Mammary glands are present in mammals of both sexes, but in males they remain underdeveloped, while in females they grow and develop because they are closely connected with her reproductive organs, with the gonads.

Male mammals also have vestigial mammary glands and nipples, but there are exceptions: male mice have no nipples, and stallions have neither nipples nor mammary glands. The Brown Fruit Fruit has mammary glands that secrete milk; Male secretion of milk occurs in some mammalian species, including humans.

Being skin formations, the mammary glands are related to the sweat glands.

Mammary glands ( Glandula lactifera) - symmetrical skin formations located in pigs, rodents, predators in the abdominal area, and in ruminants and horses - in the groin area, have a complex tubular-alveolar structure with an apocrine type of secretion. They reach their full development by the time the animal reaches puberty.

The function of the mammary gland is milk formation and milk ejection and is closely related to functional state genitals. During pregnancy, the ovary and placenta secrete a large amount of estrogens, which cause the growth of the milk ducts and alveoli. Towards the end of pregnancy, the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes the hormone prolactin, as a result of which milk is formed, that is, secretion occurs, and the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland produces oxytocin, which causes milk excretion. By the time of birth, the mammary gland enlarges and begins to produce colostrum, and after 7-10 days

Milk. Within 4-6 weeks after birth, glandular tissue continues to develop and milk production increases. Then the reverse development of the mammary gland begins (involution), which consists of a gradual decrease in the intensity of its function. Milk production stops and a dry period begins, which is necessary for the restoration of breast tissue.

Each mammary gland has a body divided by a median groove ( sulcus intermammarius) into the right and left halves. Each half of the mammary gland can have one, two and larger number shares ( lobi glandulae mammariae), equipped with its own nipple ( papilla mammae). (Appendix 1, Fig. 1)

Body of the mammary gland- (corpus mammae) consists of a connective tissue base, or skeleton, and a glandular part, or parenchyma. On the surface, the body of the mammary gland is covered with delicate skin, which has great elasticity, which makes it possible to significantly change the volume of the organ depending on the degree of accumulation of milk secretion in it. On the skin of the body of the mammary gland there are delicate hairs, which on the cow's udder from the cranial and lateral surfaces their free ends are directed downward, and on the caudal surface - from bottom to top. The junction of two oppositely directed hair flows clearly marks the boundary of the caudal surface of the udder, designated in cows as the “udder mirror”. The degree to which the udder is covered with hair depends on the breed of the animal. In outbred cows, the amount of hair on the skin of the udder is much greater and its structure is coarser. There is no hair or skin glands on the nipples.

Under the skin on the body of the mammary gland there is fascia, which is divided into superficial and deep layers. The superficial layer of fascia, surrounding the mammary gland from the lateral surfaces, forms the basis of the lateral and medial plates (laminae laterales et mediales), performing a hanging function (lamellae suspensoriae).

With the merging of symmetrical mammary hills and the formation of the udder, especially in ruminants, the medial plates unite into a single structural education, form the median septum of the udder (septum uberi) which is called the suspensory ligament of the udder (ligamentum suspensorium uberi). Together, the lateral and medial suspensory plates form the suspensory apparatus of the mammary gland. (apparatus suspensorius mammarius).

Numerous septa extend from the deep layer of the movable fascia deep into the mammary gland, dividing it into separate lobes (lobi glandulae mammariae) of various sizes and consisting of smaller shares (lobuli glandulae mammariae). Each lobule contains glandular alveoli, alveolar canaliculi, connecting into one common lobar duct, as well as intra- and interlobular connecting

tissue that forms the basis of the breast stroma. The smallest lobules can be pear-shaped, heart-shaped or another shape. Their diameter ranges from 0.5 to 5 mm.

Glandular alveolus (alveolus glandulae) often has a pear-shaped shape. Their number in each individual lobule in cows can be from 156 to 226. Moreover, their diameter can vary widely from 50 to 350 microns, which depends on the degree of filling of their cavity with milk secretion. They carry out the biosynthesis of the main components of milk.

The wall of the glandular alveoli is based on a structureless basement membrane, on which on the inner surface there is one layer of cubic-shaped mammary exocrine cells (exocrinocytus lactus), which are often called simply mammary cells (lactocytus). The inner layer of the alveolar wall is lined with columnar, cubic or squamous glandular epithelium. On the surface of the base lie stellate cells consisting of smooth muscle fibers. These cells, connecting with each other by processes, form a kind of mesh around each alveoli. The contraction of these cells leads to the movement of secretions from the alveoli into small milk ducts, the beginning of which are the narrowed areas of the alveoli.

On the outside, the cells are covered with a dense connective tissue membrane, under which there is a layer of contractile myoepithelium. Outside the myoepithelial cells there is a glassy border of the alveoli, which without sharp boundaries passes into the interalveoalar loose connective tissue. The secretion of the alveoli enters small ducts, which are lined with glandular epithelium.

The glandular alveoli are surrounded on the outer surface by perialveolar intralobular connective tissue, in which numerous blood and lymphatic vessels and nerve fibers pass. (Appendix 2, Fig. 2)

Milk drainage system originates from the narrowed part of the alveoli by the alveolar milk tubule (ductus alveolaris lactifer), having a diameter of 6 - 10 microns. Uniting with other similar tubules, they form an intralobular milk duct (ductus lactifer), the diameter of which can vary from 40 to 100 microns. Channels passing through

interlobular connective tissue and uniting with each other to form milk ducts, or common collecting ducts (ductus lactifer colligens), opening into the lumen of the mammary cistern or mammary sinus (sinus lactiferi). In the wall of the collecting ducts there is an increase in the number of muscle and elastic fibers, and the epithelium lining inner surface the duct becomes two-layered.

The mammary sinus is lined with double-layered epithelium, in which surface layer is represented by columnar cells, and the basal cell by cubic cells. The basis of the mucous membrane of the mammary sinus consists of fibrous connective tissue containing a dense network of elastic fibers, which allow it to significantly increase its volume when filled with milk secretion.

From the milk sinus in animals with multiple udders (carnivores, pigs) the nipple canals originate, which in carnivores are in each nipple

5 - 8 and in pigs - 1 - 3. In ruminants and mares, the milk sinus extends deep into the nipple and is divided into a glandular part by a ring fold of the mucous membrane (pars glandularis) located in the body of the mammary gland,

and nipple (pars papillaris), which occupies most of the length of the nipple. The nipple cistern at the apex of the nipple, sharply narrowing, passes into the nipple rosette, from which the nipple canal originates (ductus papillaris), opening at the top of the nipple with the nipple opening (ostium papillare). The diameter of the nipple canal in a cow ranges from 2.6 to 3.8 mm.

In each teat, ruminants have one cistern and one teat canal, while mares have two. The mamillary sinus, like the glandular sinus, is lined with a two-layer epithelium, which in the nipple canal becomes flat, multilayered, and keratinized.

Milk nipple - (papilla mammae)- is divided into the base adjacent to the ventral surface of the body of the mammary gland, the middle part and the apex. The outside of the nipple is covered with skin, which in cows and pigs is devoid of hair and skin glands. The epidermis of the skin of the nipple consists of a large number of rows of cells, which increases its protective function against mechanical stress during sucking or milking (to obtain 1 liter of milk you need to make about 100 milking movements with your hands).

The skin of the nipple is based on a large number of elastic fibers and muscle bundles. There are also numerous receptors here. The middle shell of the nipple has a three-layer arrangement of bundles of smooth muscle cells, the deepest of which has a circular direction, and the subsequent ones, closer to the skin, are very vague. All of them around the nipple canal form the basis of its sphincter (m. sphincter papillae). There are also large quantities of elastic and collagen fibers that enhance the function of the sphincter. In the wall of the nipple, blood vessels can form arteriovenous anastomoses,

which are most pronounced in nipples lacking hair protection.

In males, the mammary gland is represented by rudimentary nipples. The skeleton, or stroma, of the mammary gland consists of connective tissue. Blood vessels and nerves pass through the connective tissue framework into the mammary gland.

The size and shape of the nipples depends on the species and individual characteristics of the animal. Along with the main nipples, additional ones are often found. They usually do not function, but sometimes milk can be released through them.

The number of nipples in mammals varies from 2 (in most primates) to 18 (in pigs). The Virginia opossum has 13 teats, one of the few known animals with an odd number of teats.

Table 1

"The number and location of glands in various representatives of mammals"

Lecture No. 15,16. Species features structure of the mammary gland. Mastitis of farm animals – 4 hours

Lecture outline:

Morphofunctional characteristics of the mammary gland Species features of the structure of the mammary gland in females Lactation Milk secretion and lactation, milk production. Udder examination

The mammary gland, udder - (uber, mamma, mastos) is a glandular organ consisting of lobes, each of which ends at the bottom with a nipple. Some cows have two, less often four additional lobes, usually poorly developed, lacking glandular tissue and a teat canal. The skin of the udder is covered with delicate sparse hair; on the back surface of the udder they grow from bottom to top and to the sides, forming the so-called milk mirror. The shape and size of the milk mirror varies. The udder fits tightly to the ventral abdominal wall and is held in position by the suspensory ligament of the udder and fascia.

Components of the udder: glandular tissue, excretory ducts, interstitial connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. Right and left half The mammary glands are separated from one another by the suspensory ligament of the udder, which serves as a continuation of the yellow abdominal fascia. Under the skin is the superficial fascia of the mammary gland, covering each half of the udder. The superficial fascia is followed by its own fascia, covering the glandular part of the udder and giving branches (trabeculae) into the parenchyma, dividing it into quarters and individual small lobules; each lobule is surrounded by an interlobular connective tissue membrane.

The parenchyma of the udder consists of glandular alveoli and excretory ducts, which form an independent, separate system in each quarter of the udder. The alveoli are lined with secretory cells that produce milk. Small ducts depart from the alveoli, which unite to form the middle ducts. The areas of parenchyma with these ducts form independent lobules of the udder, surrounded by a more or less pronounced layer of interlobular connective tissue.

The middle ducts, heading down towards the nipple, merge and give rise to 12-50 wide excretory ducts - milk passages flowing into the cistern. Milk tank - the cavity of the nipple, sometimes extending upward into the parenchyma of the udder, serves as a reservoir for milk.

The nipples are conical, blunt-ended branches of the mammary gland. The nipple has a base that passes without sharp boundaries into the body of the udder lobe, an apex that freely hangs down, and a cylindrical part located between the apex and the base of the nipple.

Lactation– a manifestation of a complex neurohumolar reaction of the whole organism to nerve impulses coming from the receptors of the skin of the mammary gland during sucking or milking, as well as arising as a result of irritation of the chemoreceptors of the blood vessels of the gland and other organs.

Milk secretion is inextricably linked with milk production without milk release (when milk or colostrum is not milked or sucked due to the death of the offspring). An important factor lactation is irritation of nerve endings located in the walls of blood vessels, milk choirs and in the skin of the mammary gland. Irritation of the nerve endings of the skin of the mammary gland and especially the nipple (massage, milking, sucking) is transmitted through nerve pathways to the cerebral cortex. In response to these irritations, nerve impulses go from the center to the periphery to the mammary gland, as a working organ, in some cases inducing it to secretion and milk secretion, in others inhibiting these processes. Humoral factors also play an important role in milk secretion, which, acting on the chemoreceptors of the mammary gland, cause nervous excitement. It is transmitted along nerve pathways to the cerebral cortex, and from it nerve impulses go to the mammary gland, prompting it to secrete

All organs of the female’s body participate in the process of milk secretion and milk secretion, determining the specific individual properties of each cow’s milk. In addition to the ovary, pituitary gland and placenta, others also affect lactation endocrine glands(thyroid, adrenal glands, etc.). External stimuli (visual, olfactory, auditory, tactile, gustatory) also have a positive or negative effect on the function of the mammary gland.

By the time of childbirth, the mammary gland enlarges and begins to produce colostrum-thick, viscous, yellowish-white liquid, which has a peculiar unpleasant, salty taste. Colostrum contains a significant amount of protein and salts, characteristic fat droplets (colostrum corpuscles). Colostrum contains less fat and sugar than regular milk. more iron, ten times more retinol (vitamin A) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C), three times more calciferol (vitamin D).

Colostrum contains a large number of decayed secretory cells. 7-10 days after birth, colostrum turns into regular milk, but it becomes suitable for cheese making only two weeks after birth.

The process of milk formation occurs in the alveoli. The secretion process consists of the accumulation (formation) of cell secretions, the subsequent rejection of the accumulated secretion in the peripheral part of the cell and its passage into the lumen of the alveoli.

After birth, for 4-6 weeks (with proper milking or regular sucking), glandular tissue continues to develop and milk production increases. Then the reverse development of the mammary gland begins (involution), which consists of a gradual decrease in intensity and its function. After winter births with the transfer of cows to summer housing, an increase in their milk productivity is often observed, which is regarded by some experts as a natural manifestation of the two-vertex lactation line.

Milk yield- release of milk from the udder - occurs as a result of the movement of milk from the upper sections of the udder downwards, mainly as a result of contraction of the myoepithelium and smooth muscles of the udder. Milk ejection is carried out by the combined activity of the nervous and humoral systems. In the process of preparing the udder for milking, there is an increased flow of blood to the gland, ensuring the elasticity of the nipples. This condition is called udder erection. It provides a normal condition for milking or suckling. Milking, massage or sucking irritate the receptors of the skin of the udder, and in response to these irritations, impulses are received from the cerebral cortex, causing udder rigidity (tension of the contractile system of the udder), manifested in the contraction of myoepithelial cells of the alveoli, muscle layers of medium and large milk ducts, as a result of which milk ejection occurs. The nipple tanks are filled with milk. The entire udder becomes elastic, looks full and stretched.

Simultaneously with the formation of milk, it is absorbed components. This phenomenon is called reabsorption. When the udder is full, reabsorption increases. As milk is produced, the milk ducts expand due to relaxation of the muscles of the mammary gland. Typically, the udder is filled with milk within 12-14 hours. It is more or less uniform. Then, due to an increase in intraudder pressure, compression of the capillaries and irritation of the baroreceptors of milk production slows down, then stops, and the reabsorption process actively manifests itself. Timely release of the gland from secretion prevents this phenomenon.

Udder examination consists of collecting anamnesis, clinical examination of the animal, its mammary gland and checking the quality of milk.

When collecting anamnestic information, they strive to establish:

1) Time last birth, duration of the dry period, stages of preparation for lactation, condition of the mammary gland before and after childbirth;

2) General condition the body before and after childbirth, the stage of the reproductive cycle, the time of insemination, the course of labor and the postpartum period;

3) The state of the region and farm in relation to livestock diseases in general and mammary gland disease in particular;

4) Diseases of the mammary gland noted in the animal in previous years;

5) Milk yield in previous years and in the last lactation period;

6) Method of milking and quality of milk, its color, smell, taste, change during boiling;

7) The time of illness of individual quarters of the udder, the quantity and quality of the secretion they secrete.

A clinical examination should begin with a routine examination of the animal, then examine the mammary gland by examining it, palpating it, test milking and determining the quality of the milk. The udder is examined from behind and from the side; at the same time, pay attention to its shape, preservation of hair, skin color; detect damage skin diseases or their traces.

By palpation, first of all, the temperature of individual areas of the mammary gland is determined in strict sequence by comparing the thermal sensation received by the back of the hand from symmetrically located points.

Treatment of animals with mastitis.

Restoring breast function is possible only with the normalization of complex neurovascular relationships and trophism.

Pathogenetic therapy of mastitis. To normalize neurovascular reactions, novocaine is used, which has an anesthetic factor that blocks the nerves of the mammary gland. Most effective method treatment is intraudernal injection of 100-150 ml of 0.5% novocaine solution with the addition of antibiotics at intervals of 12 hours (short novocaine blockade method). For injections, use a syringe connected by a rubber tube and a long injection needle (needle length 10-12 cm). The needle is inserted from behind between the base of the udder and abdominal wall, retreating 1-2 cm from the midline towards the diseased half of the udder, and move it towards the carpal joint of the same side to a depth of 8-12 cm. Inject 150-200 ml of 0.5% novocaine solution. By moving the needle to various directions the solution is evenly distributed in the space above the udder.

Sheep are injected with a 0.25% solution of novocaine in a dose of 40-50 ml in the front, goats in the back of the udder. In sows, the nerves of each affected glandular lobe of the udder are blocked separately with a 0.25% solution of novocaine, 20-40 ml. If necessary, repeated blockades are carried out after 48-96 hours.

Positive results are obtained by introducing a 1% solution of novocaine into the abdominal aorta according to the method. A good effect is obtained by administering 100-150 ml of a 1% solution of novocaine with an interval of 24-48 hours. Animals with serous mastitis recover in most cases after 2-3 days, with catarrhal - after 4-5, with fibrinous - after 6, with purulent catarrhal - after 5 and with hemorrhagic - after 6 days.

Often the course of the inflammatory process in the mammary gland is complicated by microorganisms that are the direct cause of mastitis. To select a more effective antibiotic, it is necessary to determine the type of pathogenic microflora and its sensitivity to the drug.

At acute course mastitis - serous, catarrhal, fibrinous or purulent - antibiotics (bicillin, penicillin, streptomycin, etc.) are administered intramuscularly at a dose of 3-5 thousand units per 1 kg of animal body weight.

Prevention of mastitis consists of a set of activities, which include:

Complete, balanced feeding and watering of animals;

Correct design and equipment of milking platforms;

Carefully selected milk devices for machine milking;

Complete release of the mammary gland during milking;

Maintain sanitary and hygienic conditions both when milking animals and in the premises where the animals are located;

Conduct monthly studies of dairy livestock for subclinical and clinical mastitis.

Lecture No. 7. BREAST PATHOLOGY

Pathologies of the mammary gland include inflammatory processes in it (mastitis) and, in addition, dermatitis, injuries, as well as functional disorders and anomalies leading to impaired lactation: agalactia - lack of milk and hypogalactia - lack of milk.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE MAMMARY GLAND IN ANIMALS OF DIFFERENT SPECIES

Mammary glands (glandula lactifera, mastos) are paired, spatially isolated or, conversely, paired with each other glandular formations with a nipple, producing milk for feeding the offspring. Synonyms: mammary glands(mamma), milk bags, udder (uber).

The function of the mammary gland is the formation and secretion of milk. Lactation is activated by hormones that control pregnancy and childbirth. Milk formation (lactopoiesis) is controlled by lactogenic hormones (prolactin, human placental lactogen, rat placental lactogen, ovine growth hormone). The main lactogenic hormone in placental mammals is prolactin, a hormone of the anterior pituitary gland. Its secretion is influenced by prolactostatin (prolactin-inhibiting factor or PIF) and dopamine. Through the neurons of the hypothalamus, where they are produced in the arcuate nuclei, prolactostatin and dopamine reach the anterior pituitary gland and inhibit the release of prolactin. During the fruiting period, the reactivity of this system to prolactostatin and dopamine decreases, and the pituitary gland begins to secrete large amounts of prolactin. Lactogens (pituitary and/or placental origin) stimulate mammogenesis - the development of the mammary gland and its preparation for lactation.

Milk is produced by lactocytes - cells of the glandular epithelium of the alveoli - from blood components.

The milk ejection reflex, or the release of milk from the mammary gland, is caused by oxytocin. It is synthesized by neurosecretory cells in two nuclei of the hypothalamus - paraventricular and supraoptic - and transported along axons to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. In response to stimulation of the nipples by the cubs during sucking, the neurohypophysis releases oxytocin into the blood. It is captured by specific receptors in the tissues of the mammary gland (myoepithelium of the alveoli, smooth muscle fibers walls of the excretory ducts and sphincter of the nipple), which leads to the release of milk. Oxytocin also causes contractions in the uterus during childbirth. Stimulation of the vagina, cervix and uterus itself, like stimulation of the nipples, causes an additional release of oxytocin in female mammals.

Mammary glands in animals different types differ in shape, location, number of nipples and/or nipple canals and other characteristics. These features must be taken into account when operating, organizing the prevention and treatment of breast diseases.

Rice. 1. The location of the nipples and the size of the mammary glands in lactating female laboratory animals(Drawings of rat and mouse, partly adapted from Eckstein & Zuckerman, 1956. In: Marshall's Physiology of Reproduction. A. S. Parkes (Ed.), Vol. I, Part 1, 3rd ed., Boston, Little, Brown & Co. )

Fig.9.3. Scheme of the structure of the mammary gland lobule (according to A.P. Studentsov): 1.3-6 – milk ducts; 2 – alveoli

Rice. 2. Comparative anatomy mammary glands of domestic animals (G. M. Constantinescu, 2007): A – cow; B – sheep, goats; B – pigs and horses; G – dogs and cats; 1 – excretory ducts of the glandular tissue of the udder; 2 – milk or milk tanks of the udder; 3 – nipple or nipple canals; 4 – multiple milk sinuses, opening with independent milk openings at the apex of the nipple

Mastitis- inflammation of the mammary gland. Occurs during periods of lactation, startup and dry wood. On various farms, from 3 to 50% of dairy cows suffer from mastitis.

Economic damage due to a decrease in milk productivity of recovered cows by 10-40% per lactation, deterioration in the quality of milk, a decrease in the reproductive function of cows, their premature culling due to atrophy or induration of the udder, an increase in the morbidity and mortality of newborn young animals, treatment costs, etc.

Causes: Mastitis develops under the influence of mechanical, thermal, chemical and biological factors. Widespread mastitis is observed when the rules of machine milking are violated: overexposure of teat cups, too fast or irregular pulsation rhythm, inconsistent vacuum, use of old, rough, cracked teat rubber, improper starting. The disease is promoted by keeping animals in stalls with concrete floors in winter, and in summer and autumn in camps without hard surfaces, contaminated, damp bedding. Microorganisms (staphylococci, streptococci, E. coli, salmonella, mycoplasma, fungi, viruses, etc.) can directly cause mastitis or they complicate the course of inflammation caused by other factors.

Pathogens penetrate the mammary gland through the nipple canal, through damaged skin of the udder, and are also carried through the blood and lymphatic vessels from the genitals (with atony and subinvolution of the uterus, retained placenta, endometritis), from gastrointestinal tract and other organs when they are inflamed.

Infection of the udder through the teat canal can occur in three ways:

through hands/milking equipment (Staphylococcus aureus, not sensitive to most microorganisms);

through bedding material (one gram of cattle feces contains about 1 million E. coli);

spread by flies (streptococcus agalactina is the main causative agent of summer non-lactational mastitis).

Based on the severity of inflammation, subclinical (hidden) and clinical forms of mastitis are distinguished

The clinical form of inflammation of the mammary gland depends on the localization of the process, the virulence and quantity of the pathogen, the duration of their action, and the condition protective forces body, reactivity of udder tissues.

According to the classification of A.P. Studentsov, depending on the nature of the exudate, mastitis is distinguished: serous, catarrhal (catarrh of the tank, mammary ducts and catarrh of the alveoli), fibrinous, purulent (purulent catarrhal, udder abscess, udder phlegmon), hemorrhagic. In addition, there are specific mastitis, which are a consequence of foot and mouth disease, tuberculosis, actinomycosis and other infectious diseases.

Mastitis occurs in acute, subacute, chronic form. In cows, subacute and chronic mastitis, serous and serous-catarrhal mastitis, usually occur with unclear clinical signs and are called subclinical.

Signs. The sick animal is depressed. There is a decrease in appetite, hypotension of the forestomach, and an increase in body temperature. The affected quarter of the udder is red, enlarged, painful, and hot to the touch. Milk productivity decreases. At serous mastitis the milk at the beginning remains almost unchanged, but when the secretory parts of the gland are involved in the process, it becomes liquid and contains flakes. With catarrh of the cistern and milk passages, the first portions of milk are liquid and contain flakes or crumbly clots of casein. Then, as milking progresses, normal milk appears. With catarrh of the alveoli, both at the beginning and at the end of milking, the milk is watery, flakes and clots of casein are found in it. After the milk settles, a mucopurulent sediment forms at the bottom of the test tube, the cream acquires a dirty color and a viscous consistency. With fibrous purulent and hemorrhagic mastitis, severe depression of the animal, refusal of food, atony of the proventriculi, and high temperature (40-41 0 C) are observed. The affected quarters of the udder are very painful, enlarged, and hot. The skin is tense and hyperemic. The supraglavicular lymph nodes are enlarged and painful. The cisterns contain a small amount of purulent or hemorrhagic exudate, and in fibrinous mastitis - tiny yellow fibrin clots.

Diagnosis based on clinical signs, data from bacteriological and other laboratory studies.

Subclinical (hidden) mastitis is detected by examining cows at least once a month by counting the number of somatic cells (mainly leukocytes), colorimetric methods (by measuring the color of bromthymol blue, fenelrot), a test with dimastin, mastidine, etc.

Test with dimastin (according to V.I. Mutovin). Dimastin is a powder that contains a surfactant (sulfonate), an indicator (phenolrot), hyposulfite and Glauber's salt. It is used in the form of a 5% solution in distilled water. Research is carried out on milk control plates near cows. Milk 1 ml of milk from each lobe of the udder and add 1 ml of dimastin solution. The mixture is stirred for 30 s. The reaction is assessed by the formation of a clot and the color of the mixture. The formation of a jelly-like clot is associated with the content of a large number of leukocytes in milk; its consistency is indicated by crosses from one to four. One cross (+) is a very weak clot, the mixture of milk with the reagent stretches behind a stick in the form of a thread, two crosses (+ +) is a weak clot, three crosses (+ + +) is jelly, has the consistency of a raw chicken egg, which is difficult to throw away with a stick from the recess of the plate, four crosses (+ + + +) - a very dense clot that is easily thrown out with a stick from the recess of the plate. A reaction indicated by three crosses is considered doubtful, four - positive. Dimastin is also used to determine changes in milk reaction. The orange color of the mixture indicates a slightly acidic reaction (milk from healthy cows). The color of the mixture is red, crimson and scarlet for an alkaline reaction, and yellow for an acidic reaction (milk from cows with mastitis).

Test with mastidine (according to M.K. Velkhatnaya). Mastidine contains a surfactant (sulfonal) and an indicator (bromocresol purple). Used in 2% concentration in distilled water. Research is also carried out on milk control plates directly next to the animals. To do this, 1 ml of milk is pumped into each recess of the plate to the control line from the corresponding lobe of the udder and 1 ml of mastidine solution is added. The milk and the reagent are mixed for 15-20 seconds. When taking into account the reaction, the color of the mixture and the formation of a jelly-like clot are taken into account. The presence of a jelly-like clot indicates a positive reaction.

Alpha test- Manufacturer: De-Laval. Used to diagnose subclinical mastitis in cows. Samples are taken directly near the cow onto milk control plates. To do this, milk 1 ml of milk from each milking into the corresponding recess of the plate, add 1-2 drops of alpha test, and mix. The presence of clots, a jelly-like mass, or viscousness when pouring the mixture under study from the recesses of the plate indicates a positive reaction.

Profilak reagent- Manufacturer: Westfalia. Samples are taken directly from the cow on milk control plates, 1-2 ml of milk each, add 1-2 drops of prophylactic reagent, mix. The presence of clots, a jelly-like mass, or viscousness when pouring the studied material from the recesses of the plate indicates that the animal has subclinical mastitis.

California test- developed in the USA, widely used on all continents, including very common in Europe. To get the most accurate results this test It is best to carry out immediately before milking after stimulating the cow's udder and releasing secretions from the mammary glands. The California test reagent reacts with the genetic material of somatic cells in milk, forming a jelly-like substance, the amount and nature of which indicates the degree of damage to the udder and the number of somatic cells in the milk.

Settling test (according to V.I. Mutovin). 10-25 ml of parenchymal milk from each lobe is poured into separate test tubes. Test tubes with milk are kept in the refrigerator at a temperature of 4-7 0C for 16-24 hours. When examining milk, pay attention to its color, the presence of sediment, the thickness and character of the cream. Subclinical mastitis is characterized by bluish color, watery consistency of milk, thickness of the cream layer is less than 5 mm, sometimes it contains many leukocytes or mucus and flakes. The main sign of inflammation of the udder is the appearance of a white, creamy or yellowish sediment in a volume of 0.1 mm or more. If the sediment is slight (less than 0.1 mm), but the cream contains flakes or the color of the milk has changed, the cow is considered suspicious for the disease.

You can also use methods for diagnosing subclinical mastitis, such as the leukocyte test and the Whiteside test, which were described back in the 70s, but are not widely used.

Leukocyte test- the essence of the technique is to centrifuge a milk sample at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes. The result is assessed by the amount of sediment formed.

Whiteside sample is based on the transformation of the cellular elements of milk under the influence of a 4% solution of potassium hydroxide into a jelly-like mass. If a jelly-like clot forms within 30 seconds, the result should be considered positive.

It has been established that the effectiveness of mastitis diagnostic tests is not the same: the α-test is more sensitive and the reaction appears immediately after mixing milk with the drug; The mastidine test is less effective and the reaction appears later. Test of milk settling in a test tube and settling to the bottom purulent exudate in 75% of cases it coincided with the test sample in cases of catarrhal purulent mastitis.

Computer programs and devices for diagnosing mastitis. Recently, an organization dedicated to improving dairy herds, DHI (Dairy Heard Improvement), created a special program for dairy farm owners to electronically count the number of somatic cells in milk from each cow during lactation at intervals of one month. As a result of the use of this program, a close connection has been established between an increased number of somatic cells in milk and a decrease in its production. The DHI Association has developed a uniform method for counting somatic cells in milk, which is used by all centers that process data on milk production and quality in the United States. This method, known as linear somatic cell counting in milk, is divided into 10 categories: from 0 to 9, each of which corresponds to a certain number of somatic cells, with the number of cells doubling each time the linear number increases by 1.

There are devices whose operating principle is based on determining the electrical conductivity or electrical resistance of milk. Such devices are the Dramiński electronic detector and the MMS-3000 device. Rogov E. described a method for electrodiagnostics of mastitis using the Egina apparatus.

Electronic detector Dramiński- developed in Poland. Consists of a measuring cup, an electronic module with a 3.5 LCD display. The operating principle of this device is based on determining the electrical resistance of milk changes due to the development of the inflammatory process. Interpretation of the results: 250 units or less - subclinical mastitis, 300 units or more - udder in good condition(for animals 1-4 lactations), 370-400 units - the udder is within normal limits (for animals 5th or more lactations).

Device MMS-3000- developed in Germany. The essence of the functioning of this device is based on determining the electrical conductivity of milk. Has four diagnostic channels, which allows you to simultaneously examine samples of secretions from all nipples.

The use of modern diagnostic tests and instruments for the diagnosis of subclinical mastitis ensures the maximum possible detection of it in the conditions of modern dairy farms and complexes.

Determination of the number of leukocytes in milk by counting methods. Counting the number of leukocytes in milk remains one of the reliable criteria for diagnosing subclinical mastitis. The International Dairy Federation and most researchers studying this problem They believe that the presence of more than 500 thousand leukocytes in 1 ml of milk is a sign of the development of an inflammatory process in the mammary gland.

It has been proven that the content of leukocytes in 1 ml of milk can be used to control the pathogenesis of mastitis and determine the effectiveness of treatment. Even at the beginning of the last century, it was known that a pronounced feature of the development of inflammation of the mammary gland is a sudden increase in the number of leukocytes in milk. Prescott and Broad proposed a method for counting leukocytes in milk.

Determination of the number of cells in milk by the Prescott and Breed method. A clean slide is placed on a sheet of paper, drawn into squares with a side of 1 cm. The milk sample is thoroughly mixed, then 0.005 ml is applied to each square of the slide using a micropipette and carefully distributed over the square area. The smear is dried in air, fixed with methyl alcohol or ether alcohol in a bath with the smear in a vertical position, stained for 15-20 minutes according to Romanovsky-Giemsa (1-2 drops of paint per 1 ml of distilled water). You can paint smears according to Newmans (absolute alcohol - 50 ml, chloroform - 50 ml, glacial acetic acid - 20 ml, basic fuchsin - 0.1 g, methylene blue - 1 g). Paints are dissolved in a mixture of alcohol and chloroform heated to 50 0C. After cooling to room temperature, ice cold water is added to the solution. acetic acid and kept for 18 hours and then used for painting. After staining, the preparation is dried and washed three times. warm water(37-40 0C). The smear is thoroughly dried and examined under a microscope. In each smear, 100 fields of view are examined. The number of cells is multiplied by a coefficient taking into account the lens and eyepiece (for an MB-1 microscope with a 90 lens and 7 eyepiece this coefficient is 6260, with an eyepiece 10 - 10200, with an eyepiece 15 - 33200).

Treatment. Sick animals are isolated, limited to watering places and dachas succulent feed. Cows are transferred to hand milking. The affected quarters of the udder are placed in a separate container every 2-3 hours. The silver is destroyed, the dishes are disinfected. During the first day of the disease, cold compresses are used to reduce hyperthermia, exudation and pain reaction. From the 3rd…4th day thermal procedures are prescribed: warming water or alcohol compresses, paraffin and ozokerite therapy, thermal or ultraviolet irradiation, rubbing in slightly irritating and disinfecting ointments and liniments

For serous mastitis, udder massage is carried out from bottom to top to improve the outflow of venous blood and lymph; for catarrhal mastitis - from top to bottom to remove exudate, flakes and casein clots. It is contraindicated for purulent, fibrinous and hemorrhagic mastitis.

After determining the sensitivity of microorganisms, antibiotics (penicillin, streptomycin, bicillin, erythromycin, gentamicin, etc.) and sulfonamide drugs (norsulfazole, sulfapyridosine, sulfadimethoxine, sulfene, etc.) are used as antibacterial agents. They are injected (preferably in a solution of novocaine) into the mammary gland, subcutaneously, intravenously, intra-aortically and intra-arterially. For intrauderminal administration, nitrofuran preparations are used: furacillin, furazolidone, furadonin, furazolin.

Intracisternal administration of mixtures of the above listed oil-based drugs (mapstisan\. Masticur, mastidine, etc.) is also used.

During antibiotic treatment and within three to five days after its completion, milk from healthy quarters is rejected.

For mastitis of fungal origin, fungicidal and fungostatic agents (0.5%-1% aqueous suspension of nmsiaitin, levorin, lamisil, etc.) are introduced into the udder.

A high therapeutic effect is obtained when pathogenetic therapy novocaine. For this purpose, an infusion of 0.5-1% novocaine solution of 100-150 ml into the affected quarter of the udder is used with an interval of 12 as; short novocaine blockade of the udder (150-200 ml of a 0.5% novocaine solution is evenly distributed between the base of the udder and the abdominal wall; conduction anesthesia of the mammary gland, injection of a 1% novocaine solution into the abdominal aorta in a dose of 100-150 ml after 48 hours, etc. purulent abscesses use surgical methods of treatment. In this case, lesions located superficially are hidden with vertical incisions and treated as open wounds. From deep abscesses, exudate is sucked out using a syringe and a large-diameter needle. Subsequently, the cavity is treated with antiseptic solutions for 3-4 days.

Ampivet K

Ampicillin + Cloxacillin

Pliva (Croatia)

Composition and release form. Oil suspension of ampicillin and cloxacillin for intrauderminal administration. Cardboard boxes with 12 plastic injectors containing 5 ml of suspension. 5 ml of suspension (dose) contains 200 mg of ampicillin in the form of trihydrate and 100 mg of cloxacillin in the form of sodium salt.

Pharmacological action. Antimicrobial. Ampicillin and cloxacillin are semisynthetic penicillins. They have a bactericidal effect on microorganisms in the growth phase. The antibacterial effect is associated with their ability to inhibit the synthesis of peptidoglycans in the cell wall of microorganisms. In combination with each other, ampicillin and cloxacillin have a detrimental effect on most mastitis pathogens: Streptococcus spp., Staphyllococcus spp. Corynebacterium spp., Escherichia coli, etc. Local use of ampivet K allows you to achieve bactericidal concentrations of the drug in the affected mammary gland without causing an adverse reaction of its tissues.

Indications. Lactation mastitis

Method of administration and dose. Intra-udder. The contents of the injector are injected through the teat canal into the affected lobe of the udder. If necessary, a second injection of the drug is given after 48 hours.

Side effects. Not observed.

Contraindications. Hypersensitivity to penicillin antibiotics.

Special instructions. During the treatment period and within 3 days after the last application of the drug, milk from the affected quarter of the udder must be disposed of, milk from healthy quarters of the udder is subjected to heat treatment and used as feed for young animals . Milk may be used for human consumption 3 days after the last treatment with the drug. Slaughter of animals for meat is allowed no earlier than after 7 days. Carcasses of animals forcedly killed before the specified period can be used as feed for carnivores and for the production of meat and bone meal.

Storage conditions. In a dry place, protected from light, at a temperature of 10 to 21 ° C. Shelf life – 2 years from the date of manufacture.

Immediately after childbirth (calving, foaling, lambing, farrowing), the mammary gland (udder) begins to produce milk, which contains everything nutrients, necessary for the body, and therefore indispensable for the nutrition of newborns.
The mammary gland belongs to skin glands, but differs from them in the structure and nature of the secretion. Functionally, it is closely related to the reproductive apparatus. The number of mammary glands, their shape and location are different in animals of different species. Glandular tissue The udder consists of a huge number of alveoli - tiny spherical vesicles, around which stellate myoepithelial cells are located, ensuring contraction of the alveoli. Each alveolus is abundantly supplied with blood capillaries. Inside, it is lined with a layer of glandular epithelial cells, in which the components of milk are synthesized, released into the lumen of the alveoli as it is formed. After the secretion (milk) is separated, the glandular epithelial cells resume their secretory activity. The activity of the alveoli is stimulated by the hormone of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, prolactin (during pregnancy, under the influence of placental hormones, its release is inhibited). Milk passages (ducts) depart from the alveoli, through which milk flows into the milk tanks located at the base of the nipple. It accumulates in the lumens of the alveoli, milk ducts and milk cistern. Last one moves 8 teat cistern, and from there into the outlet canal of the nipple, ending with the annular muscle - the sphincter (Fig. 8).

A large amount of arterial blood enters the udder, since to produce 1 liter of milk, at least 450-650 liters must pass through the udder. Venous blood flows from the udder through the mammary, or saphenous, abdominal vein. The activity of the mammary gland is regulated by the nervous system, in particular the cerebral cortex. Hormones of the pituitary gland, stellate cells located around the alveoli of the udder, smooth muscles of the udder, etc. also take part in the release (return) of milk from the udder. The milking process begins with irritation of the sensitive nerve endings in the nipples and udder.
Washing the udder and massage at the beginning of milking irritate the sensory nerves and stimulate the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland to release the hormone oxytocin into the blood. Under the influence of oxytocin, the cells of the alveoli contract, milk is squeezed out of the alveoli and small milk tubules into the milk passages and milk tanks: milk is simmered. Increased pressure is created in the udder tanks, caused by muscle contraction, as a result of which milk is easily milked out. The intensity of milk flow depends on its quantity and the internal pressure caused by it. The effect of oxytocin lasts 4-6 minutes, and therefore it is very important to milk the cow quickly. Udder performance is greatly influenced by conditioned reflexes. A calm environment, a strict daily routine on the farm and the gentle treatment of the animals by the staff promote milk production.

Igor Nikolaev

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Milk is a white liquid containing small particles of fat, lactose, vitamins, minerals. It is produced in the mammary glands of cows. The quality of milk depends on the animal’s nutrition, living conditions, age of the individual, and time of year. All the nutrients found in milk come from the blood. Features of the anatomy of the cow's mammary gland contribute to the production of useful nutritious product, which is necessary for both children and adults.

A cow's udder consists of 4 mammary glands. These are shares. They are interconnected, but each has a separate chamber. The lobes function independently of each other and end in the nipple. The anterior glands are smaller in volume than the hind glands, but in dairy cows all lobes are equal in volume.

The udder has a sheath of connective tissue covered with hairs. The fabric is gathered in elastic folds. They smooth out as the milk lobes fill with liquid. The udder is attached to the pelvic bones by connective tissue and ligaments. The basis of the mammary gland is glandular and adipose tissue:

• glandular tissue is formed by alveoli, cells in which milk is formed;
• Numerous blood vessels and nerves approach the alveoli. The posterior lobes are better supplied with blood, which is why there is more milk in them. Nerve fibers react to pressure, temperature changes, and chemical irritants;
• excretory channels connect the alveoli with the milk tank, the cavity in which milk accumulates. Each tank can store up to 500 ml. liquids;
• There is an exit from the tank - the nipple canal. Milk is milked through it. The nipple cavity holds 40 ml of liquid. Its inner wall is glandular, the outer wall consists of smooth fibers. The nipple has no hair. He protects milk canal from external influences, infections. At the same time, the nipple is designed to remove milk from the gland;
• Each lobe has its own system of connecting the alveoli and milk ducts.

The function of the udder is to produce milk and release it. The bowl capacity reaches 40 kg. When the ligaments are weakened, it sinks under weight or becomes deformed. Most often, changes are due to the age of the cow and the number of calvings.

Have no nipples sebaceous glands. During hot periods, cracks may appear on it. They cause pain to the cow when it comes into contact with grass or during milking. Nipples need care. After each milking they are lubricated with nourishing cream.

The shape of the udder varies among different breeds of cows. In dairy breeds, which are distinguished by good productive qualities, the gland has an elongated tubular shape. It is located along the abdominal cavity. Dairy-meat breeds most often have a cup-shaped udder. Its volume is large, indicating that the cow gives a lot of milk. In individuals of meat breeds, the glands are poorly developed: goat or primitive type of udder.

Speaking about the structure of the udder, it is necessary to describe the process of milk formation. The anatomy of the cow's mammary gland is such that milk production is associated with the reproductive organs. The alveoli begin to fill with fluid only under the influence of hormones, the level of which increases during pregnancy and after calving. Lactation is caused by prolactin, which is released by the anterior pituitary gland. The hormone stimulates the growth of the gland and prepares it for lactation. Lactocytes are present in the alveoli. These are the cells that produce milk from blood elements.

Fluid in the alveoli begins to be produced even before the calf is born. It is whitish in color, salty taste, viscous and thick. This is colostrum. After birth, a calf sucks out 1.5 kg of nutrient fluid in the first hours. He captures the nipple with his lips and thereby triggers the nerve impulse mechanism. The pituitary gland begins to secrete the hormone oxytocin. The hormone is captured by the receptors of the mammary gland, lactocytes begin to work and produce milk. The more often the nipple is irritated, the more milk is produced.

From the first days of lactation it is necessary to develop an udder. The cow is given a massage and all the milk is milked out, leaving the milk parts empty. After 4 hours they will fill with liquid again. It is recommended to milk cows every 6 hours. When the functioning of the mammary glands is normal, milking is carried out every 12 hours. If you exceed this period of time by 1-2 hours, the animal will have less milk. Over time, it will stop being produced.

The development of the mammary gland in cattle occurs before the 6th calving. After 9 calvings, milk production begins to decline. The cow is getting old. In dairy breeds, lactation can last until 13-16 calvings. Milk acquires its qualities and ceases to resemble colostrum 2 weeks after calving. The lactation period lasts 300 days. During this time, the animal can produce up to 16 thousand kg of milk.

The process of milking a cow

Before you start milking a cow, you need to prepare both the room and the animal. The stall is cleaned and the manure is removed. The belly, legs, hooves and udder of the cow are washed. They approach the animal in such a way that she can see the milkmaid. An enamel bucket is used as a container for milk.

The cow loves affection, you need to stroke her and talk to her in a calm voice. To keep the animal calm, it is tied to a turnstile. The tail is lightly grabbed with a whip to the leg. In order for the pituitary gland to release oxytocin into the body and milk production to begin, it is necessary to massage the cow. This is a kind of imitation of the actions of a calf when feeding, which taps the udder of the nurse with its head. Perform diagonal and horizontal stroking, circular movements with hands along massage lines. At this time, fluid from the alveoli enters the canals, the cistern and the nipple canal. As soon as the nipple has become hard and increased in size, the milking process begins.

The nipple is lightly grasped in a fist: the thumb and index finger are at the base of the nipple, at the same level. The little finger is located at the exit of the nipple canaliculus. The remaining fingers hold the body of the nipple strictly vertical. Squeeze the base of the nipple and squeeze the milk out of the tubule with your fingers.

The first drops are poured into a clean mug. Determine the color of the milk: whether there are any foreign impurities. With the first portion, bacteria and dirt come out of the teat if the cow is not washed well. The rest of the milk is milked into a container. After making the first cycle of movements with your fingers, wait until the nipple is full again. This usually takes 2-3 seconds. In a similar way, all 4 lobes of the udder are freed from milk.

When milking by machine, the apparatus is mounted on a turnstile, and milking cups are attached to the teats. The device creates a vacuum: the milk comes out of the tubules into the container. The cow also needs to be prepared for the process.

The operator must monitor the pressure in the equipment. Standard working pressure 47 kPa. With reduced pressure, the milking process takes place for a long time. It's not effective. With increased pressure, the glasses will compress the cow's teat too much, causing her pain. No air should get into the glass. It will block the milk supply.

Diseases of the cow's udder

One of the common diseases of the udder is mastitis. It can develop due to improper care of the animal, injuries to the gland, or failure to follow milking rules. This streptococcal infection. Pathogens enter through the outlet in the nipple, through cracks and wounds. Symptoms vary depending on the type of mastitis. Sometimes it is asymptomatic. The disease can only be recognized after milk testing.

• After calving, a cow most often develops serous mastitis. The udder and nipples become dense and turn red. The iron is hot to the touch. The animal's body temperature may increase: the nose is dry, chewing movements stop. There are white flakes in the milk.
• During lactation, catarrhal mastitis may occur. Small lumps the size of a pea are felt in the udder. The seals quickly increase in size and block the milk tubules. The gland becomes hard. Catarrhal mastitis may appear in one lobe of the udder, while the others remain healthy. The milk acquires a liquid consistency. It separates and flakes are visible.
• The first sign of purulent mastitis is brown clots in milk. The udder becomes inflamed, and the animal’s temperature rises to 40 degrees. One or all lobes of the gland are enlarged in size and hot to the touch. The outflow of milk stops: all the liquid accumulates in the tubules of the udder. The cow is in severe pain.