Pages of history. Dance evening night at the Louvre

Etiquette is usually called a set of rules that must be followed while in society. IN late Middle Ages This society, which followed established norms, was considered the court of the royal person. Regulated behavior and complex ceremonial regulated the relationship between the monarch and his subjects. But on the other hand, etiquette sometimes took such exaggerated forms that modern ordinary people would call it absurd.

At each courtyard there was a special person who monitored the implementation of etiquette standards - the master of ceremonies. Those who violated the court “charter” were punished. So in Morocco, everyone who “dared” to dream about the princess was sentenced to death.

In the 16th century, at the court of the English king Edward VI, the most noble knights of the country served the monarch on their knees during meals. At the same time, there was a special position “royal uncorker of ocean bottles with letters.” If suddenly a bottle with a message washed ashore, and someone accidentally opened it, then he was sent to the chopping block.

In Russia, they began to talk about etiquette under Peter I. The tsar’s initial thoughts were good: “do not brush your teeth with a knife, do not pick your nose, do not spit around yourself.” However, at his court, etiquette had a somewhat distorted form. When assemblies (meetings-balls) were held, Peter I forced officials to appear at them with all their families. Those who were late were given a large fine glass of vodka. Once, noblewoman Olsufieva, being in the last month of pregnancy, begged the tsar not to drink the penalty, but he stood his ground. A few hours later the woman had a miscarriage. Peter I ordered the dead baby to be preserved in alcohol and exhibited in the cabinet of curiosities for research.

Under Catherine II, “Hermitage etiquette” was introduced. Among other things, it mentioned: if someone wants to take a closer look at the porcelain figurine, they should not forget to put it in their pocket.

At the Spanish court, etiquette stipulated that under no circumstances should one touch a royal person without special permission. One day in the 17th century, Queen Marie Louise's horse bolted while walking, she fell out of the saddle, and her leg got stuck in the stirrup. Two officers came to her aid, but instead of expecting gratitude, they immediately began to gallop, fearing that they might be executed for touching the royal person.

If the Spanish queen was lucky that they came to her aid, despite the prohibitions, then the wife of the King of Siam suffered a sadder fate. Suanda Kumarirattana was walking on a boat with her newborn baby. Suddenly the boat capsized, and the queen and her daughter began to drown. None of the thousand-strong crowd came to their aid, because they did not dare to touch. But this was already in the 19th century. The king was beside himself with rage and heads rolled. But after this incident, the rule of “no touching the royal person” prescribed in etiquette was canceled.

In China, rulers were revered almost more than in other countries. So Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi feared for his life and constantly moved around his many palaces. The courtiers had to bow before each chamber, because theoretically the ruler could be there. This continued until a characteristic smell began to emanate from one of the palaces. When the courtiers finally risked opening the doors, they found the half-decomposed body of the emperor there.
Court etiquette was further divided into several subtypes. Among them it is interesting to highlight - 124.00 Kb

In consolidating his power, Louis XIV used the ancient model of “patrimonial monarchy,” when the ruler establishes political power in the country along the lines of a patriarchal extended family. The "Sun King" moved from Paris and set up a new center of royal power, a huge "king's house", a palace in Versailles. Contemporaries recognized the king's action as wise and correct. In the 18th century, the enlightened and liberal authors of the famous “Encyclopedia” wrote in it that the king tried to attract to the court noblemen who were accustomed to being at a distance from Paris, among “the people accustomed to obeying them.” Artists love to depict the palaces and parks of Versailles as deserted, but it was a noisy, overpopulated place. One of the courtiers recalled that in ten years he had never spent the night outside the royal palace and in forty years he had only been to Paris several times. The Duke of Saint-Simon, the author of the famous memoirs, wrote: “The king not only ensured that the nobility gathered at court, he also demanded this from the minor nobility. During “visits”, during dinner, he always noticed everyone. He was dissatisfied nobles who did not spend all their time at court, even more so those who rarely appeared at court, and in complete disfavor were those who never showed up at court. When one of them asked or desired something, the king said: “I don’t know him!” The verdict was final.” “The king did not prohibit the nobles from traveling to their estates, but moderation and caution had to be exercised here,” explained Saint-Simon. The king's morning "visits" were mirror image customs of that time: nobles (trusted servants) in the master’s house await his awakening and are ready to carry out orders. If the master singled them out especially, they were allowed to use the morning toilet.
This king repeated this custom every day. It should not be surprising that he was seen in nightwear: there was no bourgeois modesty then, and noble people talked with servants without embarrassment. All the actions and gestures of the king fully corresponded to all examples of cultural tradition. Like the king’s favorites, who surprised no one: family virtues were held in high esteem only in the everyday life of the bourgeoisie. In addition, the choice of the king's mistress complicated the intrigue and intensified numerous squabbles and mutual reproaches among the courtiers.
Court etiquette, numerous ceremonies that were repeated day after day at Versailles, established complex system differences between the courtiers, which were constantly changing and being refined. Being present at the morning toilet, an invitation to hunt, participating in a walk - all this allowed the king to determine and change the positions of the courtiers in an impeccably courteous manner, without noise or threats. How complex the “theater of court life” was is shown by an excerpt from Saint-Simon’s memoirs. He decided to leave military service, which he could not stand, although he knew that the king did not like such liberties. Saint-Simon expected manifestations of disfavor. He was admitted to "evening visitation," a ceremony as elaborate, measured, and significant as putting on pants and shoes in the morning. The king's chosen one held a candelabra with burning candles. This was a sign of special favor, available only to well-born nobles and very rarely to ordinary people. Quite unexpectedly, this time the king’s choice fell on Saint-Simon: “The king was so offended by me that he did not want everyone to notice it.” After this, the king did not notice Saint-Simon for three years.
No one in France could build and maintain a palace that could be compared in splendor and expense to the king's house. In sociology there is the concept of “status consumption”, when money is wasted for the sake of prestige. The wasteful luxury of Versailles was necessary to establish unlimited power. Evening fireworks, ballet music, lights of candles and torches, the clink of heavy knives and forks, and the smells of huge kitchen spaces accompanied the triumph of royal power. Louis XIV spent money recklessly. Versailles was the main center for the redistribution of the country's financial resources. Proximity to power under conditions of unlimited rule can be called the most profitable occupation. The king allegedly watched as the purses of the courtiers were depleted, and waited for one or another nobleman to admit that he had approached the threshold of poverty. Then he could offer a “pension,” a lucrative court position, or another way to maintain a lifestyle worthy of a nobleman. Of course, the place of the nobleman in the court hierarchy was carefully taken into account. In political sociology, power is sometimes defined as the ability to “transform certain resources into influence within a system of human relationships.” Louis XIV, I’m sure, would have appreciated the meaning of this phrase, but added: “A weak government gives to everyone who asks, a strong government itself finds people worthy of attention.” “The king’s level of development,” noted Saint-Simon, “was below average.” The level of education is mediocre for its time; he himself admitted that he “does not know things that are familiar to many.” But to fulfill his duty, the king did not have to show special mental effort: his predecessors, Richelieu and Mazarin, pacified the rebellions, restored firm power, and launched a “government mechanism” that Colbert, the famous first minister of Louis XIV, continued to establish. But mostly he surrounded himself with people who were either inexperienced or ignorant: against their background, the king’s “wisdom” shone for the time being. To remain in the memory of posterity as a great ruler, it is not necessary to have the great virtues and qualities of an extraordinary person. Louis XIV created unlimited power, roughly speaking, using the qualities of an ordinary domestic tyrant. Since childhood, he had a keen curiosity: he tirelessly spied, learned, noticed, and remembered. Saint-Simon had no doubt that the king instructed special servants, the Swiss, to remain inconspicuously in the palace and gardens both day and night, observing the courtiers, keeping an eye on them, “listening, remembering and reporting.” Saint-Simon perceived this strange order grumpily, but without indignation. The secret of the success of Louis XIV was that he intuitively understood: the ruler and his entourage, the “elite of the country” - an important and influential circle - are united not by orders, not orders, or even lofty goals, but general habits and skills, same culture. Here the king's merits were undeniable. No one knew how to so subtly take into account the differences in age and merit of the courtiers, just as there was no man so amiable by nature. Usually the king did not speak much, but he rarely spoke with great importance or great courtesy. He was an excellent “first nobleman,” and everyone around him understood that he lived with the court, he had no separate personal life, no other interests. (It may be noted that the dull modesty of the last Russian emperor and his exaggerated attention to his personal life, to his beloved family, undermined the prestige of the monarchy no less than economic shocks or unsuccessful military actions.) Any person in French court society was subject to pressure from above and from peers to yourself. The king was freed from pressure from above, but the pressure from below was significant, at a certain moment it could crush - turn into “nothing” - if all court groups began to act in the same direction, equally against. But this did not happen; the “action potentials” of his subjects were directed at each other and were mutually destroyed. Louis XIV skillfully aroused jealousy, sowed suspicions, singled out some, rewarded others, and in this regard he was no less skillful a director than the great Moliere - it is a pity that in a moment of rest, throwing away the conventions of etiquette, the two great directors did not reveal to each other the secrets of their crafts. But petty intrigues in beautiful palaces do not explain the amazing strength of the reign of Louis XIV. There were other reasons. People of traditional society are afraid of unexpected changes and prefer to live like plants in flower pot, which is taken out into the sun in the summer, and carried into a warm house with a caring hand in winter - they love firm order. Saint-Simon noticed that all the king’s actions were determined once and for all: with a watch in his hands, being at a far distance from the palace, one could always tell what he was doing. Famous phrase the king, minted in his youth: “the state is me!”, is not as unambiguous as it is sometimes imagined. By the power of his intuition, Louis XIV realized that after the unrest and rebellions, his subjects were ready to get rid of numerous claims for selfish and personal reasons: everyone was ready to accept the king as his ally and assistant in the fight against all others - there were plenty of grievances and hatred. The state as an institution was weak and bad, and the king promised to be strong and “equidistant” from everyone. The young king made a courageous decision: in order to firmly hold power, he was forced to control and organize himself. His own ideal of the greatness of royal power, decrepit and ancient in origin, was renewed and imbued with the incredible splendor of the court of Versailles. His subjects, who had weight in society, not only the courtiers, but also the bourgeoisie, the wealthy strata, found in their king what was also their inner motivation: the desire for prestige. They were ready to admit that their existence was warmed by the splendor of royal power. The prestige of the king, and therefore the prestige of the kingdom, was strengthened by tried and tested means. France was constantly at war; under the king’s banner there was a huge army for those times. The king suppressed the liberties that weak authorities had allowed in the past. He abolished the Edict of Nantes, which determined the equality of rights of Catholics and Protestants and ensured religious tolerance for a time. "One king - one faith." 200 thousand Protestants (“Huguenots”) were expelled or fled; those who remained, contrary to their conscience, had to recognize the “true faith.” Only at the end of his reign did the king begin to show obvious signs of fatigue and decrepitude, and the army began to suffer one defeat after another... Thus, the Sun King created his own society, permeated with almost theatrical rules of behavior, the appearance and disappearance of characters at court. Of course, the opportunity to walk in front of another or the scope of a bow can be presented as the fun of idlers, but in the society of France of the 17th and 18th centuries, these etiquette forms determined not only the honor and dignity of a person, but often even his fate.

4. Etiquette of Louis XIV.

Etiquette at the court of Louis XIV, based on ranks or ranks, subsequently reached conventions that were monstrously absurd. Each courtier, in accordance with his rank and assigned uniform, had the honor due to him. The duty of these tie-makers, bed-dressers and other “lucky ones” admitted to the king’s person was to catch his every word, guess the slightest desire, standing at a respectful distance, for only his brother, who handed the king a napkin during dinner, had the right to sit on the tip of the chair at the invitation overlord. During the royal meal, all courtiers had to stand in complete silence. The king was sitting in a chair. The Queen and princes, if present, had the right to sit on chairs, and other members of the royal family on stools. A king could do the greatest honor to a noble lady by allowing her to sit on a stool; men did not have such a privilege, but they all strove for it for the sake of their wives.

A particularly complex and elaborate ritual was observed during the awakening of the king. The royal bedchamber was equivalent to a church altar. Ladies were not allowed there. They had to kneel, looking at her from afar. Only particularly noble nobles or princes by blood undressed and dressed the king. Entering the bedchamber first, these princes helped the king put on his dressing gown and shoes. Then the “titled” were admitted, awarded royal blue uniforms with red lining, and they presented the rest of the clothes to the king. The shirt and washing supplies were again supplied by the princes by blood. Then the rest of the courtiers, “made happy by the much-desired cry of the royal doorman,” were admitted, along with the colonels of the Life Guards. Then came the turn of prayer, which the king performed pedantically without much faith, however, just as he hunted without an inclination to this “crowned passion” or as he listened equally to music and the whistling of bullets without tenderness and courage. But, saying “The State is me!”, he, having himself replaced his deceased teacher as First Minister, worked, like him, by the sweat of his brow, delving into every detail, even signing passports himself, hoarding over coppers, but not limiting millions of dollars spent on turning his Versailles into the legislative center of luxury and fashion for the whole of Europe, serving the deification of the “Sun King” with the help of the “etiquette” conceived by Mazarin, for which a whole science of manners was created: how to handle a hat, curtsy, give compliments , use sharp words (“bo-mo”) or puns, how many steps from the door to bow. Thus, the idol of absolutism, confirmed to him through the efforts of cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, having successfully mastered the “science of power” taught to him, raised on a servile wave, majestically played the role of earthly Providence, indulging only in one hereditary weakness for the fair sex and introducing a special rank of “metresse” at court, who were given the same honor as their children by the king. However, the ministers were strictly instructed that at the slightest attempt by any of them to interfere in politics, she would be expelled from the “Versailles paradise.” Louis XIV considered it necessary for himself to strictly observe all the details of complex etiquette and demanded the same from his courtiers.

Louis XIV strove to be a virtuoso in “royal skill,” from a calculated short speech with diamonds of words and ending with a face smooth as a mirror, which never reflected the only feelings available to him: vanity and lust for power. Trained by his mentor, he maintained a stately gentleness and charming severity in his interactions with coveted ladies, and even while playing billiards, he maintained the appearance of a ruler of the world.

The king gave unprecedented splendor to the external life of the court. His favorite residence was Versailles, which under him became a large luxurious city. Particularly magnificent was the grandiose palace in a strictly consistent style, richly decorated both outside and inside by the best French artists of that time. During the construction of the palace, an architectural innovation was introduced, which later became fashionable in Europe: not wanting to demolish his father’s hunting lodge, which became an element of the central part of the palace ensemble, the king forced the architects to come up with a hall of mirrors, when the windows of one wall were reflected in the mirrors on the other wall, creating there the illusion of the presence of window openings. The large palace was surrounded by several small ones for members of the royal family, many royal services, premises for the royal guards and courtiers. The palace buildings were surrounded by an extensive garden, maintained according to the laws of strict symmetry, with decoratively trimmed trees, many flower beds, fountains, and statues. It was Versailles that inspired Peter the Great, who visited there, to build Peterhof with its famous fountains. True, Peter spoke of Versailles as follows: “The palace is beautiful, but there is little water in the fountains.” In addition to Versailles, other beautiful buildings were built under Louis. architectural structures– Grand Trianon, Les Invalides, Louvre colonnade, gates of Saint-Denis and Saint-Martin. The architect Hardouin-Monsard, artists and sculptors Lebrun, Girardon, Leclerc, Latour, Rigaud and others worked on all these creations, encouraged by the king. While Louis XIV was young, life at Versailles was a continuous holiday. There was a continuous series of balls, masquerades, concerts, theatrical performances, and pleasure walks. Only in his old age did the king, who was already continuously ill, begin to lead a more relaxed lifestyle, unlike the English king Charles II (1660–1685). Even on the day that turned out to be the last in his life, he organized a celebration in which he took an active part.

5. Etiquette at the French court of the 17th century

This system reached its apogee in the 17th century at the court of Louis XIV, where every little detail was ritualized through the efforts of the “Sun King”. The ceremonies of that time elevated the king to the level of an inaccessible deity. In the morning, when the king woke up, the chief keeper of the bedchamber and several courtiers put on a robe, and not only who was providing what service, but also their movements were described. Then the doors of the bedchamber opened, and the king could be seen by the courtiers of the highest ranks, bowing deeply. The king said a prayer and went into another room, where he dressed, and was again served by representatives of the highest nobility, while the main courtiers, who had the right to do so, witnessed this process, standing at a distance in respectful silence. The king then retired to the chapel at the head of the procession, and on his way stood rows of dignitaries not granted an audience, repeating their petitions in the hope that Louis XIV, passing by, would hear them and perhaps even say: “I’ll think about it.” During the royal meal, all courtiers had to stand in complete silence. The king was sitting in a chair. The Queen and princes, if present, had the right to sit on chairs, and other members of the royal family on stools. A king could do the greatest honor to a noble lady by allowing her to sit on a stool; men did not have such a privilege, but they all strove for it for the sake of their wives. It is clear that in such conditions, fundamental importance was attached to issues of primacy, and no one ceded, as in the Middle Ages, their privileges and rights to another. Anyone who received a special honor (for example, carrying a candle in the royal bedchamber) could receive additional social and, no less important, material advantages over others. Ranks, favors, money, estates - everything was obtained at the court, in the crowd of courtiers, subordinate to this strict hierarchy. The courtiers were forced to stand every day long hours waiting, enduring the boredom of the royal meal and the humiliating duties of servants in order to be noticed by the king. Years spent in this way had an effect harmful influence on their character and intelligence, but brought tangible material benefits.

Literature

1. Koenigsberger G.G. Early Modern Europe. 1500 – 1789. – M.: Publishing house “Ves Mir”, 2006.
2. Kozyakova M.I. Story. Culture. Everyday life. Western Europe: from antiquity to the 20th century. – M.: Publishing house “Ves Mir”, 2002.
3. Le Nôtre J. Everyday life of Versailles under the kings. – M.: Mol. Guard, 2003.
4. Mitford N. France. Court life in the era of absolutism. – Smolensk: Rusich, 2003.
5. Shonu P. Civilization of classical Europe. – Ekaterinburg: U-Factoria, 2005.

Job Description

Etiquette was formed under the influence various factors. Of no small importance was political system, level of development of culture and art, external and domestic politics and much more. After the French Revolution, court etiquette was significantly redesigned, for example, the previously accepted address to “you” was abolished, everyone should only say “you”, etc. In Germany, at the beginning of the 16th century, Erasmus of Rotterdam wrote an essay on the rules of behavior for children , "Citizenship of children's customs." This book described in detail the rules of behavior for children at school, at home, in church, at a party and at the table.

The Sun King is the founder of court ceremonial. Hierarchical order. Woman in society. Marriage, adultery and illegitimate children. Secular rules. Duels. Favorite entertainment. Table etiquette. Secular salons.

“...In the lobby, in full view of everyone entering, between two knightly armor hung a portrait of Louis XVI, entwined with a black mourning garland and illuminated by candles from two massive candelabra. It seemed that the knights of the past leaned their swords on the pedestal, guarding the monarch. There was something mystical about it. The Baron was looking forward to the return of the majordomo, but Charlotte Atkins herself appeared before him. Her hair brought some light into the gloomy, dark lobby. Charlotte extended both hands to him and took two steps towards him. The Baron shuddered. Black dress with a white muslin collar and cuffs, it was an exact copy of what, according to stories, Marie Antoinette was now wearing in the Temple. The hairstyle under the lace cap, height, figure and even facial features - everything reminded him of the queen. For a moment it seemed to Jean that his unfortunate mistress appeared before him. True, Charlotte Atkins was a little younger, and her eyes shone, while in the eyes of the queen anxiety and grief extinguished the fire. But, obviously, their similarity would be enhanced if Charlotte’s hair was sprinkled with powder: it was rumored that the queen had turned grey...
Unexpectedly for himself, the baron bowed respectfully and kissed the outstretched hands..."

Juliet Benzoni "Bloody Mass".

Jean-Leon Gerome. "Reception of the Grand Condé at Versailles." . 1878

The word "etiquette" appeared in French. language in early XVII century and was borrowed from the Dutch language, where it meant “peg” - a wooden tag. A piece of paper was attached to the tag with the name of the product, its weight, and other data important for buyer information. Later, this piece of paper began to be called the word “etiquette”. And today the French word “Etiguette” is translated as “label, inscription.” At the same time, the figurative meaning of this word was formed, associated with presentation to the French court. Everyone who had to appear before the King of France received a “label” with written instructions, where all actions, words and gestures were outlined. considered the founder of etiquette V modern concept. It was he who was the first monarch who turned court ceremonial into an unshakable rule. He was also a legislator of European tastes and fashion in the 17th century. Thanks to him, the Sun King, French etiquette reached the pinnacle of its brilliance and became a role model for all of Europe. The king was invariably precise and punctual, this is connected with him famous saying“Precision is the courtesy of kings.” He even remembered the names of the servants, of whom in those days there were more than 20,000 thousand people in the palace. He had such an appearance that combined male beauty, the sophistication of an aristocrat and the impressiveness of a monarch. Punctuality and politeness, regularity, grace and beauty, characteristic of the monarch, became mandatory for his subjects. Under the influence of these trends, the costume, once borrowed from Spain, has become a thing of the past, and with it the manner of wearing boots in any circumstances. They began to be used for war and hunting, and at court and in everyday life, men now wore high-heeled shoes. Their heads were crowned not only with hats, but also with lushly curled wigs. This was the era of France's highest prestige in the international arena. The Baroque style dominated in art, and Louis was the main arbiter in everything. Since that time, France has been the taste maker for all of Europe.

Jean-Leon Gerome. "Moliere with Louis XIV" (1863).

Gallant Age, which lasted until 1789, manifested itself in everything. Chasing fashion - required attribute life of high society. It reached its apogee at Louis XVI, thanks to his wife, Queen Marie Antoinette, who loved to decorate herself with luxurious outfits, expensive jewelry and unusual hairstyles. She was a trendsetter. It is thanks to her that milliners will turn into important persons who have the right to enter the royal chambers without reporting in violation of all the rules of etiquette. Gallantry was evident everywhere. Along with ordinary taverns, coffee shops and chocolate shops appear. The fashion for drinking chocolate was brought from Spain, from France it came to England and other countries. In the 18th century, coffee houses became places for scholarly and literary conversations, which especially took root in England.

The hierarchical order established by Louis XIV lasted until the start of the French Revolution. To those standing on the top step hierarchical ladder- the Dauphin, the heir to the throne, the king's brothers, and foreign princes were addressed as “Monsignor”; the same address was used for the archbishop. When the court moved, each of the courtiers was assigned a room according to his status and rank. Inscriptions were made on the doors of the chambers; The king's rooms were marked with white chalk, the queen's and the Dauphin's - yellow. All other courtiers “with the right to chalk” were content with gray. All other travelers were marked with charcoal. For noble ladies, the “right to a stool” was very important. It gave the right to sit on a stool in the presence of the king and the highest persons. Such ladies were called “stools” without any ridicule. “Temporary stools” had the right to sit only in the morning; in the evening they were required to stand. The wives of the king's sons, when meeting the “permanent stools,” had to kiss them and shake hands with others in greeting. Over time, the “right to a stool” became more complicated: some ladies in Versailles could only sit on folding chairs, in Marly - on a stool, in Rambouillet they were given a chair with a backrest.

Status of women in France differed from other European countries. Formally, she was subordinate to the head of the family - father, husband, older brother. She could not take part in the conduct of family affairs, much less state affairs. Even the queens, and as a rule, there were several of them: the wife of the ruling king, the koleva-mother, the dowager queens, according to the long-proclaimed principle “Lilies should not be spun” - did not have the right to do this. The lily symbolized France and the royal house. However, the actual situation of women in France was much better than in Spain or Italy. A woman had much greater freedom in choosing her lifestyle. Many of them were excellent at wielding a sword and a hunting spear, rode horses dashingly, and sometimes had fights, including with men.
Marriage still remained primarily a business transaction, and not a union of love, so adultery was quite acceptable and was hardly hidden. Moreover, illegitimate children were often recognized as fathers with the full approval of society. A woman of any class could become the object of a nobleman's passion.

Secular rules were strictly followed. For example, riding mules or carriages was considered indecent for a nobleman. He moved around the city and its surroundings on horseback, usually in full equipment. And although the weapons and armor were not as heavy as in knightly times, a fully armed chevalier could not jump from the ground into the saddle, so special pedestals were placed near the gates or doors - montoirs, from which they mounted the horse. Doctors, judges and townspeople with position usually rode mules, and they could sit “lady-style,” i.e. sideways. Carriages, stretchers, and sedan chairs were favored by ladies, although illness or age provided grounds for the use of this transport. Usually a nobleman left the house accompanied by servants, and the more noble he was, the more numerous the escort. We walked only for walks around the house or in the garden. At the same time, they always held a cane in their hands and did not lean on it, but casually waved it. The royal court practically dictated the conditions of behavior for the entire society. It was at court that the practice of kissing during meetings was widespread. Even strangers kissed - both ladies and gentlemen. If there was no opportunity to kiss, they blew a kiss, which was previously accepted only among princes. The passion for kissing was so great that the custom arose of kissing objects passed on by friends.

Henry Victor Lesur

Boots, spurs and weapons - all this emphasized the valor of the nobleman, as well as the constant readiness for a skirmish, to defend his honor in a duel. Duels were repeatedly prohibited, but they occurred constantly. The royal power was forced to forgive the duelists. Only for the period from 1583-1603. 7,000 thousand people received forgiveness. A challenge to a duel was called a “ticket.” The fight was fought according to strict rules. In accordance with unwritten etiquette, the fight began by unbuttoning camisoles, untying ribbons and lacing on pants, and removing belts and slings. The favorite place for duels in Paris was Pré-au-cleir and the meadow near the walls of the monastery of Saint-Germain des Prés (St. Herman in the Fields). Here, not only young nobles, but also university students sorted things out.

Entertainment and fun also distributed by the royal court. One of my favorite ways to spend time was playing cards. At court, an invitation to the king's card table was especially honorable. At the same time, despite all the gallant etiquette, executions and burning of heretics were popular entertainments.

The French paid more and more attention to their table and table etiquette. Over time, special rooms will appear - dining rooms, but for now meals were solemnly furnished even in peasant houses. No wonder there is an old saying: “Happy is the man who has wife is Russian, the butler is English, the cook is French.” It is no coincidence that the Frenchman is called the ideal cook. It was for them that the fame of first-class culinary specialists has been established since ancient times. The first cookbook was published in France at the beginning of the 14th century. The cult of not only nourishing, tasty, but also beautifully presented food has been created by the French for centuries. This is how the table was set during one of the royal dinners in 1455. It was decorated with peacock feathers, branches entwined with flowers and even an aviary in which birds with gilded crests and paws chirped. Participants in the feast ate reindeer stew, wild fallow deer meat, stuffed chickens, roast veal, several varieties of pate, sturgeon and wild boar meat. sour cream sauce. While the guests were sated, their ears were delighted by the minstrels. Naturally, the nobility imitated the king in everything, and the exquisite setting of the festive table for many centuries - and to this day - remains one of the many advantages of French cuisine. The further, the more refined the French kings become and the more willingly they follow the lead of elegant ladies and the greater the inventors their cooks become. And since France dictated fashion, including in cooking, the neighbors, grumbling and laughing, followed the example of the French. Cooking in French was prestigious and even menus were often written in French. The most common drink in France was wine. When one of those present was honored, a crust of bread was placed in a glass of wine - it was called toast - and it was passed from hand to hand to the guest so that he would drink the wine and eat the bread. Hence the modern meaning of the word “toast” and the expression “raise a toast.” Before guests arrived, all dishes were placed on the table, covered with lids to protect them from poisons. Hence the expression “setting the table.” Hands were usually not washed before eating; only on special occasions were guests offered a container of scented water, one for everyone, or their hands were rinsed with wine. By the way, it was Russian diplomats who taught Europe to wash their hands before eating and to serve not all dishes at once, but one by one. They were seated at the table according to rank. The host's place was at the head of the table. Glasses and cups for drinks stood on the side table. Anyone who wanted a drink invited a servant, who served him a drink and then returned the glass to the table. At the same time, the servant had to remember where and whose glass it was. With the change of dishes, the napkins were changed, and the tablecloth was changed before dessert. Napkins were tied around the neck, due to the small size and thickness of the fabric, this was not easy to do, hence the expression “Making ends meet,” which today has come to mean purely financial difficulties.

Rudeness and vulgarity, so characteristic of the first king of the Bourbon dynasty - Henry IV the Great (Henry of Navarre 1553-1610), caused discontent among the court nobility, which unexpectedly gave rise to a completely new phenomenon - secular salons. In the decoration of such chambers, everything bears the stamp of sophistication taken to the extreme. Mirrors, gilding, stucco patterns wildly spreading along the walls and ceilings make up the spatial structure of the interiors. Elegant furniture, elegant decorations, cozy homes furnished with great attention to every detail, sophisticated forms of social life - all this becomes an inseparable part of the everyday life of the highest circles of society. The first secular salon appeared in 1606 at the Marquise de Rambouillet.

Catherine (Catherine) de Vivon, Marquise de Rambouillet (1588, Rome - December 2, 1665, Paris) - the famous hostess of the Parisian literary salon of the era of Louis XIV. The Marquise, often simply called Madame de Rambouillet, was the daughter and heiress of Jean de Vivonne, Marquis of Pisani. Her mother Giulia belonged to the aristocratic Roman Savelli family. At the age of 12, Catherine was married to Charles d'Angennes, Viscount of Le Mans and later Marquis of Rambouillet. After the birth of her eldest daughter, Julie d'Angennes, in 1607, the young marquise felt a desire not to appear at the royal court, full of intrigue, and began to gather around herself a circle that would later become so famous. Her residence was the Pisani mansion (hotel) located near the Louvre, which later began to be called the Rambouillet Hotel (Hôtel de Rambouillet). The Rambouillet salon became the center of the literary front against absolutism and one of the main places where fine literature(French précieux - precise - refined, cutesy) - a literary movement that arose in France at the beginning of the 17th century in a feigned aristocratic environment and existed until the 60s. XVII century) The literary reflection of salon life were countless madrigals, sonnets, rondos, messages, which were a light, sophisticated secular “causerie” (unforced conversation, conversation) in verse with its wit, pretentious turns of phrase, word game, poetic riddles, puns. Love, or rather gallant falling in love, the cult of the lady, small episodes of social life are the usual themes of this poetry. Her most bright representatives- Godot, Benserad, Abbé Cotin, Voiture, Sarazen, who created a conventional style of secular lyricism, brilliant in form.
The difference between Madame Rambouillet's salon, which she kept with her daughter, and the usual houses open for receptions at that time, was that the space consisted of several small rooms where guests could move around and find more privacy than in large reception rooms halls The Hotel was rebuilt for these purposes in 1650, and until 1650 it retained its importance as a social and literary center. Almost all the most prominent representatives of French society and culture did not escape his blue drawing rooms, especially in the 2nd quarter of the century, when this salon was at the peak of its fame, which, in particular, it owed to the beauty of its owner. The marquise's success as a salon hostess has many explanations. She had innate abilities which, although not extraordinary, were carefully developed. In addition, many of her guests, like herself, were turned away from the royal court by the intrigues reigning there, and in the house of the marquise they found a worthy alternative. The Marchioness possessed true kindness and had no prejudices, which allowed her to receive princes of the blood and writers equally graciously. We should not forget about the significance that this salon had on the development of the epistolary genre in France. Moreover, the excellent quality of almost all letters and memoirs of Frenchmen and Frenchwomen of the 17th century. Much can be explained by what happened in the Marquise's salon: the art of conversation began to be treated as a real art, and a clear standard of worthy forms of expression of feelings was created.
The mistress of the house received guests while lying down in her famous blue living room. The conversation began with an exchange of news, then any interesting topics. The conversation was conducted in a relaxed, easy manner. Not only aristocrats, but also wealthy bourgeois held receptions, usually in a room where there was a bed. Following the example of Madame Rambouillet, the ladies greeted guests lying down. Gradually, such a living room began to be divided into two parts by a canopy that hid the bed. This part - the alcove - was accessible only to the people closest to the owner. The most intimate and secret conversations were held there. The Salon of the Marquise de Rambouillet had a serious influence on the subsequent development of etiquette during the last years of the reign of Henry III and the entire reign of Louis XIII.
Recent years The reign of Louis XIV was a period of decline and incredible boredom at Versailles. Young people began to leave the courtyard, finding interesting communication in secular salons. At the beginning of the 18th century, several famous salons appeared at once: Madame de Lambert, Duchess du Maine, Madame de Tansen. In the 18th century, salon meetings became centers of social life. Famous writers, musicians, poets, philosophers, actors, politicians gather here, and among them Montesquieu, Marivaux, Abbé Prevost, Voltaire, Andrienne Lecouvreur, Michel Baron, Rameau, President Hainault, Bolibrok, etc. Literary novelties, performances, and philosophical treatises are discussed here , political news and gossip. The next day, these final judgments about everything in the world become the final opinion of all Paris.

It was as if Louis XIV was destined to be the darling of fate. His very birth, after twenty years of his parents’ married life, could serve good sign. At the age of five, he became heir to the most beautiful and powerful of the thrones of Europe. Louis XIV was called the Sun King. A handsome man with dark curls, regular features of a blooming face, graceful manners, majestic posture, and also the ruler of a great country, he truly made an irresistible impression.

In his interactions with courtiers, ministers, and diplomats, he always looked very reserved and demonstrated amazing politeness, which varied in many shades depending on the rank, age and merits of his counterpart. He expressed his thoughts clearly, freely and clearly. His behavior in society was prudent, tactful and extremely moderate.

The much-quoted saying, “Precision is the courtesy of kings,” applies particularly to Louis XIV. He was always punctual, listened attentively and did not get tired during the longest meetings. He possessed exclusively developed sense debt. Louis XIV showed himself to be a pragmatist who used current political events to benefit the crown and the state. At the same time, he never waited, but tried to create a favorable situation for France, nip anti-French coalitions in the bud or - if this was not possible - defeat them with preventive military actions. He was always firm in matters of dignity, etiquette and ceremony.

The king actively participated in court life. He was an excellent horseman and loved hunting. As a gentleman he was a model. He danced willingly and appreciated theater and court celebrations.

Everyone knows that the word “etiquette” acquired its modern meaning precisely under King Louis. Firstly, signs like “Do not walk on the lawns” were placed on the freshly seeded lawns of the young Versailles Park, because careless nobles did not care too much about the safety of the plantings. These signs were called labels, and the king issued a special decree calling for compliance with the rules of behavior and reminding that the inscriptions should not be neglected. Secondly, during receptions, in order not to violate the strictness of the ceremonies, labels were placed on the chairs of the guests listing some of the rules that the king insisted on observing. Thus, the French word “etiquette” received a second meaning: “behavior in accordance with the established order, ceremonial.”

Obviously, court obligations required certain qualities from the nobleman. Guides to the behavior of that time have been preserved, of which one of the most famous is the work of Count Castiglione “The Courtier”. According to this manual, a courtier must be kind and attentive, avoid gossip, slander and lies. His manners had to look natural without awkwardness, he had to speak several languages well, be able to play cards, not pay attention to financial losses, sing, draw, dance, play musical instruments, practice sports that were fashionable at that time, but not the games of the common people. In war, he was advised to avoid unnecessary risks if he was outside the field of command. His politeness should have increased depending on the rank of the interlocutor, and in relation to the king his manners should have resembled the behavior of a servant before his master. It is clear that not all of these norms were implemented in practice, but the rules of behavior towards the king had to be strictly observed.

During the reign of Louis 14, etiquette became so complex that a special position of master of ceremonies appeared at the courts, who monitored the implementation of all its subtleties and strictly regulated the entire palace life. Members of the monarch's family and courtiers had to get up at a certain hour, it was precisely indicated who was supposed to be present when dressing the monarch, serving items of his toilet, accompanying him during a walk, etc. It was precisely determined how the ceremonies of audiences, ceremonial exits, walks, dinners, balls.

The right of primacy in the court etiquette of the era of absolutism acquires a decisive character. The question of someone's advantage often becomes a matter of life and death, since it was considered an unforgivable insult to occupy someone else's place, even accidentally, or enter a room before a person of higher rank. It mattered who sat on what, who provided this or that service to the king.

Through the efforts of Louis 14 himself, the system of championship was ritualized to the smallest detail. The ceremonies of that time elevated the king to the level of an inaccessible deity. In the morning, when the king woke up, the chief keeper of the bedchamber and several courtiers put on a robe, and not only who was providing what service, but also their movements were described. Then the doors of the bedchamber opened, and the king could be seen by the courtiers of the highest ranks, bowing deeply. The king said a prayer and went into another room, where he dressed, and was again served by representatives of the highest nobility, while the main courtiers, who had the right to do so, witnessed this process, standing at a distance in respectful silence. Then the king retired to the chapel at the head of the procession, and on his way stood rows of dignitaries not granted an audience, repeating their petitions in the hope that Louis XIV, passing by, would hear them and perhaps even say: “I’ll think about it.” During the royal meal, all courtiers had to stand in complete silence. The king was sitting in a chair. The Queen and princes, if present, had the right to sit on chairs, and other members of the royal family on stools. A king could do the greatest honor to a noble lady by allowing her to sit on a stool; men did not have such a privilege, but they all strove for it for the sake of their wives.

It is clear that in such conditions, fundamental importance was attached to issues of primacy, and no one, as in the Middle Ages, conceded their privileges and rights to another. Anyone who received a special honor (for example, carrying a candle in the royal bedchamber) could receive additional social and, no less important, material advantages over others.

Ranks, favors, money, estates - everything was obtained at the court, in the crowd of courtiers, subordinate to this strict hierarchy. The courtiers were forced to stand for long hours every day, endure the boredom of the royal meal and the humiliating duties of servants in order to be noticed by the king. Years spent in this way had a detrimental effect on their character and intellect, but brought tangible material benefits.

The court etiquette of Louis XIV also greatly contributed to the development of the French fashion industry, so the king issued a special decree on changing clothes according to the seasons, regulated the costume of the courtiers, and introduced new clothes into fashion - the justocore, which finally supplanted the purpoin and brasière. The costume, which was formed in the 1670-1680s, was worn almost unchanged for more than a hundred years, until the Great French Revolution. It consisted of a shirt, knee-length pants, long-sleeved underwear with a front closure and outerwear with fastening and sleeves with turn-ups. At this time, relatively new look clothes - homemade (robes made of striped oriental fabrics, turban). Great attention was paid at the court of Louis XIV women's fashion, since the woman was at the center of court life, being an adornment of the French court. Already in the 1650s. The corset comes back into fashion - light, with whalebone, and petticoats made of fabric stitched with whalebone appear. This gives the figure gracefulness and clear lines. The cult of femininity leads to an increase in neckline and a passion for accessories. A heel that appeared at the beginning of the 17th century. as an element of a cavalryman's footwear for resting his foot in the stirrup, it becomes a new sophisticated weapon of female coquetry. The hairstyle becomes an extremely important element of the costume - more and more new styles are being invented using hot perms, other people's curls, ribbons, and lace.

Large festive performances, theatrical and musical performances, but there were many other opportunities to have fun.

Perhaps nowhere have they been so keen on dance, have they not studied it so thoroughly, as in France in late XVII century. Under Louis XIV, balls reached extraordinary splendor. Louis XIV personally took dance lessons for twenty years, and usually took part in many court ballet productions, often in the role of Apollo or Jupiter. In fact, anyone, from a prince to a street musician, could take part in such a costume masquerade performance. At first they had a rather disjointed structure, where each performer played his role as he wished; but soon these ballet productions began to be entrusted to professional artists, such as the composer Jean-Baptiste Lully. The balls of the times of Louis 14 amazed with the luxury of costumes and the pomp of the atmosphere. Here the rules of court etiquette were observed especially strictly. The decoration of the halls and living rooms, the elegantly sophisticated outfits and light dances exuded refined grace and emphasized mannerism.
Louis was very concerned about the splendor and luxury of his court. He often organized holidays, balls, masquerades, wore luxurious costumes, and erected expensive buildings. It was during his reign that Versailles turned from a small village into the residence of French kings.
Possessing a representative appearance, graceful manners and refined taste, the king was the legislator of court etiquette and, by personal example, sought to introduce sophistication and refinement of treatment among his subjects. The courtiers, wanting to please the ruler, imitated him in everything. At that time, gold-embroidered caftans, silk stockings, shoes and huge wavy wigs became fashionable for men; ribbons and lace adorned both women's and men's outfits in abundance; elaborate squats, bows and compliments dominated the circulation.

In 1661, Louis XIV issued a decree on the organization of the Paris Academy of Dance. A special royal document states that the Academy is designed to promote good manners among the privileged classes and good bearing among the military. This institution was headed by thirteen of the best teachers appointed by Louis. The Academy's task was to establish strict forms of individual dances, develop and legitimize teaching methods common to all, improve existing dances and invent new ones.

Louis XIV went down in history as the “Sun King”. In France, the sun was a symbol of royal power and the king personally even before Louis XIV. The luminary became the personification of the monarch in poetry, solemn odes and court ballets. In one of the ballet productions, young Louis had the opportunity to appear for the first time before his subjects in the image of the Rising Sun, and then Apollo, the Sun God. Princes of the blood and courtiers, dancing next to their sovereign, depicted various elements, planets and other creatures and phenomena subject to the Sun. In addition, at the Carousel of 1662, given in honor of the birth of the first-born of the royal couple, Louis XIV pranced in front of the audience on a horse dressed as a Roman emperor. In his hand the king had a golden shield with the image of the Sun. This symbolized that this luminary protects the king and with him the whole of France.

Louis XIV reigned for 72 years, longer than any other European monarch. He became king at the age of four, and took full power into his own hands at 23 and ruled for 54 years. Louis de Bourbon was confident in his divine right to unlimited power and was considered the embodiment of France and the state. External manifestation This became a detailed etiquette of court life and worship of the monarch. The court served the king as an instrument of control over the powerful and influential part of the nobility, the “greats” of the country, who could mobilize significant forces in their provinces. This is the highest nobility various methods, including the distribution of lucrative positions and pensions, were attracted to the court, where, given the high costs of representation and the lifestyle corresponding to their rank, they became more and more dependent on the king. The absolute power of the monarch was necessary for the good and prosperity of the state and its inhabitants. A talented ruler, Louis XIV did a lot in this direction. His policy was aimed at developing the economy and culture of France. The Academy of Sciences was created, and culture was actively supported by the state. Therefore, it is no coincidence that France under Louis XIV became the most powerful power in Europe.