Even in ancient times, it was discovered that, along with the material, objective, external, objective world, there are immaterial, internal, subjective phenomena - human feelings, desires, memories, etc. Every person is endowed with mental life.

Psyche is defined as the property of highly organized matter to reflect objective reality and, on the basis of the mental image formed in this case, it is advisable to regulate the subject’s activity and behavior. From this definition It follows that the main functions of the psyche are the closely interrelated reflection of objective reality and the regulation of individual behavior and activity.

Reflection expresses the ability of material objects in the process of interaction to reproduce in their changes the features and traits of the objects influencing them. The form of reflection depends on the form of existence of matter. In nature, three main forms of reflection can be distinguished. The lowest level of life organization corresponds to the physical form of reflection, characteristic of the interaction of inanimate objects. Corresponds to a higher level physiological form reflections. Next level takes the form of the most complex and developed mental reflection with the highest level of reflection specific to the human psyche - consciousness. Consciousness integrates the diverse phenomena of human reality into a truly holistic way of being and makes a person a Human.

The consciousness of a person’s mental life lies in his ability to separate himself, his own “I” from his life environment in his representation, to make his own inner world, subjectivity is a subject of comprehension, understanding, and most importantly - a subject practical transformation. This ability of the human psyche is called self-awareness, and it is it that defines the boundary separating the animal and human ways being.

Psychic reflection is not mirror-like and not passive - it is active process associated with the search and choice of methods of action that are adequate to the prevailing conditions. A feature of mental reflection is subjectivity, i.e. mediation of a person’s past experience and his individuality. This is expressed, first of all, in the fact that we see one world, but it appears differently for each of us. At the same time, mental reflection makes it possible to build an “internal picture of the world” that is adequate to objective reality, in connection with which it is necessary to note such a property as objectivity. Only through correct reflection is it possible for a person to understand the world around him. The criterion for correctness is practical activities, in which mental reflection is constantly deepening, improving and developing. An important feature of mental reflection is, finally, its anticipatory nature: it makes possible anticipation in human activity and behavior, which allows decisions to be made with a certain time-spatial advance regarding the future.

Thanks to the regulation of behavior and activity, a person not only adequately reflects the surrounding objective world, but has the opportunity to transform this world in the process of purposeful activity. The adequacy of human movements and actions to the conditions, tools and subject of activity is possible only if they are correctly reflected by the subject. The idea of ​​the regulating role of mental reflection was formulated by I.M. Sechenov, who noted that sensations and perceptions are not only triggering signals, but also original “patterns” in accordance with which movements are regulated. The psyche represents complex system, its elements are hierarchically organized and changeable. Like any system, the psyche is characterized by its own structure, dynamics of functioning, and a certain organization.

4.2.Structure of the psyche. Mental processes, mental states and mental properties.

Many researchers focus on the systematicity, integrity and indivisibility of the psyche as its fundamental property. The whole variety of mental phenomena in psychology is usually divided into mental processes, mental states and mental properties. These forms are closely related to each other. Their selection is determined by the methodological need to systematize the study of such a complex object as human mental life. Thus, the identified categories represent the structure of knowledge about the psyche rather than the structure of the psyche itself.

The concept of “mental process” emphasizes the procedural (dynamic) nature of the phenomenon being studied. The main mental processes include cognitive, motivational and emotional.

Cognitive processes provide reflection of the world and transformation of information. Sensation and perception make it possible to reflect reality through the direct influence of signals on the senses and represent a level sensory knowledge the surrounding world. Sensation is associated with the reflection of individual properties of the objective world; as a result of perception, a holistic image of the surrounding world is formed in all its completeness and diversity. Images of perception are often called primary images. The result of capturing, reproducing or transforming primary images are secondary images, which are a product rational knowledge objective world, which is provided by such mental processes as memory, imagination, thinking. The most indirect and generalized process of cognition is thinking, as a result of which a person receives subjectively new knowledge that cannot be deduced from direct experience.

The processes of motivation and will provide mental regulation of human activity, inducing, directing and controlling this activity. The main component of the motivational process is the emergence of a need, subjectively experienced as a state of need for something, desire, passion, aspiration. The search for an object that satisfies a need leads to the actualization of a motive, which is an image of an object that satisfies a need, based on the past experience of the subject. Based on the motive, goal setting and decision making occur.

Emotional processes reflect a person’s bias and subjective assessment of the world around him, himself and the results of his activities. They manifest themselves in the form of subjective experiences and are always directly related to motivation.

Mental states characterize the static moment of the individual psyche, emphasizing the relative constancy of a mental phenomenon over time. In terms of their level of dynamism, they occupy an intermediate position between processes and properties. Like mental processes, mental states can be divided into cognitive (doubt, etc.), motivational-volitional (confidence, etc.) and emotional (happiness, etc.). In addition, a separate category includes functional states of a person that characterize readiness to effectively perform activities. Functional states can be optimal and suboptimal, acute and chronic, comfortable and uncomfortable. These include various states of performance, fatigue, monotony, psychological stress, extreme conditions.

Mental properties are the most stable mental phenomena, fixed in the structure of the personality and determining the constant ways of interaction of a person with the world. The main groups of mental properties of a person include temperament, character and abilities. Mental properties are relatively constant over time, although they can change during life under the influence of environmental and biological factors and experience. Temperament is the most general dynamic characteristic of an individual, which manifests itself in the sphere of a person’s general activity and his emotionality. Character properties determine the typical way of behavior for a given person in life situations, the system of relationships towards oneself and other people. Abilities are the individual psychological characteristics of an individual that determine the successful performance of an activity, develop and manifest themselves in activity. Mental processes, states and properties represent an inextricable indivisible unity, forming the integrity of a person’s mental life. A category that integrates everything mental manifestations and facts into a complex but unified system is “personality”.

4.3. Consciousness as the highest form of mental reflection. States of consciousness.

The fundamental characteristic of human existence is its awareness. Consciousness is an integral attribute human existence. The problem of the content, mechanisms and structure of human consciousness before today remains one of the fundamentally important and most complex. This is due, in particular, to the fact that consciousness is the object of study of many sciences, and the range of such sciences is increasingly expanding. The study of consciousness is carried out by philosophers, anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, teachers, physiologists and other representatives of natural and humanities, each of which studies certain phenomena of consciousness. These phenomena are quite far from each other and do not correlate with consciousness as a whole.

In philosophy, the problem of consciousness is illuminated in connection with the relationship between the ideal and the material (consciousness and being), from the point of view of origin (a property of highly organized matter), from the position of reflection (reflection of the objective world). In a narrower sense, consciousness is understood as a human reflection of existence, embodied in socially expressed forms of the ideal. The emergence of consciousness is associated in philosophical science with the emergence of labor and the impact on nature in the course of collective labor activity, which gave rise to an awareness of the properties and natural connections of phenomena, which was consolidated in the language formed in the process of communication. In work and real communication, we also see the basis for the emergence of self-awareness - awareness of one’s own relationship to the surrounding natural and social environment, understanding one’s place in the system of social relations. The specificity of human reflection of existence is determined, first of all, by the fact that consciousness not only reflects the objective world, but also creates it.

In psychology, consciousness is viewed as highest form reflections of reality, purposefully regulating human activity and related to speech. The developed consciousness of an individual is characterized by a complex, multidimensional psychological structure. A.N. Leontyev identified three main components in the structure of human consciousness: the sensory fabric of the image, meaning and personal meaning.

The sensory tissue of the image is the sensory composition of specific images of reality, actually perceived or emerging in memory, related to the future or only imaginary. These images differ in their modality, sensory tone, degree of clarity, stability, etc. Special Feature sensory images of consciousness is that they give reality to the conscious picture of the world that is revealed to the subject, in other words, the world appears for the subject as existing not in consciousness, but outside his consciousness - as an objective “field” and an object of activity. Sensory images represent a universal form of mental reflection generated by the objective activity of the subject.

Meanings are the most important components of human consciousness. The carrier of meanings is a socially developed language, which acts as perfect shape the existence of the objective world, its properties, connections and relationships. The child learns meanings during childhood joint activities with adults. Socially developed meanings become the property of individual consciousness and allow a person to build his own experience on its basis.

Personal meaning creates partiality in human consciousness. He points out that individual consciousness is not reducible to impersonal knowledge. Meaning is the functioning of meanings in the processes of activity and consciousness of specific people. Meaning connects meanings with the reality of a person’s life, with his motives and values.

The sensory fabric of the image, meaning and meaning are in close interaction, mutually enriching each other, forming a single fabric of individual consciousness. Another aspect of the psychological analysis of the category of consciousness in psychology is close to how consciousness is understood in the natural sciences: physiology, psychophysiology, medicine. This way of studying consciousness is represented by studies of states of consciousness and their changes. States of consciousness are considered as a certain level of activation, against the background of which the process of mental reflection of the surrounding world and activity occurs. Traditionally, Western psychology distinguishes two states of consciousness: sleep and wakefulness.

Among the basic laws mental activity A person has a cyclic alternation of sleep and wakefulness. The need for sleep depends on age. The total sleep duration of a newborn is 20-23 hours per day, from six months to one year - about 18 hours, from two to four years old - about 16 hours, from four to eight years old - about 12 hours. On average human body functioning as follows: 16h - wakefulness, 8h - sleep. However, experimental studies of rhythms human life showed that such a relationship between the states of sleep and wakefulness is not obligatory and universal. In the USA, experiments were carried out to change the rhythm: the 24-hour cycle was replaced by a cycle of 21, 28 and 48 hours. The subjects lived on a 48-hour cycle during long stays in the cave. For every 36 hours of wakefulness, they had 12 hours of sleep, which means that in every ordinary, “earthly” day, they saved two hours of wakefulness. Many of them fully adapted to the new rhythm and remained operational.

A person deprived of sleep dies within two weeks. As a result of a 60-80-hour lack of sleep, a person experiences a decrease in the speed of mental reactions, his mood deteriorates, disorientation in the environment occurs, his performance sharply decreases, his ability to concentrate is lost, and there may be various disorders motor skills, hallucinations are possible, memory loss and confusion of speech are sometimes observed. Previously, it was believed that sleep was simply complete rest for the body, allowing it to regain strength. Modern representations about the functions of sleep they prove: this is not just a recovery period, and most importantly, it is not at all a homogeneous state. A new understanding of sleep became possible with the beginning of the use of psychophysiological methods of analysis: bio recordings electrical activity brain (EEG), recording muscle tone and eye movements. It was found that sleep consists of five phases, alternating every hour and a half, and includes two qualitatively various states- slow and rapid sleep, which differ from each other in the types of electrical activity of the brain, vegetative indicators, muscle tone, eye movements.

NREM sleep has four stages:

drowsiness - at this stage the main bioelectrical rhythm of wakefulness disappears - alpha rhythms, they are replaced by low-amplitude oscillations; dream-like hallucinations may occur;

superficial sleep - sleep spindles appear (spindle rhythm - 14-18 vibrations per second); when the first spindles appear, consciousness turns off;

and 4. delta sleep - high-amplitude, slow EEG oscillations appear. Delta sleep is divided into two stages: at the 3rd stage, waves occupy 30-40% of the entire EEG, at the 4th stage - more than 50%. This deep sleep: muscle tone is reduced, eye movements are absent, breathing rhythm and pulse become less frequent, temperature drops. It is very difficult to awaken a person from delta sleep. As a rule, a person awakened in these phases of sleep does not remember dreams, is poorly oriented in his surroundings, and incorrectly estimates time intervals (reduces the time spent in sleep). Delta sleep, the period of greatest disconnection from the outside world, predominates in the first half of the night.

REM sleep is characterized by EEG rhythms similar to those of wakefulness. Cerebral blood flow increases with strong muscle relaxation with sharp twitching in certain muscle groups. This combination of EEG activity and complete muscle relaxation explains the second name for this stage of sleep - paradoxical sleep. There are sudden changes in heart rate and breathing (series of frequent inhalations and exhalations alternate with pauses), episodic rise and fall blood pressure. Rapid eye movements are observed with closed eyelids. It is the stage REM sleep is accompanied by dreams, and if a person is woken up during this period, he will quite coherently tell what he dreamed.

Dreams as a psychological reality were introduced into psychology by 3. Freud. He viewed dreams as vivid expressions of the unconscious. In the understanding of modern scientists, in a dream, the processing of information received during the day continues. Moreover, the central place in the structure of dreams is played by subliminal information, to which due attention was not paid during the day, or information that did not become the property of conscious processing. Thus, sleep expands the capabilities of consciousness, organizes its content, and provides the necessary psychological protection.

The state of wakefulness is also heterogeneous: during the day, the level of activation constantly changes depending on the influence of external and internal factors. We can distinguish intense wakefulness, the moments of which correspond to periods of the most intense mental and physical activity, normal wakefulness and relaxed wakefulness. Tense and normal wakefulness are called extroverted states of consciousness, since it is in these states that a person is capable of full and effective interaction with the outside world and other people. The effectiveness of the activity performed and the productivity of solving life problems are largely determined by the level of wakefulness and activation. Behavior is more effective the closer the level of wakefulness is to a certain optimum: it should not be too low or too high. At low levels, a person’s readiness for activity is low and he may soon fall asleep; at high activation, a person is excited and tense, which can lead to disorganization of activity.

In addition to sleep and wakefulness, psychology distinguishes a number of states called altered states of consciousness. These include, for example, meditation and hypnosis. Meditation is special condition consciousness, changed at the request of the subject. The practice of inducing one into such a state has been known in the East for many centuries. All types of meditation are based on focusing attention in order to limit the field of extroverted consciousness and force the brain to respond rhythmically to the stimulus on which the subject is focused. After a meditation session, a feeling of relaxation, a decrease in physical and mental stress and fatigue, mental activity and general vitality increase.

Hypnosis is a special state of consciousness that occurs under the influence of suggestion, including self-hypnosis. Hypnosis has something in common with meditation and sleep: like them, hypnosis is achieved by reducing the flow of signals to the brain. However, these states should not be identified. Essential components of hypnosis are suggestion and suggestibility. A report is established between the hypnotized and the hypnotizing person - the only connection with the outside world that a person retains in a state of hypnotic trance.

Since ancient times, people have used special substances to change the state of their consciousness. Substances that affect behavior, consciousness and mood are called psychoactive, or psychotropic. One of the classes of such substances includes drugs that bring a person into a state of “weightlessness”, euphoria and create a feeling of being outside of time and space. Most narcotic drugs are produced from plants, primarily the poppy, from which opium is obtained. Actually, drugs in the narrow sense are precisely opiates - derivatives of opium: morphine, heroin, etc. A person quickly gets used to drugs, he develops physical and mental dependence.

Another class of psychotropic substances consists of stimulants, aphrodisiacs. Minor stimulants include tea, coffee and nicotine - many people use them to perk up. Amphetamines are more powerful stimulants - they produce a surge of strength, including creative energy, excitement, euphoria, self-confidence, and a feeling of limitless possibilities. The aftereffects of using these substances may include the appearance of psychotic symptoms of hallucinations, paranoia, and loss of strength. Neurosuppressants, barbiturates and tranquilizers, reduce anxiety, calm, reduce emotional stress, some act like sleeping pills. Hallucinogens and psychedelics (LSD, marijuana, hashish) distort the perception of time and space, cause hallucinations, euphoria, change thinking, and expand consciousness.

4.4. Consciousness and the unconscious.

An important step in studying the conscious reflection of the surrounding reality is to determine the range of phenomena that are commonly called unconscious, or unconscious. Yu.B. Gippenreiter proposed dividing all unconscious mental phenomena into three large classes:

unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions;

unconscious motivators of conscious actions;

supraconscious processes.

Among the unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions are:

unconscious automatisms are actions or acts that are performed as if “by themselves,” without the participation of consciousness. Some of these processes were never realized, while others passed through consciousness and ceased to be realized. The first are called primary automatisms, or automatic actions. They are either congenital or formed very early - during the first year of life: sucking movements, blinking, grasping, walking, eye convergence. The latter are known as secondary automatisms, or automated actions, skills. Thanks to the formation of a skill, the action begins to be carried out quickly and accurately, and due to automation, consciousness is freed from the need to constantly monitor the execution of the action;

unconscious attitudes - the readiness of an organism or subject to perform a certain action or to react in a certain direction; there are extremely many facts demonstrating the readiness or preliminary adjustment of the organism for action, and they relate to different areas. Examples of unconscious attitudes include muscular pre-tuning for the implementation physical action- motor set, readiness to perceive and interpret material, object, phenomenon in a certain way - perceptual set, readiness to solve problems and tasks in a certain way - mental set, etc. Attitudes have a very important functional significance: a subject prepared for action is able to carry it out more efficiently and economically;

unconscious accompaniments of conscious actions. Not all unconscious components carry the same functional load. Some implement conscious actions, others prepare actions. Finally, there are unconscious processes that simply accompany actions. This group includes involuntary movements, tonic tension, facial expressions and pantomime, as well as wide range vegetative reactions accompanying human actions and conditions. For example, a child sticks out his tongue when writing; a person watching someone in pain has a sad expression on their face and does not notice it. These unconscious phenomena play important role V communication processes, representing a necessary component of human communication (facial expressions, gestures, pantomime). They are also objective indicators of various psychological characteristics and human states - his intentions, relationships, hidden desires and thoughts.

The study of unconscious motivators of conscious actions is associated with the name of Freud. Freud's interest in unconscious processes arose at the very beginning of his medical career. The scientist's attention was drawn to the phenomena of post-hypnotic suggestion. Based on the analysis of such facts, he created his theory of the unconscious. According to Freud, there are three spheres in the psyche: preconscious, conscious, unconscious. Preconsciousness is hidden, latent knowledge that a person has, but is not present in his consciousness in at the moment; if necessary, they easily move into consciousness. The contents of the unconscious, on the contrary, hardly become conscious. At the same time, it has a strong energetic charge and, penetrating into consciousness in an altered form - as dreams, erroneous actions or neurotic symptoms - has a great influence on it. Freud believed that the true reasons for human behavior are not realized by him - they are hidden and closely related to suppressed drives, primarily sexual. Awareness true reasons behavior, the scientist believed, is possible only in interaction with a psychoanalyst in a specially organized therapeutic process. The study of unconscious motivators of conscious actions is associated with the name of Freud. Freud's interest in unconscious processes arose at the very beginning of his medical career. The scientist's attention was attracted by the phenomena of post-hypnotic suggestion. Based on the analysis of such facts, he created his theory of the unconscious. According to Freud, there are three spheres in the psyche: preconscious, conscious, unconscious. Preconsciousness is hidden, latent knowledge that a person has, but is not present in his consciousness at the moment; if necessary, they easily move into consciousness. The contents of the unconscious, on the contrary, hardly become conscious. At the same time, it has a strong energetic charge and, penetrating into consciousness in an altered form - as dreams, erroneous actions or neurotic symptoms - has a great influence on it. Freud believed that the true reasons for human behavior are not realized by him - they are hidden and closely related to suppressed drives, primarily sexual. Awareness of the true causes of behavior, the scientist believed, is possible only in interaction with a psychoanalyst in a specially organized therapeutic psychoanalysis.

The outstanding Russian psychologist A.N. Leontiev also argued that most of the motives of human activity are not realized. But, in his opinion, motives can manifest themselves in the emotional coloring of certain objects or phenomena, in the form of a reflection of their personal meaning. A person is able to understand the motives of his behavior without resorting to the help of a psychologist. However, this presents a special challenge. Often, awareness of a motive is replaced by motivation - a rational justification for an action that does not reflect a person’s actual motives.

Subconscious processes are the processes of formation of a certain integral product of large unconscious work, which then “invades” a person’s conscious life. For example, a person is busy deciding some complex problem, which he thinks about every day for a long time. Reflecting on a problem, he goes through and analyzes various impressions and events, makes assumptions, tests them, argues with himself. And suddenly everything becomes clear: sometimes it arises unexpectedly, by itself, sometimes after an insignificant event, which turns out to be the last straw that overflows the cup. What has entered into his consciousness is in reality an integral product of a previous process. However, a person has no idea about the course of the latter. “Supraconscious” are processes occurring above consciousness in the sense that their content and time scale are larger than anything that consciousness can accommodate. Passing through consciousness in their individual sections, they as a whole are beyond its boundaries.

The identified classes of unconscious mental phenomena expand our understanding of the psyche, not limiting it only to the facts of conscious reflection of reality. It should be especially emphasized that the conscious and unconscious are not opposites, but private manifestations of the psyche.

Self-test questions.

1. What is the psyche and what are its main functions?
2. What are the main levels of mental reflection?
3. What is consciousness?
4. What are states of consciousness? What states of consciousness do you know?
5. What are unconscious mental phenomena? What classes of unconscious mental phenomena are identified by Yu.B. Gippenreiter?

Literature.

1. Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology: A course of lectures. M., 1988. Bream. 5 and 6.
2. Psychology: Textbook / Ed. V.N. Druzhinina. St. Petersburg, 2003. Ch. 5.
3. Leontyev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. M., 1975.
4. Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Human psychology. M., 1995.

Features of mental reflection. Reflection is inherent in all matter. The interaction of any material bodies leads to their mutual changes. This phenomenon can be observed in the field of mechanics, in all manifestations of electrical energy, in optics, etc. The fact that the psyche is a kind of reflection once again emphasizes its inextricable connection, unity with matter. However, mental reflection is qualitatively different; it has a number of special properties.

What characterizes the psyche as a reflection? The mental consciousness of a person is considered as a result of the reflective activity of the human brain, as a subjective reflection of the objective world. A comprehensive disclosure of the essence of the psyche as a reflection is given in the works of V. I. Lenin, and above all in his work “Materialism and Empirio-Criticism.” “Our sensations, our consciousness,” according to V.I. Lenin, “are only image the outside world..." 1 .

The psyche is not a dead, mirror image, but an active process. V.I. Lenin wrote: "Reflection nature in human thought must be understood not “deadly”, not “abstractly”, not without movement,not without controversy , and in the eternal process movement, the emergence of contradictions and their resolution" 2 . Lenin's theory of reflection is the philosophical basis of scientific psychology, as it provides a correct materialist understanding of the psyche as a process of subjective reflection of reality. If in inanimate nature an object reflecting influence is passive and only undergoes certain changes, then living beings have "independent reaction force" 3 , i.e. any impact takes on character interaction, which even at the lowest stages of mental development is expressed in adaptation (adaptation) to external influences and in one or another selectivity of responses.

The psyche is a reflection in which any external influence (i.e., the influence of objective reality) is always refracted through the mental state that a particular living creature currently has. Therefore, the same external influence can be reflected differently different people and even by the same person at different times and under different conditions. We constantly encounter this phenomenon in life, in particular in the process of teaching and raising children. Thus, all students in the class listen to the same explanation from the teacher, but learn the educational material in different ways; All schoolchildren are subject to the same requirements, but students perceive and fulfill them differently.

The refraction of external influences through the internal characteristics of a person depends on many circumstances: age, the achieved level of knowledge, previously established attitude towards this type of influence, the degree of activity and, most importantly, on the formed worldview.

Thus, the content of the psyche are images of real objects, phenomena, events that exist independently of us and outside of us (i.e., images of the objective world). But these images arise in each person in a unique way, depending on his past experience, interests, feelings, worldview, etc. That is why reflection is subjective. All this gives the right to say that psyche - subjective reflection of the objective world.

This feature of the psyche underlies such an important pedagogical principle as the need to take into account the age and individual characteristics of children in the process of their training and upbringing. Without taking into account these features, it is impossible to know how each child reflects the measures of pedagogical influence.

Psychic reflection - this is a true, true reflection. The emerging images are snapshots, casts, copies of existing objects, phenomena, events. The subjectivity of mental reflection in no way denies the objective possibility of correct reflection real world.

Recognition of the correctness of mental reflection is of fundamental importance. It is this property that makes it possible for a person to understand the world, establish objective laws in it and their subsequent use in the theoretical and practical activities of people.

The correctness of the reflection is verified by socio-historical practice humanity. “For a materialist,” V.I. Lenin pointed out, “the “success” of human practice proves the correspondence of our ideas with the objective nature of the things that we perceive.” 1 . If we can foresee in advance when a solar or lunar eclipse will occur, if we can calculate in advance the flight orbit of an artificial Earth satellite or the carrying capacity of a ship, and subsequent practice will confirm the calculations made; if, having studied the child, we outline certain measures of pedagogical influence and, having applied them, obtain the desired result, then all this means that we have correctly learned the corresponding laws of cosmic mechanics, hydrodynamics, and child development.

An important feature of psychic reflection is that it carries anticipatory character("advanced reflection" - P.K. Anokhin;"anticipatory reaction" - N. A. Bernshtein).

The anticipatory nature of mental reflection is the result of the accumulation and consolidation of experience. It is in the process of repeatedly reflecting certain situations that a model of future reaction gradually develops. As soon as a living creature finds itself in a similar position, the very first impacts trigger the entire response system.

So, mental reflection is an active, multi-act process, during which external influences are refracted through the internal characteristics of the one who reflects, and therefore the psyche is a subjective reflection of the objective world.

The psyche is a correct, true reflection of the world, verified and confirmed by socio-historical practice. Mental reflection is anticipatory in nature.

All these features of mental reflection lead to the fact that the psyche acts as behavior regulator living organisms.

The listed features of mental reflection are, to one degree or another, inherent in all living beings, but the highest level of mental development - consciousness - is characteristic only of humans. In order to understand how human consciousness arose and what its main features are, we should consider the development of the psyche in the process of animal evolution.

Psychic reflection not mirror, not passive, it is associated with search, choice, and is a necessary side of human activity.

Mental reflection is characterized by a number of features:

• it makes it possible to correctly reflect the surrounding reality;
• occurs in the process of active activity;
• deepens and improves;
• refracted through individuality;
• is anticipatory.

Mental reflection ensures the appropriateness of behavior and activity. At the same time, the mental image itself is formed in the process of objective activity. Mental activity is carried out through many special physiological mechanisms. Some of them ensure the perception of influences, others - their transformation into signals, others - planning and regulation of behavior, etc. All this complex work ensures the active orientation of the organism in the environment.

The most important organ of mental activity is the cerebral cortex, which ensures complex human mental activity.

In human mental life, a special role belongs to the frontal lobes. Numerous clinical data show that the lesion frontal lobes brain, along with a decrease in mental abilities, entails a number of disorders in the personal sphere of a person.

Basic functions of the psyche– ensuring adaptation

1. reflection of the surrounding reality

2. ensuring the integrity of the body

3. regulation of behavior (2)

Mental processes:

The basic concepts of general psychology are mental processes(cognitive, volitional, emotional), mental properties (temperament, character, abilities, orientation) and mental states (2).

"mental process"– emphasizes the procedural nature of the mental phenomenon being studied.

"mental state"– characterizes a static moment, the relative constancy of a mental phenomenon.

"mental property"– reflects the stability of the phenomenon under study, its recurrence and consolidation in the structure of the personality.

Mental criteria:

Severtsov: the psyche is a factor of evolution. What environment does the organism live in, what are its vital tasks, and is the psyche needed to solve them?

Hypothesis about the origin of sensitivity:

2 types of environment

The first form of the psyche is sensitivity, the ability to feel. This special case irritability.

Irritability– the ability to reflect something vital.

Sensitivity– the ability to reflect biologically neutral (abiotic) properties of the environment, which are objectively related to biotic properties and seem to indicate them.

Psyche performs signaling function.

3 parts of action (Halperin):

1. Approximate – here you already need the psyche to prepare the movement

2. Executive

3. Test

The prognostic function of the psyche is necessary for managing one’s behavior.

A higher type of sensitivity is differentiated sensations.

The transition from irritability to feelings is a complication and narrowing of the functions of organs, their specialization as sensory organs.

1. Reflection activity. The mental reflection of a person is active, not passive, i.e. people, reflecting the objective world, influence it themselves, change it in accordance with their goals, interests and needs.

2. Purposefulness of reflection. The mental reflection of a person is purposeful, conscious in nature, and is continuously associated with active activity.

3. Dynamic reflection. As it develops in phylogenesis and ontogenesis, with the complication of the NS, mental reflection develops: it deepens and improves.

4. Uniqueness, individuality of mental reflection. Each person, due to the peculiarities of his structure, nervous system, due to the specifics of his life experience, reflects the objective world in his own way. Two people have identical pictures of the world different people does not exist.

5. The mental reflection of a person is of a proactive nature. Reflecting objects of the real world, a person identifies, first of all, those that may be important for his future activities.

6. Objectivity of mental reflection. The mental reflection of a person presupposes a certain similarity between the material characteristics of the source of information and what is represented in the mental formations of the subject. Any reflected image, no matter how amazing it may be, contains really existing elements. The correctness of reflection is confirmed by practice.

Thanks to the above-mentioned features of mental reflection, it ensures the expediency of behavior and objective activity.

Phenomena studied by psychological science

Let's continue our discussion of the categories and concepts of psychology. Among the most important concepts can be called “psychic phenomena”. Let us recall that psychological science studies the processes of active reflection of reality by the subject in various forms: sensations, feelings, mental forms and other mental phenomena. In other words, mental phenomena are the forms in which the facts of mental life exist.

Psychic phenomena include:

1. Mental processes

a) cognitive processes: sensations, perception, thinking, imagination, attention, representation, memory, motor skills, speech;

b) emotional - volitional processes: feelings, will.

2. Mental properties (features): abilities, temperament, character, knowledge;

3. Mental states: apathy, creativity, doubt, confidence, attentiveness, etc.;

4. Mass mental phenomena.

It should be noted that not all authors use the term “mass psychic phenomena” when speaking about psychic phenomena.

The division of all manifestations of the psyche into these categories is very arbitrary. The concept of “mental process” emphasizes the processuality and dynamics of the phenomenon. The concept of “mental property”, or “ mental trait“expresses the stability of a mental fact, its fixation and repeatability in the structure of the personality. The concept of “mental state” characterizes mental activity for a certain period of time.

All mental phenomena have general properties, allowing us to combine them - they are all forms of reflection of the objective world, therefore their functions are basically similar and serve to orient a person in the external world, regulate and adapt his behavior.

One and the same psychic fact can be characterized both as a process, and as a state, and even as a property (since a certain personality trait is detected).

Each type of mental phenomena is designed to perform certain functions.

For example:

a) functions cognitive processes: cognition, study of the surrounding world; creation of a subjective image of the objective world; developing a strategy for your own behavior.

b) Functions of mental properties and states: regulation of human communication with other people; direct control of actions and actions.

All mental phenomena have common characteristics that unite them. At the same time, each mental phenomenon carries within itself not one particular sign, but a certain totality. Possession of a system of specific features allows us to attribute this or that phenomenon to the facts of the mental world. What are the signs of mental phenomena?

Specifics of mental phenomena

1. Polyfunctionality and polystructure.

Mental phenomena have intersecting functions and difficult-to-define structures.

2. Inaccessibility for direct observation.

Internal mechanisms and internal processes are in most cases inaccessible to direct observation. Exceptions are motor acts.

3. Lack of clear spatial features.

Most mental phenomena do not have clear spatial characteristics, which makes it almost impossible to accurately indicate and describe their spatial structure.

4. High mobility and variability.

5. High adaptability.

Principles of Psychology

1. The next important term for any science is “principles of science.” Scientific principles are understood as guiding ideas, the basic rules of science. Principle is the central concept, the basis of the system, representing the generalization and extension of a position to all phenomena of the area from which this principle is abstracted.

For modern Russian psychology, the dialectical approach is used as a general scientific methodology, and the activity-based approach is used as a specific scientific methodology.

Basic principles of the system-activity approach:

1. pr. determinism;

2. Ave. unity of consciousness and behavior (activity);

3. Ave. development;

4. etc. activity;

5. Ave. systematicity.

The principle of determinism means that every phenomenon has a cause. Mental phenomena are generated by factors of external reality, because psyche is a form of reflection of objective reality. All mental phenomena are caused by the activity of the brain. Mental reflection is determined by lifestyle and the functioning of the central nervous system.

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity means that activity is a category that combines the unity of the external and internal: the subject’s reflection of the external world, the subject’s own knowledge of the current situation and the activity of the subject’s interaction with the environment. Activity is a form of manifestation of the activity of consciousness, and consciousness is the internal plan and result of activity. Changing the content of activity contributes to the formation of a qualitatively new level of consciousness.

Development principle means that the psyche develops and is realized in different forms:

a) in the form of phylogenesis - the formation of mental structures during biological evolution;

b) in ontogenesis – the formation of mental structures during the life of an individual organism;

c) sociogenesis – development of cognitive processes, personality, interpersonal relationships, due to socialization in different cultures Oh. The consequence of sociogenesis is the development of thinking, values, and standards of behavior among representatives of different cultures;

d) microgenesis – the formation and dynamics of images, ideas, concepts, etc., determined by the current situation and unfolding in short time intervals (skill, assimilation of a concept, etc.).

Higher, genetically more later forms psyches develop on the basis of lower, genetically early ones. With a dialectical understanding, the development of the psyche is considered not only as growth, but also as change: when quantitative changes turn into qualitative ones.

Each stage of mental development has its own qualitative uniqueness and has its own patterns. Consequently, it is unlawful to elevate the reflex mechanisms of animal behavior to the rank of universal laws of human behavior. And the thinking of an adult differs from the thinking of a child not so much in the amount of knowledge and skills as in other ways of thinking, the use of other logical schemes, and reliance on other adult value systems.

The human psyche has genetic diversity, i.e. structures can coexist in the psyche of one person different levels– higher and lower:

· along with conscious regulation there is reflex;

· logical thinking adjacent to the irrational, pre-logical.

The psyche is constantly changing quantitatively and qualitatively. Characterization of a mental phenomenon is possible with simultaneous clarification of its characteristics at a given moment, the history of its occurrence and prospects for change.

Activity principle means that the psyche is active reflection outside world. Thanks to activity, the psyche performs the function of orienting the subject in the variety of surrounding events and phenomena, which is manifested in the selectivity and partiality of the subject in relation to external influences ( increased sensitivity or ignoring certain incentives depending on the needs or attitudes of the individual) and regulation of behavior (an incentive to action that corresponds to the needs and interests of the individual).

Systematic principle. A system is understood as a set of elements that are connected to each other and form integrity and unity. A person is included in a variety of connections with reality (cognition, communication, adaptation to conditions). According to the many such connections, a person has many mental properties. At the same time, he lives and acts as a single whole. The development of the entire diversity of human mental properties cannot be derived from one foundation. Systematic approach involves a variety of sources and driving forces human mental development.

Methods of psychology

Here are examples of the most common modern psychological methods studying.

Observation- a widely used empirical method. The observation method makes it possible to collect a rich variety of material, the naturalness of the activity conditions is preserved, it is not necessary to obtain the preliminary consent of the subjects, and the use of a variety of technical means is permissible. Disadvantages of observation can be considered the difficulty of controlling the situation, the duration of observation, the difficulty in differentiating significant and minor factors influencing the observed phenomenon, the dependence of the results on the experience, qualifications, preferences, and performance of the researcher.

Experiment– the central empirical method of scientific knowledge. It differs from observation by the active intervention in a situation on the part of the researcher, systematically manipulating one or more variables and recording accompanying changes in the behavior of the object being studied. An experiment allows you to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships without limiting yourself to establishing relationships between variables. The experiment provides high accuracy of results, almost complete control over all variables, and repeated studies in similar situations are possible. At the same time, during an experimental study, the conditions of activity of the subjects do not correspond to reality; the subjects can provide false information, because aware of their participation in the study.

Questioning– an empirical socio-psychological method of collecting information based on answers to specially prepared questions that meet the main objective of the study.

Among empirical methods methods such as conversation, interview, projective methods, testing, analysis of activity products, physiological, etc. are often used.

The whole variety of psychological methods is not exhausted by those given above, in order to give at least general idea about methods psychological science We will try to systematize them, in other words, we will present one of the many classifications of psychological methods.

Patterns of internal mental activity

2.1. The concept of the psyche

2.1.1. Features of mental reflection

2.1.2. Structure and functions of the psyche

2.1.3. Psyche and features of the brain structure

In order for a manager to successfully influence the psyche of his employees with a view to its development, he needs to rely on individual experience (empirically acquired knowledge about the psyche) and knowledge of psychology. Psychology as a science studies the human psyche.

Psyche- this is a person’s subjective reflection of objects and phenomena of objective reality, which is a function of the brain.

Psychology is guided by the following principles:

· human psyche - superior product development of matter, brain function;

· mental processes are subjective images of objective reality;

· personality and human activity are in unity, the psyche is manifested and formed in activity;

· the most important aspects of the human psyche are socially conditioned;

· external influences influence a person through his inner world (mental states, experience, qualities, etc.).

These provisions follow from the theory of reflection, which forms the core modern theory knowledge.

Mental reflection is not a mirror, mechanical, passive copying of the world; it is associated with search and choice. Incoming information is subjected to specific processing in connection with some need or needs. Mental reflection is subjective, since it belongs to the subject and depends on his subjective characteristics.

However, the psyche cannot be reduced simply to the properties of the nervous system. Although the brain is an organ whose activity determines the psyche, the content of this psyche is not produced by the brain itself, its source is the external world.

Mental properties are the result of neurophysiological activity of the brain. The transformation of signals occurring in the brain is perceived by a person as a set of events external space and the world in general. The great Russian physiologist I.M. Sechenov proved that the basis of everything mental is a reflex act.

The great Russian scientist-physiologist I.P. Pavlov created the doctrine of higher nervous activity (HNA), identified four types of HNA and substantiated it experimentally. He developed new principles of physiological research, which ensured knowledge of the activity of the organism as a single whole, located in unity and constant interaction with the environment.

The human psyche is not given to a person in a ready-made form from the moment of birth and does not develop on its own. Only in the process of communication and interaction of a person with other people, in the process of his assimilation of the culture created by previous generations, does he develop human psyche and specifically human qualities(consciousness, speech, work, etc.). Otherwise, nothing human appears either in behavior or in the psyche (the Mowgli phenomenon).

The psyche includes at least three components:

· the outside world, nature, its reflection;

· full brain activity;

· active transfer of human culture and human abilities to new generations.

Expedited mental development people contributed to three major achievements of humanity:

1) invention of tools;

2) production of objects of material and spiritual culture;

3) the emergence of language and speech.

Mental reflection is characterized by a number of features:

· it makes it possible to correctly reflect the surrounding reality, and the correctness of the reflection is confirmed by practice;

· the mental image itself is formed in the process of active human activity;

· mental reflection deepens and improves;

· ensures the integrity of behavior and activities;

· refracted through a person’s individuality;

· is anticipatory in nature.