Good metabolism - required condition to build a healthy and athletic body. About what anabolism and catabolism are, and about the reasons why your metabolism may be impaired, read the article.

Every time when it comes to losing weight, they talk about metabolism and that it needs to be increased. fat people often see the reason for their excess weight in a slow metabolism. And speaking of mass gain, metabolic rate issues are also among the leading ones. So why is he so important?

What is metabolism?

Metabolism (or metabolism) is the process of converting nutrients that enter the body with food into energy. Absolutely all substances in the body undergo metabolic processes. These are proteins, and fats, and carbohydrates, and any micro-, macroelements, and minerals. Every cell in your body is involved in metabolic processes.

Types of metabolism

There are two main types of metabolism - anabolism and catabolism.

Anabolism is a set of chemical processes aimed at creating new cells and tissues in the body. One of the most clear examples anabolism is the growth of muscle mass.

Catabolism is the process of destruction and breakdown of complex substances into simpler ones. In the process of catabolism, as a rule, energy is released, which we use to ensure normal life. When we talk about fat burning, we are also talking about catabolism, because we need the energy for our activity to be obtained precisely due to the breakdown of all three types of fats that exist in the human body.

What is metabolic rate?

This is the main indicator of metabolism. metabolic rate- this is the amount of energy that your body spends to ensure life. Usually this figure is calculated for one day and is equal to the number of kilocalories needed to cover energy costs. The higher this indicator, respectively, the higher the rate of your metabolism.

Metabolism and fat burning

Metabolic rate is directly related to success in the process of losing weight. After all, the more calories you spend, the faster you can get rid of fat (of course, subject to a calorie deficit). And in this case, we are interested in fat (lipid) metabolism, if we want to lose weight due to fat, not muscle.

There are people with relatively fast exchange substances that, as a rule, can eat quite a lot and still remain very “dry”. But there are also people with a slow metabolism who eat moderately but gain fat quickly.

But do not rush to classify yourself as one or the other. In fact, many factors affect metabolic rate (more on that below), including lifestyle and eating habits. And often those who blame overweight slow metabolism, in fact they just eat more than they need and lead sedentary image life.

Metabolism and mass gain

Many people think that metabolic rate is only important for those who want to lose weight, but this is not true. When gaining mass great value have both forms of metabolism. Because on the one hand, in order for muscles to grow, it is necessary that the processes of anabolism proceed more intensively. The higher the anabolism, the greater the increase in mass. On the other hand, it is very important to slow down the processes of catabolism, that is, to prevent splitting for energy. muscle tissue. All these processes are regulated by appropriately selected diets and training.

The main factors affecting the metabolic rate:

Water - water is involved in absolutely all processes of the body. She participates in processes, dissolves nutrients, removes harmful metabolic products. The conclusion is obvious: if there is not enough water, then the metabolic processes proceed more slowly.

Physical activity- the more mobile your lifestyle, the faster the metabolic processes in the body.

body type We all have one or the other genetic predisposition to a particular body type. Some are more prone to fullness, others, on the contrary, are thin. This factor is inherent in every person at birth.

Text: Olga Lukinskaya

THE WORD "METABOLISM" IS FREQUENTLY USED TO THE PLACE AND OUT OF THE PLACE, but not everyone fully understands what metabolism is and according to what laws it functions. To get to the bottom of this, we asked a sports nutritionist, member International Association Sports Sciences (ISSA) Leonid Ostapenko and clinical psychologist, founder of the Eating Disorders Clinic Anna Nazarenko, what you need to know about metabolism and how not to harm your body in an attempt to change it.

What is metabolism

Metabolism, or metabolism, brings together all the chemical reactions in the body. They occur continuously and include catabolism - the breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates for energy and " building materials"- and anabolism, that is, the creation of cells or the synthesis of hormones and enzymes. Our skin, nails and hair and all other tissues are regularly updated: for their construction and recovery after injuries (for example, for wound healing) we need “building blocks” - primarily proteins and fats - and “ work force» - energy. All this is called metabolism.

Metabolism refers to the turnover of energy required for such processes. Its costs during the main metabolism are calories that are spent on maintaining body temperature, the work of the heart, kidneys, lungs, nervous system. By the way, with a basic metabolism of 1,300 kilocalories, 220 of them are for brain work. Metabolism can be divided into basic (or basal), which occurs constantly, including during sleep, and additional, associated with any activity other than rest. All living organisms, including plants, have a metabolism: it is believed that the fastest metabolism is in the hummingbird, and the slowest in the sloth.

What affects the metabolic rate

We often hear the expressions “slow metabolism” or “fast metabolism”: they often mean the ability to stay slim without restrictions on food and exercise, or, conversely, the tendency to easily gain weight. But the metabolic rate is reflected not only in appearance. In people with fast metabolism on vital important features, for example, the work of the heart and brain, more energy is spent at the same time than the owners of a slow metabolism. With equal loads, one person can have breakfast and lunch with croissants, instantly burning all the calories received, while the other will rapidly gain weight - this means that they have different basal metabolic rates. It depends on many factors, many of which cannot be influenced.

Metabolic factors that cannot be corrected are called static: these are heredity, gender, body type, age. However, there are conditions that can be influenced. Such dynamic parameters include body weight, psycho-emotional state, organization of the diet, the level of hormone production, physical exercise. The exchange rate depends on the interaction of all of the above. If you correctly adjust the factors of the second group, you can speed up or slow down metabolism to some extent. The result will depend on the characteristics of genetics and the stability of the entire metabolic system.

What is metabolism?

Have you ever thought about why some people eat everything (not forgetting buns and confectionery), at the same time, they look like they haven’t eaten for several days, while others, on the contrary, constantly count calories, go on diets, attend fitness rooms and still can’t cope with extra pounds. So what's the secret? Turns out it's all about metabolism!

So what is metabolism? And why do people who have a high metabolic rate never become obese or overweight? Speaking about metabolism, it is important to note the following, that this is the metabolism that occurs in the body and all chemical changes that begin from the moment nutrients enter the body until they are removed from the body during external environment. The metabolic process is all the ongoing reactions in the body, due to which the elements of the structural tissues, cells are built, as well as all those processes due to which the body receives the energy it needs so much for normal maintenance.

Metabolism is of great importance in our life, because, thanks to all these reactions and chemical changes, we get everything we need from food: fats, carbohydrates, proteins, as well as vitamins, minerals, amino acids, useful fiber, organic acids, etc. d.

According to its properties, metabolism can be divided into two main parts - anabolism and catabolism, that is, into processes that contribute to the creation of all the necessary organic matter and destructive processes. Namely, anabolic processes contribute to the "transformation" of simple molecules into more complex ones. And all these data processes are associated with energy costs. Catabolic processes, on the contrary, release the body from end products of decay, such as carbon dioxide, urea, water and ammonia, which leads to the release of energy, that is, roughly speaking, urine metabolism occurs.

What is cellular metabolism?

What is cellular metabolism or living cell metabolism? It is well known that each living cell our body is a well-coordinated and organized system. The cell contains various structures, large macromolecules that help it break down due to hydrolysis (that is, the splitting of a cell under the influence of water) into its smallest components.

In addition, cells contain a large number of potassium and very little sodium, despite the fact that the cellular environment contains a lot of sodium, and potassium, on the contrary, is much less. In addition, the cell membrane is designed in such a way that it helps the penetration of both sodium and potassium. Unfortunately, various structures and enzymes can destroy this well-established structure.

And the cell itself is far from the ratio of potassium and sodium. Such "harmony" is achieved only after the death of a person in the process of mortal autolysis, that is, digestion or decomposition of the body under the influence of its own enzymes.

What is energy for cells?

First of all, cells simply need energy in order to support the work of a system that is far from equilibrium. Therefore, in order for a cell to be in a normal state for it (even if it is far from equilibrium), it must certainly receive the energy necessary for it. And this rule is a sine qua non for normal cellular functioning. Along with this, other work is going on, aimed at interacting with the environment.

For example, if there is a reduction in muscle cells, or in the cells of the kidneys, and even urine began to form, or nerve impulses appeared in nerve cells, and in the cells responsible for gastrointestinal tract, the secretion of digestive enzymes has begun, or the secretion of hormones has begun in the cells of the endocrine glands? Or, for example, did the cells of fireflies begin to glow, and in the cells of fish, for example, discharges of electricity appeared? To avoid all this, energy is needed for this.

What are the sources of energy

In the examples above, we see That the cell uses for its work the energy received due to the structure of adenosine triphosphate or (ATP). Thanks to it, the cell is saturated with energy, the release of which can flow between phosphate groups and serve as further work. But, at the same time, with a simple hydrolytic breaking of phosphate (ATP) bonds, the received energy will not become available to the cell, in this case, the energy will be wasted as heat.

This process consists of two successive stages. In each such stage, an intermediate product is involved, which is designated HF. In the equations below, X and Y stand for two completely different organic substances, the letter F stands for phosphate, and the abbreviation ADP stands for adenosine diphosphate.

Normalization of metabolism - this term has firmly entered our lives today, moreover, it has become an indicator normal weight, since metabolic disorders in the body or metabolism are very often associated with weight gain, overweight, obesity or its insufficiency. It is possible to reveal the speed of metabolic processes in the body thanks to the test on the basis of metabolism.

What is the main exchange?! This is such an indicator of the intensity of energy production by the body. This test is carried out in the morning on an empty stomach, during passivity, that is, at rest. A qualified person measures (O2) oxygen uptake as well as body excretion (CO2). When comparing data, they find out how much percent the body burns incoming nutrients.

Also, the activity of metabolic processes is influenced by hormonal system, thyroid and endocrine glands, therefore, when identifying the treatment of diseases associated with metabolism, physicians also try to identify and take into account the level of work of these hormones in the blood and the diseases of these systems that are available.

Basic methods for studying metabolic processes

Studying the processes of metabolism of one (any) of the nutrients, all its changes (that happened to it) are observed from one form that entered the body to the final state in which it is excreted from the body.

Methods for studying metabolism today are extremely diverse. In addition, a number of biochemical methods are used for this. One of the methods for studying metabolism is animal use method or organs.

The test animal is injected with a special substance, and then possible products of changes (metabolites) of this substance are detected by its urine and excrement. The most accurate information can be gathered by examining the metabolic processes of a particular organ, such as the brain, liver, or heart. To do this, this substance is injected into the blood, after which, metabolites help to identify it in the blood emanating from this organ.

This procedure is very complicated and fraught with risk, since often with such research methods the method is used thin plucks or make sections of these organs. Such sections are placed in special incubators, where they are kept at a temperature (similar to body temperature) in special soluble substances with the addition of the substance whose metabolism is being studied.

With this method of research, cells are not damaged, due to the fact that the sections are so thin that the substance easily and freely enters the cells, and then leaves them. It happens that there are difficulties caused by the slow passage of a special substance through cell membranes.

In this case, to destroy the membranes usually grind tissue, in order for a special substance to incubate the cell gruel. Such experiments proved that all living cells of the body are able to oxidize glucose to carbon dioxide and water, and only tissue cells of the liver can synthesize urea.

Are we using cells?

Cells are very complex in structure. organized system. It is well known that the cell consists of a nucleus, cytoplasm, and in the surrounding cytoplasm there are small bodies called organelles. They come in a variety of sizes and textures.

Thanks to special techniques, it will be possible to homogenize cell tissues, and then subject them to a special separation (differential centrifugation), thus obtaining preparations that will contain only mitochondria, only microsomes, as well as plasma or clear liquid. These preparations are incubated separately with the compound whose metabolism is under study in order to determine exactly which subcellular structures are involved in the subsequent changes.

Cases were known when the initial reaction started in the cytoplasm, and its product underwent changes in microsomes, and after that, changes were observed with other reactions with mitochondria. The incubation of the studied substance with a tissue homogenate or living cells most often does not reveal any individual steps related to metabolism. To understand the whole chain of occurring data of events, the experiments following one after another, in which certain subcellular structures are used for incubation, help.

How to use radioactive isotopes

To study certain metabolic processes of a substance, it is necessary:

• use analytical methods to determine the given substance and its metabolites;
• it is necessary to use such methods that will help to distinguish the introduced substance from the same substance, but already present in this preparation.

Compliance with these requirements was the main obstacle during the study of metabolic processes in the body, until the time when radioactive isotopes were discovered, as well as 14C, a radioactive carbohydrate. And after the advent of 14C and instruments that make it possible to measure even weak radioactivity, all of the above difficulties came to an end. After that, things with the measurement of metabolic processes went uphill, as they say.

Now that to the special biological preparation(for example, suspensions of mitochondria) labeled 14C fatty acid is added, then, after that, no special analyzes are needed to determine the products that affect its transformation. And in order to find out the rate of use, it has now become possible to simply measure the radioactivity of sequentially obtained mitochondrial fractions.

This technique helps not only to understand how to normalize metabolism, but also thanks to it it is easy to distinguish the molecules of the introduced radioactive fatty acid experimentally from the fatty acid molecules already present in the mitochondria at the very beginning of the experiment.

Electrophoresis and ... chromatography

In order to understand what and how normalizes metabolism, that is, how metabolism normalizes, it is also necessary to use methods that will help separate mixtures that contain organic substances in small quantities. One of the most important of these methods, based on the adsorption phenomenon, is the chromatography method. Thanks to this method separation of the mixture of components.

In this case, the separation of the components of the mixture occurs, which is carried out either by adsorption on the sorbent, or due to paper. When separating by adsorption on a sorbent, that is, when they begin to fill such special glass tubes (columns), with gradual and subsequent elution, that is, with subsequent washing out of each of the available components.

The electrophoresis separation method directly depends on the presence of signs, as well as the number of ionized charges of molecules. Also, electrophoresis is carried out on some of the inactive carriers, such as cellulose, rubber, starch, or, finally, on paper.

One of the most sensitive and effective methods separation of the mixture is gas chromatography. This separation method is used only if the substances needed for separation are in a gaseous state or, for example, can go into this state at any time.

How are enzymes released?

To find out how enzymes are released, it is necessary to understand that this is the last place in this row: an animal, then an organ, then a tissue section, and then a fraction of cell organelles and a homogenate occupies enzymes that catalyze a certain chemical reaction. Isolate enzymes in a purified form has become an important direction in the study of metabolic processes.

The connection and combination of the above methods has allowed the main metabolic pathways in most organisms inhabiting our planet, including humans. In addition, these methods helped to establish answers to the question of how metabolic processes proceed in the body and also helped to clarify the systemic nature of the main stages of these metabolic pathways. Today there are more than a thousand different biochemical reactions that have already been studied, as well as the enzymes that are involved in these reactions.

Since ATP is necessary for the appearance of any manifestation in life cells, it is not surprising that the rate of metabolic processes in fat cells is primarily aimed at synthesizing ATP. To achieve this, successive reactions of varying complexity are used. Such reactions mainly use chemical potential energy, which is contained in the molecules of fats (lipids) and carbohydrates.

Metabolic processes between carbohydrates and lipids

Such a metabolic process between carbohydrates and lipids, in another way, is called ATP synthesis, anaerobic (meaning without the participation of oxygen) metabolism.

The main role of lipids and carbohydrates is that it is the synthesis of ATP that provides simpler compounds, despite the fact that the same processes took place in the most primitive cells. Only in an oxygen-deprived atmosphere was it impossible to completely oxidize fats and carbohydrates to carbon dioxide.

Even in these most primitive cells, the same processes and mechanisms were used, due to which the very structure of the glucose molecule was rearranged, which synthesized small amounts of ATP. In another way, such processes in microorganisms are called fermentation. To date, the “fermentation” of glucose to the state of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide in yeast has been especially well studied.

In order to complete all these changes and form a number of intermediate products, it was necessary to carry out eleven successive reactions, which, ultimately, in a number of intermediate products (phosphates), that is, esters of phosphoric acid, were presented. This phosphate group was transferred to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and also with the formation of ATP. Just two molecules accounted for the net yield of ATP (for each of the glucose molecules produced by the fermentation process). Similar processes were also observed in all living cells of the body, as they supplied the so necessary for normal functioning energy. Such processes are very often called anaerobic cell respiration, although this is not entirely correct.

In both mammals and humans, this process called glycolysis, and its final product is lactic acid, not CO2 (carbon dioxide) and not alcohol. With the exception of the last two stages, the entire sequence of glycolysis reactions is considered almost identical to the process that occurs in yeast cells.

Metabolism is aerobic, meaning using oxygen

Obviously, with the advent of oxygen in the atmosphere, thanks to plant photosynthesis, thanks to mother nature, a mechanism appeared that made it possible to ensure the complete oxidation of glucose to water and CO2. Such an aerobic process allowed a net release of ATP (out of thirty-eight molecules, based on each molecule of glucose, only oxidized).

Such a process of using oxygen by cells, for the appearance of energy-rich compounds, is today known as aerobic, cellular respiration. Such respiration is carried out by cytoplasmic enzymes (unlike anaerobic respiration), and oxidative processes take place in mitochondria.

Here pyruvic acid, which is an intermediate product, after being formed in the anaerobic phase, is then oxidized to the state of CO2 through six consecutive reactions, where in each reaction a pair of their electrons is transferred to the acceptor of the common coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated (NAD). This sequence of reactions is called the tricarboxylic acid cycle, as well as the citric acid cycle or the Krebs cycle, which leads to the fact that each glucose molecule forms two molecules of pyruvic acid. During this reaction, twelve pairs of electrons move away from the glucose molecule for its further oxidation.

In the course of the energy source... lipids act

It turns out that fatty acids can act as an energy source, as well as carbohydrates. The oxidation reaction of fatty acids occurs due to the sequence of cleavage from the fatty acid (or rather, its molecule) of a two-carbon fragment with the appearance of acetyl coenzyme A, (in other words, it is acetyl-CoA) and the transfer of simultaneous two pairs of electrons to the very chain of their transfer.

Thus, the resulting acetyl-CoA is the same component of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, whose further fate not very different from acetyl-CoA, which comes from carbohydrate metabolism. This means that the mechanisms that synthesize ATP during the oxidation of both glucose metabolites and fatty acids are almost identical.

If the energy supplied to the body is obtained practically due to only one process of fatty acid oxidation (for example, during starvation, with a disease such as diabetes, etc.), then, in this case, the intensity of the appearance of acetyl-CoA will exceed the intensity of its oxidation in the tricarboxylic acid cycle itself. In this case, the acetyl-CoA molecules (which will be redundant) will begin to react with each other. Through this process, acetoacetic and b-hydroxybutyric acids will appear. This accumulation can cause ketosis, a type of acidosis that can lead to severe diabetes and even death.

Why energy reserves?

In order to somehow acquire an additional supply of energy, for example, for animals that feed irregularly and not systematically, they simply need to somehow stock up on the necessary energy. Such energy stores are generated through food reserves, to which all the same fats and carbohydrates.

Turns out, fatty acids can be stored in the form of neutral fats, which are found both in adipose tissue and in the liver . And carbohydrates, when they enter the gastrointestinal tract in large quantities, begin to be hydrolyzed to glucose and other sugars, which, when they enter the liver, are synthesized into glucose. And then a giant polymer begins to be synthesized from glucose by combining glucose residues, as well as by splitting off water molecules.

Sometimes the residual amount of glucose in glycogen molecules reaches 30,000. And if there is a need for energy, then glycogen again begins to break down to glucose during chemical reaction, the product of the latter is glucose phosphate. This glucose phosphate enters the pathway of the glycolysis process, which is part of the pathway responsible for the oxidation of glucose. Glucose phosphate can also undergo a hydrolysis reaction in the liver itself, and the glucose thus formed is delivered to the cells of the body along with the blood.

How is the synthesis from carbohydrates to lipids?

Love carbohydrate food? It turns out that if the amount of carbohydrates received from food at one time exceeds allowable rate, in this case, carbohydrates go into the "reserve" in the form of glycogen, that is, excess carbohydrate food turns into fats. First, acetyl-CoA is formed from glucose, and then it begins to be synthesized in the cytoplasm of the cell for long-chain fatty acids.

This process of "transformation" can be described as a normal oxidative process of fat cells. After that, fatty acids begin to be deposited in the form of triglycerides, that is, neutral fats that are deposited (mainly problem areas), v various parts body.

If the body urgently needs energy, then neutral fats undergoing hydrolysis, as well as fatty acids, begin to enter the bloodstream. Here they are saturated with albumin and globulin molecules, that is, plasma proteins, and then begin to be absorbed by other, very different cells. Animals do not have such a mechanism that can synthesize from glucose and fatty acids, but plants have them.

Synthesis of nitrogen-containing compounds

In animals, amino acids are used not only as protein biosynthesis, but also as starting material ready for the synthesis of some nitrogen-containing compounds. An amino acid such as tyrosine becomes the precursor of such hormones as norepinephrine and adrenaline. And glycerol (the simplest amino acid) serves as the starting material for the biosynthesis of purines, which are part of the nucleic acid, as well as porphyrins and cytochromes.

The nucleic acid pyrimidine precursor is aspartic acid, and the methionine group begins to be transferred during the synthesis of creatine, sarcosine and choline. predecessor nicotinic acid is tryptophan, and from valine (which is formed in plants) such a vitamin as pantothenic acid can be synthesized. And these are just some examples of the use of the synthesis of nitrogen-containing compounds.

How lipid metabolism occurs

Usually, lipids enter the body in the form of triglycerides of fatty acids. Once in the intestine under the influence of enzymes produced by the pancreas, they begin to undergo hydrolysis. Here they are again synthesized as neutral fats, after that, they enter either the liver or the blood, and can also be deposited as a reserve in adipose tissue.

We have already said that fatty acids can also be re-synthesized from previously appeared carbohydrate precursors. It should also be noted that, despite the fact that in animal cells, the simultaneous inclusion of one double bond in long-chain fatty acid molecules can be observed. These cells cannot include the second and even the third dual bond.

And since fatty acids with three and two double bonds play important role in the metabolic processes of animals (including humans), in their essence they are important nutritional components, one might say, vitamins. That is why linolenic (C18:3) and linoleic (C18:2) are also called essential fatty acids. It was also found that in cells, a dual fourth bond can also be included in linolenic acid. Due to the elongation of the carbon chain, another important contributor metabolic reactions arachidonic acid ( S20:4).

During lipid synthesis, fatty acid residues can be observed that are associated with coenzyme A. Through synthesis, these residues are transferred to the glycerophosphate ester of glycerol and phosphoric acid. As a result of this reaction, a compound of phosphatidic acid is formed, where one of its compounds is esterified glycerol phosphoric acid and the other two are fatty acids.

With the appearance of neutral fats, phosphoric acid will be removed by hydrolysis, and in its place there will be a fatty acid that appeared as a result of a chemical reaction with acyl-CoA. Coenzyme A itself may come from one of the vitamins pantothenic acid. This molecule contains a sulfhydryl group, which reacts to acids with the appearance of thioesters. In turn, phospholipid phosphatidic acid reacts with nitrogenous bases such as serine, choline and ethanolamine.

Thus, all steroids found in the body of mammals (with the exception of vitamin D) can be independently synthesized by the body itself.

How does protein metabolism take place?

It has been proven that the proteins present in all living cells consist of twenty-one types of amino acids, which are connected in different sequences. These amino acids are synthesized by organisms. Such synthesis usually leads to the appearance of an α-keto acid. Namely, a-keto acid or a-ketoglutaric acid is involved in the synthesis of nitrogen.

The human body, like the body of many animals, has managed to retain the ability to synthesize all available amino acids (with the exception of a few essential amino acids), which must be supplied with food.

How protein synthesis occurs

This process usually takes place in the following way. Each amino acid in the cytoplasm of the cell reacts with ATP and then adjoins the final group of the ribonucleic acid molecule, which is specific for this amino acid. Then the complicated molecule is connected to the ribosome, determined in the position of a more elongated ribonucleic acid molecule, which is connected to the ribosome.

After all the complex molecules line up, a gap occurs between the amino acid and ribonucleic acid, neighboring amino acids begin to be synthesized and thus a protein is obtained. Normalization of metabolism occurs due to the harmonious synthesis of protein-carbohydrate-fat metabolic processes.

So what is organic metabolism?

In order to better understand and understand metabolic processes, as well as to restore health and improve metabolism, it is necessary to adhere to the following recommendations regarding the normalization and restoration of metabolism.

• It is important to understand that metabolic processes cannot be reversed. The breakdown of substances never proceeds through easy way reversal of synthesizing reactions. Other enzymes, as well as some intermediate products, necessarily take part in this decay. Very often sent to different side processes begin to take place in different compartments of the cell. For example, fatty acids can be synthesized in the cytoplasm of a cell under the influence of one particular set of enzymes, while the process of oxidation in mitochondria can occur with a completely different set.
• Enough enzymes are observed in living cells of the body in order to speed up the process of metabolic reactions, but despite this, metabolic processes do not always proceed quickly, thus, this indicates the existence in our cells of some regulatory mechanisms that affect metabolic processes. To date, some types of such mechanisms have already been discovered.
• One of the factors affecting the decrease in the rate of metabolic processes of a given substance is the entry of this substance into the cell itself. Therefore, the regulation of metabolic processes can be directed to this factor. For example, if we take insulin, the function of which, as we know, is associated with facilitating the penetration of glucose into all cells. The rate of "transformation" of glucose, in this case, will depend on the rate at which it arrived. If we consider calcium and iron, when they enter the blood from the intestines, then the rate of metabolic reactions, in this case, will depend on many, including regulatory processes.
• Unfortunately, not all substances can move freely from one cell compartment to another. There is also an assumption that intracellular transfer is constantly controlled by certain steroid hormones.
• Scientists have identified two types of servomechanisms that are responsible for negative feedback in metabolic processes.
• Even in bacteria, examples have been noted that prove the presence of some kind of successive reactions. For example, the biosynthesis of one of the enzymes suppresses the amino acids that are so necessary to obtain this amino acid.
• By studying individual cases of metabolic reactions, it was found that the enzyme whose biosynthesis was affected was responsible for the main step in the metabolic pathway leading to the synthesis of the amino acid.
• It is important to understand that a small number of building blocks are involved in metabolic and biosynthetic processes, each of which begins to be used for the synthesis of many compounds. These compounds include: acetyl coenzyme A, glycine, glycerophosphate, carbamyl phosphate and others. From these small components, complex and diverse compounds are then built, which can be observed in living organisms.
• Very rarely, simple organic compounds are directly involved in metabolic processes. Such compounds, in order to show their activity, will have to join some series of compounds that are actively involved in metabolic processes. For example, glucose can begin oxidative processes only after it has been esterified with phosphoric acid, and for other subsequent changes it will have to be esterified with uridine diphosphate.
• If we consider fatty acids, then they also cannot take part in metabolic changes as long as they form esters with coenzyme A. At the same time, any activator becomes related to one of the nucleotides that are part of ribonucleic acid or are formed from what - a vitamin. Therefore, it becomes clear why we need vitamins only in small quantities. They are consumed due to coenzymes, while each coenzyme molecule is used several times throughout its life, in contrast to nutrients, the molecules of which are used once (for example, glucose molecules).

And the last! Concluding this topic, I really want to say that the term "metabolism" itself, if earlier meant the synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates and fats in the body, now it is used as a designation for several thousand enzymatic reactions, which can represent a huge network of interconnected metabolic pathways.

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Metabolism. metabolic processes.

The word "metabolism" is used in speech by nutritionists and athletes, fitness instructors and always losing weight.

Most often the term is used in the meaning of "metabolism". But what it really is, not everyone knows. Let's try to figure it out.

What it is?

Metabolism- These are the processes that take place in any living organism to maintain its life. Metabolism allows the body to grow, reproduce, heal damage, and respond to its environment.

For this it is really necessary constant metabolism. Processes can be divided into two threads. One is destructive - catabolism, the other is creative - anabolism.

Disassembly at the molecular level...

Any nutrient that enters the body cannot immediately go to its needs. For instance, squirrels from nuts, milk and human muscles - completely different, and cannot replace each other.

However, they consist of the same "bricks" - amino acids. Although each of the proteins has a different set and ratio.

To obtain building material for, for example, biceps, special enzymes disassemble contained in milk or cutlet protein into individual amino acids which are already in action.

In parallel, energy is released, measured in calories. The parsing process is catabolism. Another example of catabolism is the breakdown of regular refined sugar into fructose and glucose.

… and assembly shop

It is not enough for the body to disassemble the proteins from the food eaten into amino acids. Of these, it is necessary collect new squirrels for the same bicep muscle.

Building complex molecules from smaller components requires energy. The very calories that the body received during the “disassembly” go to it. This process is called anabolism.

Another couple good examples the work of the "assembly shop" of the body - the growth of nails and the healing of cracks in the bones.

Where does fat come from?

If in the process of splitting nutrients more energy is produced than it is required to build new cells in the body, sheer excess that needs to go somewhere.

When the body is at rest, metabolism proceeds in the "background" mode and does not require active breakdown and synthesis of substances. But as soon as the body begins to move, all processes are accelerated and intensified. The demand for energy and nutrients also increases.

But even a mobile organism may have excess calories if they are taken in too much with food.

A small part of the received and unspent energy is added up in the form of carbohydrates glycogen- source of energy for active work muscles. It is stored in the muscles themselves and the liver.

The rest is piling up in fat cells. Moreover, for their formation and life, much less energy is required than for the construction of muscles or bones.

How is metabolism related to body weight?

We can say that body weight is catabolism minus anabolism. In other words, the difference between the amount of energy received by the body and used by it.

So, one gram of fat eaten gives 9 kcal, and the same amount of protein or carbohydrate - 4 kcal. The same 9 kcal the body will put aside in 1 gram of fat already in its body, if it fails to spend.

A simple example: eat a sandwich and lie down on the sofa. From bread and sausage the body received fats, proteins, carbohydrates and 140 kcal. At the same time, the lying body will spend the received calories only on the breakdown of food eaten and a little on maintaining the functions of respiration and blood circulation - about 50 kcal per hour. The remaining 90 kcal will turn into 10 g of fat and will be deposited in the fat depot.

If the lover of sandwiches goes for a quiet walk, the body will spend the calories received in about an hour.

"Good" and "bad" metabolism?

Many look with envy at a fragile girl who regularly enjoys cakes and does not add a single gram of weight. It is generally accepted that such lucky people have a good metabolism, and those for whom a piece of sugar in tea threatens to gain weight have a bad metabolism.

In fact, research results show that a really slow metabolism is observed only for certain diseases such as hypothyroidism, a hormone deficiency thyroid gland. And for most people with overweight there are no diseases, but there is an energy imbalance.

That is, much more energy enters the body than it actually needs, and it is stored in reserve.

Calorie expenditure items

In order to keep the consumption and receipt of calories under control, it is worth remembering the main directions of additional energy costs.

1. The higher the body weight the more calories it needs. But, as we know, adipose tissue needs very little energy for life, but muscle tissue consumes enough.

Therefore, a 100-pound bodybuilder will spend more calories on the same work as his 100-pound peer with underdeveloped muscles and a high percentage of fat.

2. The older a person gets, the higher the difference between the energy input and its expenditure due to hormonal imbalance and sharp decline physical activity.

3. In metabolism male body the hormone testosterone is actively involved. This is a true natural anabolic that forces the body to spend energy and resources on growing additional muscles. That is why muscle mass men are usually much higher than women.

And since it takes much more energy to maintain muscle than to store fat, a man and woman of the same height and weight spend an unequal amount of calories on the same activities.

Simply put: men spend more energy, they need more food, and if they want, they lose weight much faster.

What you need to know about metabolism

The whole life of an organism is a balance between the breakdown of nutrients and the production of energy from them and energy consumption when creating new molecules and cells.

If too much energy comes in, it is stored in reserve in the form of adipose tissue. You can increase energy expenditure by moving a lot or by growing a sufficient amount of muscle mass.

One of important aspects functioning of a living organism is metabolism. Many health problems are explained by violations of this process.

Therefore, it is important to know what the essence of metabolism is, how it proceeds, and what can be done to maintain it in a normal state.

Much depends on the characteristics of metabolism. functional features. Due to it, the body manages to carry out all the processes necessary for life. It also affects health and weight. Therefore, you should understand what metabolism is.

This term is called metabolism. It consists of chemical processes, due to which the food consumed is converted into energy needed for exercise vital functions- respiration, growth, regeneration, etc.

This means that this concept means the digestion and assimilation of proteins, fats and. The components into which these substances are broken down are distributed in the tissues as needed.

Nutrients entering the human body should not exceed the need for them. If there are too many of them, they are not completely consumed, but accumulate, which is why excess weight is formed.

To maintain normal parameters, it is necessary that the consumed and consumed energy be approximately the same. If you deviate from this rule, weight indicators can both decrease and increase. Both of these are considered unfavorable.

Exchange processes consist of two interrelated phenomena

1. Anabolism. In this case, substances are combined, forming complex structures. This requires energy.
2. Catabolism. This process is the reverse of anabolism. During its implementation, complex substances break down into small components, in the process of which energy is released.

Both processes are very important and do not exist separately. The release of energy during catabolism ensures the flow of anabolism when synthesized necessary for the body elements.

This means that there is a significant difference between metabolism and catabolism. Catabolism is one of the stages in the implementation of metabolism. And the latter is a more voluminous process.

Types of metabolism

Metabolism is the process of exchange at the cellular level. There are several types of metabolism, each of which is characterized by certain features. You should know these types in order to better understand the principle of their functioning.

These include:

1. Protein. It is characterized by rapid oxidation and pronounced activity of the parasympathetic nervous system. People with this type of metabolic processes tend to avoid strict diets due to frequent and strong feelings of hunger. Owners of the protein type of metabolism are characterized by nervousness and irascibility. They are energetic in appearance, but they often experience fatigue. They should consume more protein food, but abandoning carbohydrates completely is also undesirable.
2. carbohydrate. In this case, oxidation occurs slowly, and a large activity is observed in the sympathetic nervous system. Such people do not experience sugar cravings, they have a weak appetite, but they consume a lot of coffee. Good for their body carbohydrate diet, but it should be remembered that because of it you can gain weight and provoke the development of health problems. Therefore, a specialist should develop it.
3. Mixed. With this type, signs of the first two types may appear, but they are not so intense. Owners of such a metabolism are characterized by frequent fatigue and anxiety. They also experience increased cravings for sweets, but do not always suffer from the problem. overweight body.

These are the main types of metabolism found in humans. Their features should be taken into account in order to avoid health complications.

Symptoms of the disorder

Excessive activity or slowness of metabolic processes can lead to certain changes in the functioning of the body. By these changes, you can find out if the metabolism is normal.

If it is disturbed, due to which its activity decreases or increases, symptoms such as:

• fragility of hair and nails;
• problems with the gastrointestinal tract;
• indigestion;
• skin problems;
• loss and destruction of teeth;
• a sharp change in weight, both up and down;
• strong thirst;
• frequent feeling of hunger;
• violations menstrual cycle among women.

These features can indicate not only violations in the metabolic process, but also other problems in the body. Therefore, if they are present, it is necessary to consult a doctor.

Video about metabolic disorders - what happens in the body?

How to speed up metabolism?

It is believed that increased metabolism allows you to reduce weight, so people who want to lose weight want to speed it up. To do this, you can use different methods.

But it must be understood that the presence accelerated metabolism does not always provide weight loss, and sometimes can lead to the development various diseases. Therefore, before trying to disperse the metabolism, it is worth consulting with your doctor about the advisability of such actions.

Methods that allow you to increase the activity of metabolic processes include:

1. Eating foods that increase metabolism. Features of the diet can affect metabolic processes. Products that increase their activity include:
   • fish;
   • lean meat;
   • apples;
   • dairy products;
   • green tea;
   • citrus;
   • whole grain products.

   They should be used daily. In order to improve performance, you need to eat small meals, as well as drink enough water.

2. The use of special drinks. With the help of drinking, you can also activate metabolic processes. For this you need to use:
   • water (it enhances metabolism, it is especially useful after waking up);
   • green tea (fat-burning and cleansing properties are inherent in it);
   • milk (it stimulates metabolic processes due to the calcium contained in it);
   • coffee (this drink reduces the feeling of hunger).

   You need to know that this method is effective in combination with others. But abuse can be dangerous.

3. The use of vitamins. It is allowed to use this method only after consulting a doctor. Supplying the body with the missing elements is not only beneficial for metabolism, but also for overall health. But you need to know which substances are missing, since an excess of vitamins can also harm. A specialist will help to identify this. Most often, to speed up the exchange, you need to use:
   • fish oil, as it helps to get rid of excess cholesterol;
   • folic acid, which helps to strengthen the immune system;
   • vitamins from groups A, B, C and D, as they normalize insulin levels.

   These properties of the listed vitamins contribute to the acceleration of metabolic processes.

4. Activation with medicines. There are a lot of drugs that can speed up metabolism, but you need to use them only as directed by a doctor so as not to harm your health. They have contraindications, and these drugs can cause side effects. Therefore, you must first consult with a specialist. And even after obtaining permission, they should not be abused.
5. Application medicinal plants. Some herbs also have the ability to influence metabolism. These include:
   • ginseng;
   • succession;
   • rose hip;
   • lemongrass;
   • echinacea;
   • strawberry leaves.

   Medicinal plants are considered safe because they are of natural origin. The only risk associated with their use is the potential allergic reactions. Therefore, they should also not be abused, and before starting the reception, consult with a specialist.

6. Doing exercises. Without physical activity, other methods of accelerating metabolism are usually ineffective. Therefore, first of all, you need to start playing sports, which can later be reinforced by the influence of other methods.

It is advisable to use the above methods of accelerating metabolism in combination so that the body is not exposed to excessive exposure to any one agent, which is very dangerous. But first you need to make sure that the need for such measures exists.

Video about ways to speed up metabolism:

How to gain weight?

Some people are not worried about excessive, but underweight. This phenomenon is also considered a problem and can lead to deviations in the functioning of the body. Therefore, sometimes a person is interested in slowing down metabolic processes, since he needs to gain mass.

The following steps may help:

1. Changing the meal plan. It is worth consuming food less often, which will force the body to slow down the process of its absorption.
2. Consumption of products containing complex carbohydrates. It takes a long time to break them down.
3. Refusal to drink coffee and green tea. These drinks usually speed up the metabolism, if you stop drinking them, the opposite effect will be observed.
4. Long sleep. During sleep, there is a slowdown in all processes occurring in the body. This also applies to metabolism.
5. Reducing the calorie content of consumed foods. In this case, the body will be forced to accumulate energy.

The effectiveness of these actions is due to the fact that they are contrary to the rules healthy eating. With their use, it is possible to increase body weight, if necessary. But to abuse such actions is also not worth it - precisely because they are a violation healthy lifestyle life.

If there is no need to use them or in the absence of medical supervision, they can cause irreversible changes in metabolic processes. The result is pathologically accelerated weight gain, which causes many health problems.

This means that these methods of slowing down metabolism should be used only after consulting a doctor. If a specialist says about the need to gain mass, then their use makes sense.

But even in this case, you need to adhere to strict recommendations in order to prevent significant changes. It is undesirable to start slowing down or accelerating metabolism on your own.

Video on how to gain weight:

Most people do not have the knowledge necessary for this, moreover, it is difficult for them to assess the state of their body and determine the need for it to reduce or increase weight. And even if there is such a need, it is necessary to take into account individual characteristics therefore, you should get special recommendations from a doctor, focused on a specific case.