI, each country, based on its own favorable conditions, finds a product for global consumption. Thus, the producing country benefits from MRI in the form of additional profits, and the consuming countries benefit in the form of satisfying certain needs, which cannot be done without such a division of labor.

World economic relations begin with foreign trade, which, as it develops, shapes the world market and gives rise to other forms of global economic cooperation. Among the most important forms of the world economic ties currently include: 1) world trade in goods and services; 2) movement of capital and foreign investments; 3) labor migration; 4) exchange in the field of science, technology and technology; 5) currency and credit relations; 6) international production cooperation; 7) economic integration; 8) the activities of international economic organizations and their cooperation with national authorities in solving global problems.

International trade is one of the most developed and traditional forms of international economic relations. The expansion of international trade is closely related to the globalization of the world economy, as a result of which international commodity flows acquire enormous proportions and cover all regions of the world. A significant impact on the development of international trade is exerted by the activities of TNCs, which form their own domestic markets, determining within their framework the conditions, scales and directions of commodity flows, prices for goods and overall strategy development. There is intense competition in the field of international trade, since the interests of almost all subjects of the world economy collide here.

International trade consists of two oppositely directed flows - exports and imports. Export - export of goods abroad for their sale on the foreign market. Import is the import of goods into a country for their sale on the domestic market. The difference between a country's exports and imports is called the trade balance.

One of the features of the world market is that the price of goods here is formed on an international scale based on the national values of those countries that are the main suppliers. of this product to the world market. As in the domestic market, the world price of an individual product deviates from the market value under the influence of supply and demand.

Formation of international market price has certain differences from the formation of prices on the domestic market. This happens because the flow (movement) of funds between countries is far from free. In addition, the most competitive products with low costs and better consumer properties are supplied to international exchange. This is due to the fact that for the production of export goods, as a rule, the most advanced technologies are used and the features of natural conditions are intensively used.

International trade is based on specialization and comparative costs or advantages. Foreign trade is the mechanism by which countries can, by developing specialization, increase the productivity of resource use and thus increase production and income. The principle of comparative advantage states that total output will be greatest when each good is produced in the country that has lower imputed or opportunity cost. It follows that the country exports those goods, the production of which is based on factors of production that are surplus to it, and imports goods for the production of which it is less endowed with other factors of production (Heckscher-Ohlin theory).

Let’s assume that using all its resources, country “A” can produce either 30 tons of wheat or 30 tons of sugar, and country “B” can produce either 20 tons of sugar or 10 tons of wheat. To meet its own needs, country "A" requires 18 tons of wheat and 12 tons of sugar, and country "B" needs 8 tons of wheat and 4 tons of sugar. Exchange proportions within countries: “A” - 1 ton of wheat = 1 ton of sugar; “B” - 1 t of wheat = 2 t of sugar.

If countries specialize, then "A" will produce 30 tons of wheat, and "B" will produce 20 tons of sugar. The proportion of world exchange will most likely be established at the level of 1 ton of wheat = 1.5 tons of sugar. Given the proportions of world exchange, country A will export wheat and import sugar, and country B will do the opposite. Both countries will benefit.

The state of a country's foreign economic activity for a certain period of time is reflected in the balance of payments, which shows the total ratio of payments for all types of transactions abroad and from abroad. An integral part The balance of payments is the trade balance, which evaluates the amount of exports, imports and foreign trade turnover as the sum of exports and imports, as well as the nature of the trade balance.

Despite the obvious benefits of free global trade, there are a large number of obstacles in its way in the form of duties, quotas, non-tariff barriers (licenses, additional quality standards, environmental friendliness), as well as voluntary export restrictions. The motive for all these restrictions is to obtain additional income for certain groups of people (officials or entrepreneurs). The price of such restrictions is a reduction in production volumes and limitation of consumption by the population.

Historically, in the practice of world trade, there have been two approaches to its regulation - protectionism and free trade. Protectionism is a government policy aimed at encouraging the development of domestic production, protecting it from foreign competition and expanding foreign markets. The most important means of this policy are customs duties. The opposite of protectionism is the policy of free trade (free trade), which is pursued by industrialized countries and the essence of which boils down to the implementation of free trade and non-interference of the state in private entrepreneurial activity. The most important tool This policy is the abolition or reduction of customs duties.

The main trend in global economic development is the liberalization of international trade policy norms. For this purpose, “legislation” is being formed in world trade to regulate the relations of trading partners. In modern conditions, such work is carried out within the framework of the WTO (World Trade Organization).

Another radical means of liberalizing foreign trade is the creation of regional unions and markets such as the EU or CIS.

Despite significant progress in the liberalization of foreign trade, protectionism has not become a thing of history, as evidenced by the outbreak of trade wars between different countries in different markets.

Questions for self-control:

1. Basic forms of international economic relations.

2. What is the international division of labor?

3. Define the concepts of “export”, “import”, “trade balance”.

4. Name the types of foreign trade policy of the state.

The integrity of the world economy is ensured by the fact that there is a system of international economic relations, the main of which are: international trade in goods and services, export of capital, international migration of labor, international scientific and technical cooperation, international monetary relations, international economic integration.

The most important and historically very first element in the system of world economic relations is international trade , which is a set of transactions for the exchange of goods and services between countries.

Among the main reasons causing international trade are the uneven distribution and provision of different countries with economic resources, the presence in different countries of different technologies with different levels of efficiency.

Trade relations between countries are based on principle of comparative advantage . According to this principle, a country specializes in the production of those goods that it can produce at relatively lower costs compared to other countries. Thus, it is beneficial for each state to export abroad a product in the production of which it has a comparative advantage, and to import from abroad a product that is produced in this country relatively less efficiently. It follows that international trade includes two interconnected process: export , or export, and import , or import. The total amount of exports and imports of goods and services forms foreign trade turnover.

The real benefits (or real losses) that international trade brings are reflected in the country's balance of payments . Balance of payments is the ratio of payments abroad (for imported goods and services) and receipts from abroad (for exported goods and services) for a certain period of time. If receipts exceed payments, then the balance of payments of a given country is active; if the difference between these payments and receipts is negative, then the balance is passive. The difference between receipts from abroad (the amount of exports) and payments abroad (the amount of imports) is called balance of payments .

The relationship between exports and imports is regulated by the state through a policy of protectionism and free trade. Protectionism is a policy aimed at protecting the national economy from foreign goods and limiting imports. Protectionist policy has the following directions:

· organization of customs taxation, providing for high customs duties on imports finished products and lower – for export;

· establishment of non-tariff barriers, which include contingent (establishing a certain quota, or share, for the export or import of certain goods), licensing (obtaining permission to carry out foreign economic activity) and state monopoly (establishment of the exclusive right of state bodies to carry out certain types of foreign economic activity).

Free trade, or free trade policy, is the opposite of protectionism. It is based on liberalization, the essence of which is that the state aims to open the domestic market to foreign goods and services in order to increase competition in the domestic market. At the same time, it is assumed that national enterprises will withstand competition.

In real life, modern states combine both free trade and protectionism in their foreign economic policies.

International trade has great importance for the life of the world economy, which is as follows:

· with its help, the limited national resource base is overcome;

· it expands the capacity of the domestic market and establishes connections between the national market and the world market;

· thanks to it, it ensures the receipt of additional income due to the difference in national and international production costs;

· it helps to expand the scale of production by attracting foreign resources.

Several areas can be distinguished in the international trade activities of the Republic of Belarus: developing export opportunities and meeting import needs; attracting foreign investment and creating joint ventures in order to introduce new technologies and produce new types of products; creation of additional jobs; mastering the production of products that are competitive on the world market; formation of extensive credit relations with foreign governmental and non-governmental organizations.

The Republic of Belarus carries out foreign trade operations with more than 100 countries and the list of these countries is constantly expanding. The main trading partners of Belarus are Russia and other CIS countries, Germany, Poland, USA, Hungary, Brazil, France. Among the main items of Belarusian exports are: mineral and nitrogen fertilizers, tractors, gas stoves, refrigerators, televisions, light industrial products, fiberglass.

The international economic organization that regulates trade relations between various countries is World Trade Organization (WTO) . The WTO regulates about 90% of global trade. The purpose of the WTO is to establish fair conditions of competition between producers, reduce the level of import duties, eliminate non-tariff barriers, and expand international exchange.

The second form of international economic relations is export of capital , which is the export of capital by legal entities and individuals for the purpose of more profitable placement or use.

Among the main reasons causing the movement of capital from one country to another are the following:

· overaccumulation of capital, that is, the formation of its relative surplus in a country where it cannot find highly profitable use;

· the opportunity for capital owners to use in economically less developed countries factors of production that are relatively cheap compared to domestic ones (low wages, low prices for raw materials, water, energy);

· increased demand for capital in the countries where it is exported, which is ensured by uneven economic development various states. At the same time, in countries that are in need of foreign investment, more favorable conditions are created for this purpose: bank interest rates and dividends are increased, special benefits and guarantees for the profitable use of imported capital are provided.

Thus, purpose of capital export is to obtain a higher rate of profit in another country due to the advantages associated with its use here compared to national economic conditions. There are two forms of capital export: entrepreneurial and loan.

Entrepreneurial capital exported either to create their own production abroad in the form of direct investment, or to invest money in local companies in the form of portfolio investment. Direct investments in fact, they provide complete control over objects of foreign investment. Newly established or acquired ready-made enterprises become branches of a main company located in another country, which forms the center of an international production association. Portfolio investments consist in the acquisition of shares of foreign enterprises in amounts that do not provide ownership or control over them. Such investments are made when they seek to place their funds in different sectors of the economy or when the legislation of the host country prevents direct investment.

Loan capital exported in the form of loans, or credits that bring interest.

The consequences of the export of capital for the country importing capital are ambiguous. On the one hand, it contributes to the development of the economy of a given country. On the other hand, foreign capital supports the beneficial, one-sided, mainly raw materials, development of the national economy of the country where the capital is imported.

On the basis of the export of capital and the creation of enterprises in other countries, the internationalization and transnationalization of capital and the creation of transnational corporations (TNCs) occur.

TNK is an enterprise that:

1. Has subsidiaries in two or more countries.

2. Has a decision-making system that allows economic policy to be implemented from one or more centers.

3. Provides this connection subsidiaries that each of them influences the activities of the others.

TNCs noticeably change the structure of all world trade, largely subordinating it to their interests, because they are:

· technical leaders of global production;

· active competitors in the field of access to foreign natural resources;

· the most mobile entrepreneurs in the struggle for new, including foreign, markets.

In the global economy, there are about 40 thousand TNCs with unlimited economic power. Among them are the following: the American corporations "EXON" (oil refining), "IBM" (computer equipment), "BOING" (aircraft manufacturing) and "GENERAL MOTORS" (automotive industry), the Anglo-Dutch corporation "ROYAL DUTCH SHELL" ( oil refining), Japanese "HITACHI" (electronics). TNCs control about 50% of global industrial production; 90% of the world market for wheat, corn, timber, tobacco; 85% of the copper and bauxite market. They own 80% of all world patents and licenses.

The modern export of capital is characterized by the following features:

1. Increasing the scale of export of productive capital with direct investment in the field of new technologies.

2. In the export of capital, carried out mainly between highly developed countries.

3. The increasing role of developing countries as exporters of capital.

The next form of international economic relations is international labor migration . It represents the movement of the country's working population outside its borders.

Among the main reasons for migration are the following:

· economic (decrease in demand for labor and the growth of its supply, the growth of demand for highly qualified specialists in developed countries ah, interstate differences in wages);

· foreign economic (demographic, political, religious, national, cultural, family, etc.).

There are the following types of international labor migration:

1. Permanent or irrevocable , that is, relocation with a change of residence.

2. Cyclic or periodic , that is, moving by certain period with a return to their previous place of residence.

3. Pendulum or shuttle , which is the regular movement of the population to work or study from one country to another and back.

4. Adjustable , based on the organized recruitment and regulation of specialists.

5. Unregulated , which consists in independent movement of the population (family reunification, moving to the previous place of residence after the end of the employment contract).

6. Legal carried out in accordance with current legislation.

7. Illegal , contrary to current legislation.

8. Migration of low-skilled labor , consisting in its movement from developing countries to industrialized ones.

9. Migration of highly skilled labor , or “brain drain”, carried out as the departure of specialists to industrialized countries. Among its reasons are high wages, better working and living conditions, and social comfort.

A specialized UN agency that carries out activities in the global labor market to solve problems of labor migration, employment, conditions of organization and remuneration of labor, vocational training, is International Labor Organization (ILO) .

international scientific and technical cooperation . It represents the participation of legal entities and individuals in global scientific developments in order to obtain new knowledge and use it in economics and technology.

International scientific and technical cooperation takes the following forms:

1. Material, consisting in the exchange of high-tech products.

2. Intangible, consisting of the exchange of drawings, descriptions, patents, licenses.

3. Provision of services in the form of exchange of specialists, technical personnel, assistance in the field of management and marketing.

4. Commercial exchange of scientific and technical knowledge, consisting of technology transfer under licenses, engineering, consulting.

5. Non-commercial exchange scientific and technical information, consisting in carrying out international conferences and symposia.

6. Intercompany cooperation in the field of research and development, carried out in applied research and associated with the development and creation of prototypes of products.

The most important form of international economic relations is international monetary relations . This is a set of economic relations that arise during the functioning of money in international circulation. Through currency relations, payment and settlement transactions in the global economy. International monetary relations are carried out within the framework international monetary system , which is a set of rules, laws and institutions that govern these relationships.

Her constituent elements are:

1. Main international means of payment (national currencies, gold, EURO).

2. The mechanism for establishing and maintaining exchange rates. Exchange rate is the price of one country's currency expressed in the currency of other countries. Exchange rates can be fixed or floating. If a state strictly establishes the exchange rate relationship between its national currency and foreign ones, then such an exchange rate is called fixed . An exchange rate that changes under the influence of changes in demand for a given currency and its supply is called floating exchange rate . Under a fixed regime, a depreciation in the exchange rate is called devaluation , and the increase is revaluation . In conditions of floating exchange rates, similar processes are called depreciation and appreciation of the currency. The method of directly influencing the exchange rate is currency interventions - impact on the exchange rate of the national currency through the purchase and sale of foreign currency. Thus, in order to increase the exchange rate of the national currency, the central bank sells foreign currency in exchange for national currency and, conversely, to reduce the exchange rate, buys foreign currency in exchange for national currency.

The state of the exchange rate is influenced by two groups of factors:

· structural factors , reflecting the state of the economy of a given country. These include: indicators of economic growth (GDP, industrial production), the state of the balance of payments, growth of the money supply in the domestic market, the level of inflation and inflation expectations, the solvency of the country and confidence in the national currency in the world market;

· market factors related to changes in the situation in sectors of the global financial market: speculative operations in foreign exchange markets, the degree of development of the securities market competing with the foreign exchange market.

3. Conditions for currency convertibility. Currency convertibility - this is the free exchange of the monetary unit of one country for the currencies of other countries and for internationally recognized means of payment in various international payments. The currency is considered convertible , if it meets three criteria: used without restrictions for any international payments, exchanged without restrictions for any other currency, this exchange is carried out at a certain official rate. There are external and internal convertibility. Internal convertibility means that citizens and individuals of a given country can, without restrictions, buy foreign currency at the current exchange rate and make settlements with foreign partners in this currency. With external convertibility free exchange of any currencies into national currency applies only to foreign citizens and individuals. From the point of view of the convertibility regime, there are:

· free convertible currency (SCR), which has full external and internal convertibility;

· partially convertible currency , exchangeable only for some foreign currencies;

· non-convertible currency , which includes the currencies of countries with strict bans and restrictions on the import, exchange, sales and purchases of national or foreign currency.

4. Forms of international payments.

5. International mode foreign exchange markets and world gold markets.

6. International monetary organizations regulating currency relations at the interstate level. The most influential of them are: the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The content of their activities lies in the desire to create a mechanism for coordinating world monetary relations that would combine market opportunities with government regulation. These organizations promote the development of international economic relations by establishing norms for regulating exchange rates and monitoring their compliance, developing reforms to improve the global monetary system, and providing credit resources to member countries of these organizations. international organizations, identifying trends in the economic development of these countries and developing recommendations for their progressive orientation and development.

An important form of international economic relations is international economic integration , which is a process of economic and political unification of countries, allowing for a coordinated interstate economic policy. Economic integration provides a number of favorable conditions for interaction between countries: wider access to various resources, the possibility of production for the entire integrated group of countries, the creation of privileged conditions for their enterprises and firms, the harmony of joint solutions to social problems.

Among the forms of economic integration the following can be distinguished:

· free trade zones , within which customs duties and other trade restrictions between participating countries are abolished;

· customs union , which implies, in addition to the free trade zone, the establishment of a single foreign trade tariff and the implementation of a unified foreign trade policy in relation to the countries that are part of it;

· payments union , which allows for mutual convertibility of currencies and the functioning of a single unit of account;

· Common Market , providing its participants with a coordinated economic policy, freedom of movement of goods, capital and labor;

· economic union , providing for the coordination of macroeconomic policy and the unification of legislation in key areas - currency, budget, monetary, as well as the creation of interstate bodies with supranational functions;

· free economic zones (FEZ), which are distinguished by the absence of restrictions on the activities of foreign firms, the right to transfer their profits and capital to their country, as well as their infrastructure support.

International integration processes have received the greatest development in Western Europe. Here, an example of the largest integration regional association can be considered European Union (EU) . The EU has established a free exchange of national currencies and created a European monetary system with its own mechanism for the formation of payments and the establishment of exchange rates. A collective currency unit (euro) was established, which became an international means of payment. In this integration association, numerous border and customs barriers separating states have been overcome. All this allowed us to achieve a number positive results, which include direct cost savings due to lower costs by eliminating trade and production barriers, gains from market consolidation and increased competition. Integration has helped Western European capital in a number of economic spheres to compete on an equal footing with its main competitors – the USA and Japan.

IN North America stands out North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) , which includes the United States, Canada and Mexico. Among the 20 regional groupings of Asia and Latin America, one can distinguish Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA) , Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) .

A number of countries of the former USSR (Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine) formed in 1992. Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Distinctive feature of this integration association is the reintegration of countries that were previously part of a single state on a new equal basis corresponding to their modern status.

In 1996, an agreement was adopted on the creation Customs Union between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, as well as more advanced in terms of integration Commonwealth of Belarus and Russia , which in 1997 was transformed into Union of Belarus and Russia . In 1999, an agreement was signed to transform this entity into Union State , the integration process within which continues to deepen.

Related information.

Option 9

1. International economic relations.

1.1. International economic relations. Main features. 3

1.2. Basic forms of international economic relations. 6

2. International trade as the basis of international economic relations. 8

3. Test task. 13

4. Test task. 13

5.Task. 14

6. List of references. 15

1. International economic relations.

International economic relations

The existence of any economy in modern realities is impossible without international cooperation and diverse cooperation between countries. No state today can exist in isolation and remain successful. The development of international economic relations is the key normal functioning the entire world economy. What is the global economy and how does it work?

World economy - a global and complexly structured system that includes the economies of different states. The impetus for its formation was the territorial (and later global) division of human labor. What is it? In simple words: Country "A" has all the resources to produce cars, and country "B" has the climate to grow grapes and fruits. Sooner or later, these two states agree on cooperation and “exchange” of the products of their activities. This is the essence of the geographical division of labor.

The world economy is nothing more than the unification of all national industries and structures. But international economic relations are precisely a tool for bringing them closer together, ensuring their cooperation. This is how the world economy came into being. International economic relations were aimed at equally both on the division of labor (which resulted in the specialization of different countries in the production of certain products), and on the pooling of efforts (which resulted in the cooperation of states and economies). As a result of industrial cooperation, large transnational companies emerged.

Relationships of an economic nature between countries, companies or corporations are usually called international economic relations (abbreviated as IEO).

Participation in international trade provides a country with the opportunity to increase the level of satisfaction of social needs.

International trade carried out in modern conditions has the following principles:

Economic relations between trading participants are based on the absence of interference in the internal affairs of the state, self-determination and respect for sovereign equality.

There must be no discrimination based on differences in socio-economic systems.

Countries have the right to exercise sovereign trade.

Social progress and economic development contribute to strengthening peaceful relations, therefore, must be achieved through the joint efforts of members of the international community. World Trade governed by rules that do not prevent social and economic progress. Countries achieve cooperation by concluding international treaties.

A special role in regulating international trade is played by multilateral agreements operating within the framework of:

§ GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)

§ WTO (World Trade Organization)

§ GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services)

§ TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement)

International trade must be beneficial to both parties and cannot involve activities that negatively affect the interests of other countries. It is necessary to promote the development of integration and other forms of economic cooperation between countries at the stage of development.

International economic relations, like any other, have their own specific subjects.

Subjects of international financial relations may be:

ü countries;

ü international financial organizations (including financing and controlling ones);

ü insurance companies;

ü individual enterprises or corporations;

ü investment groups and funds;

ü individual individuals.

Main features of MEO

IEOs are a continuation of economic relations at the local level, however, with quantitative indicators of a completely different scale. Moreover, MEO retain their affiliation with market economy, and, therefore, obey its principles.

Signs of IEO belonging to a market economy include the following:

· The classical laws of supply and demand apply to MEO.

· IEO is characterized by free competition.

· The exchange of goods (as well as, for example, the movement of labor resources) is determined by cash flows.

· The fundamental principle of IEO is the division of labor.

· Each of the IEO participants is characterized by economic isolation.

· The development of IEO is monitored by international structures (for example, the World Trade Organization - WTO).

· Monopolization is possible in the field of international economic relations - in the event that the sale of one of the types of goods is concentrated in the hands of a specific state.

Basic forms of international economic relations.

International economic relations play a special role important role V modern times when the level of specialization of countries is so high that some of them provide the majority of their income through the export of goods and services.

The main forms of international economic relations are:

Basic forms of IEO Figure 1.

World Trade - the oldest form of international relations, but at the same time it is also the most developing - in growth rates it surpasses, for example, industrial production. It is interesting that the main characteristic of world trade is considered to be its unevenness - 70% of its turnover falls on developed countries, and over 40% of them – on European countries. It is customary to classify international trade by object - trade in products, machinery, raw materials, and services are distinguished.

Credit and financial relations. This form is younger - it includes capital investments and international loans. Before the Second World War, the main exporters of capital were the developed countries of Europe - Great Britain, France, and the importers were the colonies of these countries, for example, French Guiana. Now 70% of the total volume of money exchange occurs in developed countries, the rest - in developing countries, including CIS countries.

International services. Previously, international services meant only transport services However, over the past decades, new types have appeared - advertising, engineering, financial. Specific gravity international services in MEO at cost - approximately 20%. More than 80% of all international services are currently provided by developed Western countries.

Industrial cooperation implies international specialization and detailed production. Thanks to industrial cooperation, several countries can be involved in the manufacture of one type of product - one supplies raw materials, the second produces parts, the third is engaged in assembly. The advantage of industrial cooperation is the most efficient use of available resources.

Scientific and technical relations as a form of MEO are determined by scientific and technological revolution. This form of IEO is expressed in the exchange of the latest technical information and the purchase and sale of developments, as well as in the joint implementation of projects. The countries of Western Europe and the USA succeed in scientific and technical communications as a form of international economic relations.

International tourism . This includes services for transporting tourists to the destination country, offering hotels and food. International tourism is important not only for developed countries (Spain), but also for developing ones (Croatia, Cyprus). For many developing countries, international tourism is the main source of income.

All these forms of international economic relations are different in their role and significance for the world economy. Thus, in modern conditions, it is currency and credit relations that hold the leadership. International trade and monetary relations.

2. International trade as the basis of international economic relations.

International trade is understood as a system of export-import relations between countries that show the openness of the economy.

International trade affects the state of the national economy by performing the following functions:

Replenishment of the missing elements of national production, which makes the “consumer basket” of economic agents of the national economy more diverse;

Transformation of the natural material structure of GDP due to the ability of external factors of production to modify and diversify this structure;

Effect-forming function, i.e. the ability of external factors to influence the growth of the efficiency of national production, maximizing national income while simultaneously reducing the socially necessary costs of its production.

In international trade there are two main method(way) of trade: direct method - performing a transaction directly between the manufacturer and the consumer; indirect method - performing a transaction through an intermediary. The direct method brings certain financial benefits: it reduces costs by the amount of commission to the intermediary; reduces risk and dependence of results commercial activities from possible dishonesty or insufficient competence of the intermediary organization; allows you to constantly be on the market, take into account changes and respond to them. But the direct method requires significant commercial qualifications and trading experience.

The country's participation in international trade is determined by:

1) its level economic development;

2) the size of the territory;

3) population size;

There are three main indicators of GDP:

Nominal. It simply characterizes the total annual cost of services and products in the country at current market prices. In this case, inflation is not taken into account. What does this mean? Let’s say that nominal GDP grew by 10% over the year. It seems to be good. But inflation was 12%. In fact, it “ate up” the indicated growth, that is, objectively, the economic situation did not improve, on the contrary, it became worse.

The real one takes this moment into account and shows real growth production, not associated with rising consumer prices. In the example above it will be negative. The ratio of the first (nominal) to the second (real) is called the deflator.

Per capita. This is an indicator that best reflects the well-being of citizens. It is calculated as the ratio of GDP to the total population of a country or region. In addition, it also takes into account the demographic component, which is quite important for some assessments.

The main data was taken for 2016 (at the end of the year) from such Internet resources as the CIA statistics website.

Table No. 1. Economic indicators for the country for 2016

Having calculated the GDP per capita indicator, you can see that welfare in Russia leaves much to be desired and amounts to $0.77 million. We need to work on the economic situation as a whole. As we see in the USA, GDP per capita is $5.71 million , which shows that the economy of this country is more developed.

Other indicators used to measure the degree of openness of the economy are:

Export quota

Import quota

Foreign trade quota

Sometimes elasticity coefficients of exports (to assess the dynamics of economic openness) or imports in relation to GDP are also used.

Export quota is a quantitative indicator characterizing the importance of exports for the economy as a whole and individual industries for certain types of products. Within the entire national economy, it is calculated as the ratio of the value of exports (E) to the value of gross domestic product (GDP) for the corresponding period in percentage: Ke = E/GDP*100%.

Import quota is a quantitative indicator characterizing the importance of imports for national economy and individual industries for various types of products. Within the entire national economy, the import quota is calculated as the ratio of the cost of imports (I) to the value of GDP: Ki = I/GDP*100%.

Foreign trade quota is defined as the ratio of the total value of exports and imports, divided in half, to the value of GDP as a percentage: Kv = E+I/2GDP*100%.

Another option Kv = (E+I) / GDP*100%*0.5

Shows the importance of foreign trade relations for the country, and not just exports and imports. All indicators do not show the country's share in world exports.

The elasticity coefficients of exports and imports in relation to GDP show how much exports or imports increase when the country's GDP increases by 1% and are calculated as the ratio of the percentage change in the value of exports (or imports) for the period under review to the percentage change in the country's GDP for the same period.

Ee = delta E(%) / delta GDP(%)

Ei = delta I(%) / delta GDP(%)

The value of these coefficients if they are greater than > 1 is interpreted as strengthening the open nature of the economy, if less< 1 то наоборот.

International trade in goods takes place in a wide variety of forms. Forms of international trade are types of foreign trade operations. These include: wholesale; countertrade; commodity exchanges; futures exchanges; international trading; international auctions; fairs.

Countries participating in international trade receive a number of obvious benefits from this, namely:

Ø the possibility of growth and development of mass production within a specific national economy;

Ø the emergence of new jobs for the population;

Ø healthy competition, which is present in one form or another on the world market, stimulates the processes of modernization of enterprises and production;

Ø proceeds from the export of goods and services cash can be accumulated and used for further improvement of production processes.

Negative consequences openness of the economy:

Ø Exposure to the influence of global financial and economic crises, changes in the global commodity markets and in a certain sense, the likelihood of risk of instability of the national economy increases.

Ø In some cases, foreign competition leads to the destruction of individual industries and even entire sectors of the domestic economy.

Ø The dependence of the national economy on imports is increasing, and imports here are in the broadest sense (goods, capital, technology). There are strategically important industries where foreign capital should not be allowed, as well as strategically important goods that need to be controlled. If imports exceed 30%, then this is a signal that the situation in certain groups of goods needs to be corrected.

3. Country A sells natural resources (natural gas, coal, oil) to country B. Such relationships in the global economy include:

a) to the international division of labor;

b) to international labor cooperation;

c) to the international division of other factors of production:

G) All of the above answers are correct.

4. Traditional quantitative indicators of economic openness are:

A ) export quota ;

b) export quotas;

V) import quota;

d) import quotas;

d) foreign trade quota;

f) foreign trade quotas;

g) volume of re-export;

h) volume of compensation transactions.

Country A can produce 10 tons of wheat or 10 tons of coffee per unit of resources. country B - 40 tons of wheat or 60 tons of coffee. Domestic consumption in country A is at point (5, 50), in country B - at point (15, 180). Which country will export wheat?

Product name	A	IN
Wheat, tons per unit of resources
Coffee, t per unit of resources

1) first find the comparative costs of producing both products in A and B.

1t. Wheat = 1 t. Coffee

1 t. Coffee = 1 t. Wheat

1t. Wheat = 1.5 t. Coffee

1 t. Coffee = 0.7 t. Wheat

Consequently, A will specialize in the production and export of wheat, since the comparative costs of this product are lower. And country B will export coffee.

2) With a given world exchange proportion, A, producing wheat to the maximum - a specialty product, will be able to produce 10 tons of wheat and, leaving 5 tons for domestic consumption, exchange the remaining 5 tons for 5 * 4/3 = 20/3 = 6 2/3 tons coffee is more than its internal consumption if it did not specialize and produced everything necessary for consumption itself. Country B will produce 60 tons of coffee, leave 30 tons for domestic consumption, and exchange the remaining 30 tons for 30 * 3/4 = 90/4 = 22.5 tons of wheat, which also exceeds its capabilities with a natural non-exchange economy. This is the effect of specialization - achieving a higher level of consumption.

References:

1. Zubenko, V.V. World economy and international economic relations: Textbook and workshop / V.V. Zubenko, O.V. Ignatova, N.L. Orlova. - Lyubertsy: Yurayt, 2016. - 409 p.

2. Laptev, S.V. Fundamentals of the theory of public finance: Tutorial for university students studying in the specialties "Finance and Credit", "Accounting, Analysis and Audit", "World Economy" / S.V. Laptev.. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2013. –

3. Nikolaeva, I.P. World economy and international economic relations: Textbook for bachelors / I.P. Nikolaeva, L.S. Shakhovskaya. - M.: Dashkov and K, 2014. - 244 p.240 p.

4. Pashkovskaya, M.V. World Economy: Textbook / M.V. Pashkovskaya, Yu.P. Gospodarik. - M.: MFPU Synergy, 2012. - 528 p.

5. Khasbulatov, R.I. World Economy: Textbook for Bachelors / R.I. Khasbulatov. - M.: Yurayt, 2013. - 884 p.

6. Federal service state statistics http://www.gks.ru/

7. http://studme.org/50496/ekonomika/osnovnye_formy_sistema_mezhdunarodnyh_ekonomicheskih_otnosheniy_sovremennogo_mirovogo_hozyaystva.

WORLD ECONOMY - THIS IS A GLOBAL ECONOMY, LINKING NATIONAL ECONOMIES INTO A UNITED SYSTEM BY INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR.

In the world economy, international economicwhat kind of relationship. They exist in the FOLLOWING FORMS:

international trade;

export of capital and international credit;

international monetary relations;

international labor migration;

international division of labor. Let's consider each of these forms separately.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE (IT)- THIS IS THE FORM BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS, CARRIED OUT THROUGH THE EXPORT OF GOODS AND SERVICES.

The reasonscausing MT are:

uneven distribution and provision of economic resources in different countries;

presence of different levels of efficiency of different technologiesin different countries.

Meaninginternational trade - as follows:

overcoming the limited national resource base,

expanding the capacity of the domestic market and establishing a network of the national market with the world market;

ensuring the receipt of additional income due to the difference between national and international production costs;

expansion of the scale of production due to the leverage of foreign resources.

VolumeMT is expressed by the following indicators: exports, imports of goods and services, net exports. The ratio of each of these indicators to GNP shows their place in the national economy and growth dynamics.

ProfitabilityMT in different economic schools is assessed differently.

Mercantilists defended the principle of the excess of imports of money and goods over exports.

A. Smith expressed his thoughts that it is necessary to buy those goods that another country produces at a lower price than “we produce ourselves.” In the literature, his theory is called the “theory of absolute advantage.”

D. Ricardo developed the “theory of comparative advantage”,into which A. Smith's concept was included as special case, and proved that when assessing the profitability of MT it is necessary to compare not the absolute, but the relative effect: in his opinion, the total volume of output will be maximum when each product will be produced by the country in which opportunity costs are lower.

Subsequently, D. Ricardo’s theory was developed by A. Marshall and J. Millem.

The relationship between exports and imports is regulated by the state through a policy of protectionism and free trade.

PROTECTIONISM IS A POLICY AIMED AT PROTECTING THE NATIONAL ECONOMY FROM FOREIGN GOODS AND LIMITING IMPORTS.

FREE TRADE IS A FREE TRADE POLICY.

Protectionist policies has the following directions:

customs taxation, providing for high customs duties when importing finished products and lower ones when exporting;

non-tariff barriers: quotas, licensing, state monopoly.

Continuation - this is the establishment of a certain quotafor the export or import of certain goods.

Licensing - this is the organization obtaining permission (licenses) to carry out foreign economic activities.

State monopoly - this is the exclusive right ofgovernment bodies to carry out certain types of foreign economic activity.

Free tradehow the reaction to protectionism appeared at the end XVIII century; in the XIX V. it became the official economic policy of England. The basis of free trade was the “theory of comparative costs” by D. Ricardo. Nowadays, free trade has finally won and has been included in the theory of an “open” economy.

The most important concept reflecting the current foreign economic situation of the country is the balance of payments.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS IS THE RATIO OF PAYMENTS ABROAD AND INCOME FROM ABROAD FOR A CERTAIN PERIOD.

The foundation of the balance of payments is the trade balance.

TRADE BALANCE IS THE RATIO OF EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF GOODS.

It is based on customs statistics data on goods crossing the border.

REPORT OF CAPITAL IS THE WITHDRAWAL OF PART OF CAPITAL FROM THE PROCESS OF NATIONAL TURNOVER AND INCLUDING YUCH E- IT IS INVOLVED INTO THE PRODUCTION PROCESS IN DIFFERENT FORMS IN OTHER COUNTRIES.

The purpose of capital export is to obtain higher income in another country.what rate of profit is due to the advantages associated with the use of an international factor of production compared to national economic conditions.

Formsexport of capital: entrepreneurial or loan. Entrepreneurial capital is exported either to create one's own production abroad (direct investment) or to invest money in local companies (portfolio investment). Loan capital is exported in the form of loans, credits that bring interest.

Consequencesexport of capital for the country importing capital are ambiguous. On the one hand, it contributes to economic development. On the other hand, foreign capital supports the beneficial, one-sided, mainly raw material development of the national economy.Based on the export of capital and the creation of enterprises in othercountries are undergoing internationalization and transnationalizationcapital, creation of transnational corporations (TNCs).

A TNC is an enterprise that:

has subsidiaries in two or more countries;

has a decision-making system that allowsimplement policy from one or more centers;

provides such a connection between subsidiaries when eachof which influences the activities of other companies.TNCs are significantly changing the structure of all world trade, insubordinating it to a significant extent to his interests.

Peculiaritiesmodern capital export:

growth in the scale of export of productive capital from directour investments in the field of new technologies;

export of capital mainly by highly developed countries us;

the increasing role of developing countries as exporters of gas fed.

INTERNATIONAL LABOR MIGRATION ISRELOCATION, RESETTLEMENT OF WORKABLE PERSONSPOPULATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL BORDERS.

Reasonsmigrations are divided into economic and non-economicchesical Economic: decreased demand for low-skilledlabor force and the growth of its supply, the growth of demand forhighly qualified specialists in developed countries,interstate differences in wages. Foreign economic: demographic, political, religious,national, cultural, family, etc.

INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR (ID)- THIS SPECIALIZATION OF INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES IN PRODUCTIONESTABLISHMENT OF THOSE OR OTHER GOODS AND SERVICES FOR THEIR PURPOSESSALES IN OTHER COUNTRIES.

Initially, the specialization of a particular country determinesdepending on the geographical environment and the availability of mineral resources,which determined the direction of its exports: oil, coffee,bananas, etc. In the future, starting from 19th century, direct MRI associated with technological progress and level of development in the countryproductive forces.