Report on practice: Sociological research: concept and types. Applied sociological research

Applied sociological research (ASR) is the direct collection, processing and analysis of primary sociological information. Its main goal is to obtain facts that form the empirical basis of sociology or have independent applied significance. Applied sociological research is always carried out according to certain rules. Stages conducting PSI.

1. Preliminary: drawing up a program and schedule for PSI planning research documents.

2. Field: preparation of the research group, preparation of the research field, aerobatics, field research.

3. Organizing, processing and analysis of the information received.

4. Drawing up final documents that reflect the results of the PSI and methods for obtaining them.

Types of sociological research. Depending on the purposes of PSI, they are divided into reconnaissance, descriptive and analytical.

Reconnaissance study (pilot) used as a preliminary stage of large-scale research. It covers small survey populations and is based on a simplified program and methodology. A type of pilot study is an express survey (the so-called sounding public opinion).

Descriptive research used in the case of studying a large community of people with diverse characteristics. Such research is carried out according to a developed program and on the basis of methodologically tested tools.

Analytical research- the most profound type of sociological analysis, which aims, in addition to describing the phenomenon being studied, to also identify the reasons underlying it.

Based on the frequency of studies conducted, point and repeat types are divided into:

§ spot study (one-time) provides information about the state of the object of analysis, about the quantitative characteristics of the phenomenon or process at the time of its study;

§ re-study carried out sequentially at certain intervals, based on a single program and tools, gives an idea of the dynamics of the object being studied;

§ panel study- a special type of repetition. A panel study involves studying the same group of people repeatedly at specified intervals. Continuous and prompt receipt of data on phenomena and processes occurring in society is called social monitoring.

Studying social processes using the methods of applied sociology begins with the development of a research program. The effectiveness of all subsequent work of the sociologist depends on the quality of the program and its scientific level.

PSI program is a theoretical document outlining methodological, methodological and organizational principles, techniques, means of studying a specific social object. The requirements for the PSI object are as follows:

1. clear identification of the phenomenon according to the following parameters - professional (industry) affiliation, spatial limitation, functional focus;

2. a certain time limitation;

3. the possibility of its quantitative measurements;

PSI subject - These are those aspects (properties, relationships) of the object of study that express the problem under study in the most complete form and are subject to study.

Within the same object of study there may be several objects of study.

For example, within a specific school community (object of research), the subject of research may be: student discipline, socio-psychological microclimate in classes, socio-political activity of schoolchildren, their civic positions and a number of other characteristics. It happens differently: the object of research is formulated more narrowly - the leisure time of teenagers living in a given locality. Then the subject of the study will be: the tendency of adolescents to bad habits(smoking, drunkenness, drug addiction), sexual promiscuity of schoolchildren and other phenomena associated with the behavior of representatives of this social group during leisure time. There may be cases when the object and subject of research coincide. For example, the object of research is sports teams participating in a competition. The subject of research is all the essential aspects of their activities related to sports.

Clarification of the boundaries of the object and, to a certain extent, the subject of research is carried out in parallel with the calculation (justification) of the research sample. With its help, the scale (volume) of the work of the sociological group is determined in advance in order to minimize the costs of conducting research.

Population- this is a set (set) of all elements of research objects, limited by the natural territorial time frame and research program, and sample population - this is a part of the elements, extracted in a certain way from the whole and intended for direct study (observation). The research sample, as part of the research object, should be similar to the object as a whole in terms of basic socio-demographic or other significant characteristics. A sample (or sample population) is a reduced copy (model) of the research object (general population). Sociologists believe that, for example, there is no need, when studying the attitude of the population of a particular city to the problems under study, to interview all residents of this locality. It is enough to survey a part, but this part must be similar to the whole (in terms of gender, age, education, social status and other parameters important for the problem being studied). The sampling frame uses population census data, static reports, lists of employees of the organization being surveyed, house books, electoral lists, personnel department files and other documents that a sociologist can access.

Types samples in applied sociological research:

1. Empirical- used in the practice of small-scale studies.

It is divided into types: a) spontaneous sampling (selection of the “first person you meet”); b) quota sampling (a “model” is created that proportionally reproduces the general population according to the main, most significant characteristics).

2. Probabilistic(random selection) - methods of probability theory are used.

Main types of probability sampling:

a) simple probability sampling (simple random selection) - when, for example, cards with respondents’ numbers are selected according to the “lot” principle;

b) systematic probability sampling (for example, every fifth or hundredth);

c) serial (cluster) - when nests are selected (workshops, brigades, student groups, other divisions of the general population), sometimes polar in terms of the qualities being studied (advanced - lagging behind, smokers - non-smokers, etc.).

Samples can be regionalized if the selection is preceded by a division of the general population into parts (for example, schools or hospitals in an area can be divided into urban and rural, “prosperous” and “disadvantaged”). Sometimes multi-stage samples are selected (at the first stage - selection, for example, by districts, at the second - by enterprises, at the third - by workshops, sections). A special type of multi-stage sampling is multi-phase selection, when a subsample of a smaller size is separated from the selected sample.

The main requirement for any sample is its representativeness, i.e., the ability of a sample population to reflect the characteristics of the general population. Any sample deviates to a greater or lesser extent from the population. The degree of this deviation is usually called sampling error.

There are two types of errors:

1. random errors - associated with statistical errors (depending on the dynamics of the characteristics under study) and unforeseen violations of the information collection procedure (procedural errors made during the registration of characteristics);

2. systematic errors - arising due to incomplete objectivity of the sample of the general population (lack of

3. information about the general population, selection of the most “convenient” elements of the general population for research), as well as due to the inconsistency of the sample with the goals and objectives of the study.

There is the following rough estimate of the results of the sample study. Increased reliability of the study allows a sampling error of up to 3%, ordinary - up to 3-10% (confidence interval of distributions at the level of 0.03-0.1), approximate - from 10 to 20%, approximate - from 20 to 40%, and estimated - more than 40%.

The representativeness of the sample is assessed based on preliminary calculations and analysis possible errors. There are mathematical formulas for calculating the maximum sampling error. These formulas, based on the law of large numbers, are applicable, as a rule, only for large-scale studies over large areas, covering the population of a country or region.

When conducting sociological research in small groups, the sample is determined primarily by empirical methods in the process of collecting information (surveys are conducted until stable results are obtained). When studying, for example, the problems of schoolchildren, taking into account the comparative homogeneity of observation units, the sample calculation can be carried out during the period of collecting information simultaneously with the approval of research objects. So, if you survey all high school students at the same school and compare the results for each class separately, you can be sure that the distribution of answers differs little. This means that one could limit oneself to a survey of one or two or three classes (if the purpose and objectives of the study allow).

The representativeness of the sample can be determined in another way. First interview the expected number of respondents (for example, 50% total number). Then the collected array of questionnaires is divided into two parts according to a statistically random principle. Having processed each part separately and found that the discrepancy in answers is insignificant, we can come to the conclusion that it is possible to reduce the sample size by half in subsequent studies.

Other methods are also used. For example, different questionnaires used in one study include 2-3 blocks of the same (control) questions.

Then, starting, say, with the first questionnaire, gradually after each new survey they reduce the sample size, paying attention to the degree of distortion of answers to control questions. They should be insignificant, within acceptable limits.

These and other similar techniques are imperfect, but they help the future sociologist gain some experience in checking the representativeness of the collected information.

Purpose and objectives of the study

The purpose of the research is the final result of scientific research.

Purpose sociological research may be the acquisition of new knowledge about the object of research, its structure, and interaction with other objects. The purpose of the research is often to forecast the main directions of development of the phenomena or processes being studied.

Often in reports on sociological research one can find incorrect definitions of the purpose of the study, for example, such as: “Study of the state of discipline in the work collective” or “Study of the causes of staff turnover.” These examples outline the objectives of the study rather than its purpose. The goal of applied research will not be the research process itself, but what follows it. In other words, the statement of purpose should answer the question: “Why is the research being conducted, what benefits are expected to be obtained after its completion?” The goal is specified by the research objectives.

For example, when studying value orientations students, the purpose of the study may be: to determine the conditions and factors for creating a favorable social and educational space at the university that actively contributes to the formation of students' civic position, which determines their attitude to current events, understanding of their place in society; develop proposals for assessing the work of personnel responsible for conducting educational work.

Tasksresearch- these are the actions that are planned to be performed to achieve the goal; These are a kind of steps that you need to go through in order to achieve the final result. “Study...”, “compose...”, “analyze...” - these words often begin the formulation of research objectives.

If the purpose of the study is expressed in one or several sentences, then the tasks are often set out on dozens of pages; there can be many of them within the framework of one study.

Research objectives are various types: basic (main, most essential) and non-basic (particular, derivative, additional). The first include those that are directly aimed at achieving the goal of the study. The purpose of the second is to specify and clarify the main tasks. Obtaining side, secondary conclusions.

For example, when studying the value orientations of students, the research objectives may be:

To find out the hierarchy of the main value orientations of modern youth,

Find out which social institutions, in the opinion of young people themselves, are fundamental in the formation of citizenship before entering a university. Find out what social institutions, structural divisions and public organizations university are fundamental in the formation of a civic position while studying at a university, and also to determine whether there is a relationship between the presence of a formed own position and the level of trust in various social institutions and structures of the university (administrator’s office, dean’s offices, teaching staff, public associations(Belarusian Republican Youth Union, trade unions, etc.), curators, psychological service workers, ideological and educational service workers, etc.).

Research objectives in the process of their development must be consistent (coordinated) with hypotheses.

Research hypotheses

Hypothesesresearch- this is a reasonable assumption about the structure of social objects, the mechanism of their internal dynamics, interaction with external factors or other objects, as well as trends and main directions (prospects) of development. In essence, research is testing a hypothesis. Hypotheses can be classified:

§ according to the degree of generality of assumptions - hypotheses-foundations and hypotheses-consequences;

§ according to the degree of development and validity - primary and secondary;

§ from the point of view of research objectives - basic and non-basic.
Requirements for formulated hypotheses:

§ hypotheses must correspond to the goals and objectives of the study;

§ rely on well-known sociological theories, the truth of which has been proven;

§ do not contradict verified, scientifically confirmed empirical facts;

§ be based on representative information;

§ be tested by methods and means that do not go beyond the capabilities of a sociological laboratory.

For example, when studying the value orientations of students, the research hypothesis may be: a preliminary analysis of previously conducted local sociological studies allows us to make an assumption: the reason for the weak motivation for the formation of the personality of a modern student with fundamental values lies in the insufficient ideological and educational work of the teaching staff and structural divisions.

Sociological research

1 . Stages and types of sociological research

Sociological research is a process consisting of logically consistent methodological, methodological, organizational and technical procedures connected by a single goal - obtaining reliable data about the phenomenon under study for subsequent practical application.

There are three main types of sociological research: reconnaissance (probing, pilot), descriptive and analytical.

Intelligence research- This is the simplest type of sociological analysis that allows you to solve limited problems. In fact, when using this type, tools (methodological documents) are tested: questionnaires, questionnaires, cards, study of documents, etc.

The program for such research is simplified, as are the tools. The populations surveyed are small - from 20 to 100 people.

Exploratory research usually precedes an in-depth study of the problem. During it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions and their formulation are clarified.

Descriptive research- This is a more complex type of sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is studied that gives a relatively holistic picture of the social phenomenon being studied. The object of analysis is a large social group, for example, the workforce of a large enterprise.

A descriptive study may employ one or more methods of collecting empirical data. The combination of methods increases the reliability and completeness of information, allows you to draw deeper conclusions and substantiate recommendations.

The most serious type of sociological research is analytical research. It not only describes the elements of the phenomenon or process being studied, but also allows us to find out the reasons underlying it. It studies the combination of many factors that justify a particular phenomenon. Analytical research, as a rule, completes exploratory and descriptive research, during which information was collected that gives a preliminary understanding of certain elements of the social phenomenon or process being studied.

In sociological research, three main stages can be distinguished: 1) development of a research program and methods;

2) conducting empirical research;

3) data processing and analysis, drawing conclusions, drawing up a report.

All of these steps are extremely important and require special attention.

Let us take a closer look at the stage of compiling a sociological research report.

The results of the analysis of information obtained during empirical research are reflected, as a rule, in a report that contains data of interest to the customer. The structure of the report based on the results of the study most often corresponds to the logic of operationalization of basic concepts, but the sociologist, when preparing this document, follows the path of deduction, gradually reducing sociological data into indicators. The number of sections in the report usually corresponds to the number of hypotheses formulated in the research program. Initially, a report on the main hypothesis is given.

As a rule, the first section of the report contains a brief justification of the relevance of the social problem being studied, a description of the research parameters (sampling, methods of collecting information, number of participants, timing, etc.). The second section provides a description of the research object based on socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, social status, etc.). Subsequent sections include searching for answers to the hypotheses put forward in the program.

Sections of the report can be divided into paragraphs if necessary. It is advisable to end each paragraph with conclusions. The conclusion of the report is best presented in the form of practical recommendations based on general conclusions. The report can be presented on 30-40 or 200-300 pages. It depends on the volume of material, goals and objectives of the study.

The annex to the report contains methodological and methodological documents research: program, plan, tools, instructions, etc. In addition, tables, graphs, individual opinions, answers to open questions that were not included in the report are most often included in the appendix. This can be used in subsequent research programs.

2. Sociological research program

Sociological Research Program- this is one of the most important sociological documents, which contains the methodological, methodological and procedural foundations for the study of a social object. A sociological research program can be considered as a theory and methodology for a specific study of a separate empirical object or phenomenon, which represents the theoretical and methodological basis for the procedures at all stages of research, collection, processing and analysis of information.

It performs three functions: methodological, methodological and organizational.

The methodological function of the program allows you to clearly define the issues being studied, formulate the goals and objectives of the study, determine and conduct a preliminary analysis of the object and subject of the study, establish the relationship this study to previously carried out or parallel studies on this issue.

The methodological function of the program allows you to develop a general logical research plan, on the basis of which the research cycle is carried out: theory - facts - theory.

The organizational function ensures the development of a clear system of division of responsibilities between members of the research team and allows for effective dynamics of the research process.

A sociological research program as a scientific document must meet a number of necessary requirements. It reflects a certain sequence and stage-by-stage nature of sociological research. Each stage is a relatively independent part cognitive process- characterized by specific tasks, the solution of which is related to the general goal of the study. All components of the program are logically connected and subordinate to the general meaning of the search. The principle of strict phasing puts forward special requirements for the structure and content of the program.

The sociological research program consists of main parts: methodological and procedural. Ideally, the program contains the following sections: statement of the problem, goals and objectives of the research, object and subject of research, interpretation of basic concepts, research methods, research plan.

Ratio problems and the problem situation depends on the type of research, on the scale and depth of the sociology of the study of the object. In a real-life object, a property is identified, defined as its side, which is determined by the nature of the problem, thereby denoting the subject of research. Subject means the boundaries within which a particular object is studied in a given case. Next, you need to set the goals and objectives of the study.

The goal is focused on the end result. Goals can be theoretical and applied. Theoretical - give a description or explanation of a social program. The implementation of the theoretical goal leads to an increase in scientific knowledge. Applied goals are aimed at developing practical recommendations for further scientific development.

Tasks- individual parts, research steps that contribute to achieving the goal. Setting goals means, to some extent, a plan of action to achieve a goal. Objectives formulate questions that must be answered to achieve the goal. Tasks can be basic or private. Fundamentals are a means of addressing the main research questions. Particulars - for testing side hypotheses, solving some methodological issues.

In order to use a unified conceptual apparatus, the basic concepts are defined in the sociological research program.

The entire process of logical analysis comes down to the translation of theoretical, abstract concepts into operational ones, with the help of which tools for collecting empirical data are compiled.

A preliminary system analysis of an object is a modeling of the problem under study, breaking it down into elements, and detailing the problem situation. This allows you to more clearly present the subject of research.

An important place in the development of a research program is occupied by the formulation of hypotheses, which are specified as its main methodological tool.

Hypothesis is a probabilistic assumption about the causes of a phenomenon, the relationships between the social phenomena being studied, the structure of the problem being studied, and possible approaches to solving social problems.

The hypothesis gives the direction of the research, influences the choice of research methods and the formulation of questions.

The study must confirm, reject, or adjust the hypothesis.

Several types of hypotheses can be distinguished:

1) main and output;

2) basic and non-core;

3) primary and secondary;

4) descriptive (assumption about the properties of objects, about the nature of the connection between individual elements) and explanatory (assumption about the degree of closeness of connections and cause-and-effect dependencies in the social processes and phenomena being studied).

Basic requirements for the formulation of hypotheses. Hypothesis:

1) should not contain concepts that have not received empirical interpretation, otherwise it is unverifiable;

2) should not contradict previously established scientific facts;

3) should be simple;

4) must be verifiable at a given level of theoretical knowledge, methodological equipment and practical research capabilities.

The main difficulty in formulating hypotheses lies in the need to match their goals and objectives of the study, which contain clear and precise concepts.

The procedural part of the sociological research program includes the research methodology and technique, i.e., a description of the method of collecting, processing and analyzing sociological research information.

Depending on the specifics of the object, the choice of methods for collecting sociological information is made. The description of methods for collecting information involves justifying the selected methods, recording the main elements of the tools and technical techniques for working with them. The description of methods for processing information involves indicating how this will be done using application computer programs.

A sociological research program is a document that organizes and directs research activities in a certain sequence, outlining ways for its implementation. Preparing a sociological research program requires high qualifications and time. The success of empirical sociological research largely depends on the quality of the program.

3. Methods of sociological research

Method is the main way of collecting, processing or analyzing data. Technique is a set of special techniques for effective use one method or another. Methodology is a concept that denotes a set of technical techniques associated with a given method, including particular operations, their sequence and interrelation. Procedure - the sequence of all operations, the general system of actions and the method of organizing the study.

As the main methods used in social empirical studies, the following can be distinguished.

Observation is a purposeful perception of phenomena of objective reality, during which the researcher gains knowledge regarding external parties, states and relationships of objects that are being studied. The forms and methods of recording observation data can be different: an observation form or diary, a photo, film or television camera, and others. technical means. The peculiarity of observation as a method of collecting information is the ability to analyze diverse impressions about the object under study.

It is possible to record the nature of behavior, facial expressions, gestures, and expressions of emotions. There are two main types of observation: included and non-participated.

If the behavior of people is studied by a sociologist as a member of a group, then he conducts participant observation. If a sociologist studies behavior from the outside, then he conducts non-participant observation.

The main object of observation is both the behavior of individual people and social groups, and the conditions of their activities.

Experiment- a method whose purpose is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice.

The logic of its implementation is to, by selecting a certain experimental group (groups) and placing it in an unusual experimental situation (under the influence of a certain factor), to trace the direction, magnitude and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the researcher.

There are field and laboratory experiments, linear and parallel. When selecting experimental participants, methods of pairwise selection or structural identification, as well as random selection, are used.

Experimental design and logic include the following procedures:

1) selection of an object used as an experimental and control group;

2) selection of control, factor and neutral characteristics;

3) determination of experimental conditions and creation of an experimental situation;

4) formulating hypotheses and defining tasks; -

5) selection of indicators and method of monitoring the progress of the experiment.

Document analysis- one of the widely used and effective methods of collecting primary information.

The source of sociological information is not text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions, decisions, publications, letters, etc.

A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used for the characteristics and specific historical development of the phenomenon or process being studied.

The selection of information sources depends on the research program, and specific or random sampling methods may be used.

There are:

1) external analysis of documents, in which the circumstances of the occurrence of documents are studied; their historical and social context;

2) internal analysis, during which the content of the document is studied, everything that is evidenced by the text of the source, and those objective processes and phenomena that the document reports.

A survey - a method of collecting sociological information - provides for:

1) an oral or written appeal by the researcher to a certain population of people (respondents) with questions, the content of which represents the problem being studied at the level of empirical indicators;

2) registration and statistical processing of the responses received, their theoretical interpretation.

In each case, the survey involves addressing directly the participant and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation. This method of sociological research is the most popular and widespread.

The main types of surveys, depending on the written or oral form of communication with respondents, are questionnaires and interviews. They are based on a set of questions that are offered to respondents and the answers to which constitute an array of primary data. Questions are asked to respondents through a questionnaire or questionnaire.

Interview- a focused conversation, the purpose of which is to obtain answers to the questions provided for by the research program. The advantages of an interview over a questionnaire survey: the ability to take into account the level of culture of the respondent, his attitude to the survey topic and individual problems, expressed intonation, flexibly change the wording of questions taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers, and pose the necessary additional questions.

Despite some flexibility, the interview is conducted in accordance with a specific program and research plan, which records all the main questions and options for additional questions.

The following types of interviews can be distinguished:

2) by technique (free and standardized);

3) according to the procedure (intensive, focused).

Questionnaires classified according to the content and design of the questions asked. There are open questions when respondents express themselves in free form. In a closed questionnaire, all answer options are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures.

When preparing and conducting a sociological survey, there are three main stages.

At the first stage, the theoretical background of the survey is determined:

1) goals and objectives;

2) problem;

3) object and subject;

4) operational definition of initial theoretical concepts, finding empirical indicators.

During the second stage, the sample is justified and:

1) the general population (those layers and groups of the population to which the survey results are expected to be extended);

2) rules for searching and selecting respondents at the last stage of sampling.

At the third stage, the questionnaire is justified:

2) justification of the questionnaire regarding the capabilities of the population being surveyed as a source of the information sought;

3) standardization of requirements and instructions for questionnaires and interviewers on organizing and conducting a survey, establishing contact with the respondent, and recording responses;

4) provision preconditions to process the results on a computer;

5) ensuring organizational requirements for the survey.

Depending on the source (media) of primary information, mass and specialized surveys differ. In a mass survey, the main source of information is representatives of various social groups whose activities are directly related to the subject of analysis. Participants in mass surveys are usually called respondents.

In specialized surveys main source information - competent persons whose professional or theoretical knowledge and life experience allow them to make authoritative conclusions.

Participants in such surveys are experts who can give a balanced assessment on issues of interest to the researcher.

Hence, another widely used name in sociology for such surveys is the method of expert assessments.

Types of scales and rules for their construction.

Measurement in sociology is a way of studying social phenomena using quantitative estimates. The use of numerical measurement methods led to the appearance of scales. Measurement is a procedure by which social objects. iss are mapped to a specific numerical or graphic system. The main components of measurements: measurement objects, their properties, scales on which measurements are displayed. When taking measurements in sociology, it is necessary to make selections and scales. The construction of one type of scale or another involves, first of all, defining an indicator, i.e. factor that can quantitatively reflect the measured properties. The indicator can be gender, age, education, etc. often more than one is needed

several indicators, in each case the choice of a set of indicators depends on the nature of the object and the conditions in which it is located. When constructing a scale, it is necessary: the scale must reflect exactly those properties that are measured and take into account all values, the sensitivity of the scale must be sufficient,

as a rule, all positions are placed symmetrically (value c + symmetrically

value c -) sufficient accuracy and reliability (resistance to changes in the object) of the scale to objectively reflect the picture of measurements.

There are 3 types of scale:

nominal. An example is the self-esteem scale. This is the simplest type of installation measurement scale. It can be constructed in the form of a regular question or in the form of a number line with positive and negative gradations. When constructing a self-esteem scale in the form of a “traditional” question, its positions are necessarily arranged symmetrically and consist of an equal number of positive and negative assessments, separated by a “neutral” position.

rank,Ranking scale. It is distinguished by the fact that the results of measuring attitudes with its help are analyzed in accordance with the rules applicable to ranking scales. The simplest method of measuring attitudes according to the rules of such a scale is for respondents to rank those objects whose attitude towards them interests the researcher. Thus, to identify the chances of success of a particular candidate in multi-member elections, respondents are asked to arrange cards with the names of candidates in order of preference. In this case, all objects are significant from the point of view of the subject of research. The ranking result will provide information about the candidates' chances of being elected.

interval. Used only for numeric values, such as age,

work experience, etc. There are complex options for measuring using a ranking scale - the method of paired comparisons. Its essence lies in the fact that the objects indicated on the cards (their names) are shown in turn in pairs for evaluation

respondents, asking them to indicate their preferred one. Bogardus scale -

its main purpose is to measure national and racial attitudes.

The peculiarity of this scale is that each assessment (opinion, position) automatically includes everything that follows and excludes everything that preceded it. The question for her has the following wording: “What kind of relationship with a representative of such and such nationality is acceptable to you?” - Marriage relations; Personal friendship; Be neighbors; Be colleagues at work; To be residents of one city, town, village; etc. Experience shows that such scales can be constructed and successfully used to measure attitudes towards phenomena in various spheres of social relations.

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Applied sociological research

1. Stages and types of sociological research

Sociology, unlike other social sciences, actively uses empirical methods: questionnaires, interviews, observation, experiment, analysis of statistical data and documents. Sociological research is a process consisting of logically consistent methodological, methodological, organizational and technical procedures connected by a single goal - obtaining reliable data about the phenomenon under study for subsequent practical application.

There are three main types of sociological research: reconnaissance (probing, pilot), descriptive and analytical.

Intelligence research- This is the simplest type of sociological analysis that allows you to solve limited problems. In fact, when using this type, the tools (methodological documents) are tested: questionnaires, questionnaires, cards, study of documents, etc.

The program for such research is simplified, as are the tools. The populations surveyed are small - from 20 to 100 people.

Exploratory research usually precedes an in-depth study of the problem. During it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions and their formulation are clarified.

Descriptive research- This is a more complex type of sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is studied that gives a relatively holistic picture of the social phenomenon being studied. Object of analysis- a large social group, for example, the workforce of a large enterprise.

In sociological research, three main stages can be distinguished:

1) development of a research program and methods;

2) conducting empirical research;

3) data processing and analysis, drawing conclusions, drawing up a report.

All of these steps are extremely important and require special attention. The first stage will be discussed in detail in the next lecture. The second stage depends on the chosen type of sociological research and methods. Therefore, let us take a closer look at the stage of compiling a sociological research report.

As a rule, the first section of the report contains a brief justification of the relevance of the social problem being studied, a description of the research parameters (sampling, methods of collecting information, number of participants, timing, etc.). The second section provides characteristics of the research object according to socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, social status etc.). Subsequent sections include searching for answers to the hypotheses put forward in the program.

The appendix to the report contains methodological and methodological research documents: program, plan, tools, instructions, etc. In addition, the appendix most often includes tables, graphs, individual opinions, and answers to open questions that were not included in the report. This can be used in subsequent research programs.

2. Sociological Research Program

A sociological research program is one of the most important sociological documents, which contains the methodological, methodological and procedural foundations for the study of a social object. A sociological research program can be considered as a theory and methodology for a specific study of a separate empirical object or phenomenon, which represents the theoretical and methodological basis for the procedures at all stages of research, collection, processing and analysis of information.

It performs three functions: methodological, methodological and organizational.

The methodological function of the program allows you to clearly define the issues being studied, formulate the goals and objectives of the research, determine and conduct a preliminary analysis of the object and subject of the research, and establish the relationship of this research to previously carried out or parallel studies on this issue.

The methodological function of the program allows you to develop a general logical research plan, on the basis of which the research cycle is carried out: theory - facts - theory.

The organizational function ensures the development of a clear system of division of responsibilities between members of the research team and allows for effective dynamics of the research process.

A sociological research program as a scientific document must meet a number of necessary requirements. It reflects a certain sequence and stage-by-stage nature of sociological research. Each stage, a relatively independent part of the cognitive process, is characterized by specific tasks, the solution of which is related to the general goal of the study. All components of the program are logically connected and subordinate to the general meaning of the search. The principle of strict phasing puts forward special requirements for the structure and content of the program.

The sociological research program consists of two main parts: methodological and procedural. Ideally, the program contains the following sections: statement of the problem, goals and objectives of the research, object and subject of research, interpretation of basic concepts, research methods, research plan.

The relationship between the problem and the problem situation depends on the type of research, on the scale and depth of the sociological study of the object. Determining the object of empirical research involves obtaining spatio-temporal and qualitative-quantitative indicators. In a real-life object, a property is identified, defined as its side, which is determined by the nature of the problem, thereby denoting the subject of research. Subject means the boundaries within which a particular object is studied in a given case. Next, you need to set the goals and objectives of the study.

Target focuses on the end result. Goals can be theoretical and applied. Theoretical - give a description or explanation social program. The implementation of the theoretical goal leads to an increase in scientific knowledge. Applied goals are aimed at developing practical recommendations for further scientific development.

In order to use a unified conceptual apparatus, the sociological research program defines the basic concepts, their empirical interpretation and operationalization, during which the elements of the basic concept are identified according to strictly specified criteria that reflect the qualitative aspects of the research subjects.

The entire process of logical analysis comes down to the translation of theoretical, abstract concepts into operational ones, with the help of which tools for collecting empirical data are compiled.

An important place in the development of a research program is occupied by the formulation of hypotheses, which are specified as its main methodological tool.

The hypothesis gives the direction of the research, influences the choice of research methods and the formulation of questions.

The study must confirm, reject, or adjust the hypothesis.

Several types of hypotheses can be distinguished:

1) main and output;

2) basic and non-core;

3) primary and secondary;

4) descriptive (assumption about the properties of objects, the nature of the connection between separate elements) and explanatory (assumptions about the degree of close connections and cause-and-effect dependencies in the social processes and phenomena being studied).

Basic requirements for the formulation of hypotheses. Hypothesis:

1) should not contain concepts that have not received empirical interpretation, otherwise it is unverifiable;

2) should not contradict previously established scientific facts;

3) should be simple;

4) must be verifiable at a given level of theoretical knowledge, methodological equipment and practical research capabilities.

The main difficulty in formulating hypotheses lies in the need to match their goals and objectives of the study, which contain clear and precise concepts.

Empirical research is conducted on a sample population.

The type and method of determining the sample directly depends on the type of study, its goals and hypotheses.

The main requirement for samples in analytical research is representativeness: the ability of the sample population to represent the main characteristics of the general population.

The sampling method is based on two principles: the relationship and interdependence of the qualitative characteristics of the object and the study and on the validity of the conclusions as a whole when considering its part, which in its structure is a micromodel of the whole, i.e. the general population.

After drawing up the research program, the organization of field research begins.

3. Methods of sociological research

Method- the main method of collecting, processing or analyzing data. Technique is a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular method. Methodology- a concept that denotes a set of technical techniques associated with this method, including private operations, their sequence and interrelation. Procedure- the sequence of all operations, the general system of actions and the method of organizing the research.

The main methods used in social empirical research can be identified as follows.

Observation- purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality, during which the researcher gains knowledge regarding the external aspects, states and relationships of the objects that are being studied. The forms and methods of recording observation data can be different: an observation form or diary, a photo, film or television camera and other technical means. The peculiarity of observation as a method of collecting information is the ability to analyze diverse impressions about the object under study.

It is possible to record the nature of behavior, facial expressions, gestures, and expressions of emotions. There are two main types of observation: included and non-participated.

The main object of observation is both the behavior of individuals and social groups, and the conditions of their activities.

Experiment- a method whose purpose is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice.

Experimental design and logic include the following procedures:

1) selection of an object used as an experimental and control group;

2) selection of control, factor and neutral characteristics;

3) determination of experimental conditions and creation of an experimental situation;

4) formulating hypotheses and defining tasks;

5) selection of indicators and method of monitoring the progress of the experiment.

Document analysis- one of the widely used and effective methods collection of primary information.

The purpose of the study is to search for indicators that indicate the presence in a document of a topic that is significant for analysis and reveal the content of textual information. The study of documents allows us to identify the trend and dynamics of changes and development of certain phenomena and processes.

The source of sociological information is usually text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions, decisions, publications, letters, etc.

A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used for the characteristics and specific historical development of the phenomenon or process being studied.

An important feature of information is its aggregated nature, which means correlation with a certain group as a whole.

The selection of information sources depends on the research program, and specific or random sampling methods may be used.

There are:

1) external analysis of documents, in which the circumstances of the occurrence of documents are studied; their historical and social context;

The study of documents is carried out by qualitative (traditional) or formalized qualitative-quantitative analysis (content analysis).

Survey- method of collecting sociological information - provides:

2) registration and statistical processing of the responses received, their theoretical interpretation.

Interview- a focused conversation, the purpose of which is to obtain answers to the questions provided for by the research program. Advantages of interviews over questionnaire: the ability to take into account the level of culture of the respondent, his attitude to the topic of the survey and individual problems, expressed intonation, flexibly change the wording of questions taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers, and pose the necessary additional questions.

Despite some flexibility, the interview is conducted in accordance with a specific program and research plan, which records all the main questions and options for additional questions.

The following types of interviews can be distinguished:

2) by technique (free and standardized);

3) according to the procedure (intensive, focused).

Questionnaires are classified according to the content and design of the questions asked. There are open questions when respondents express themselves in free form. In a closed questionnaire, all answer options are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures.

When preparing and conducting a sociological survey, there are three main stages.

At the first stage, the theoretical background of the survey is determined:

1) goals and objectives;

2) problem;

3) object and subject;

4) operational definition of initial theoretical concepts, finding empirical indicators.

During the second stage, the sample is justified and:

1) the general population (those layers and groups of the population to which the survey results are expected to be extended);

2) rules for searching and selecting respondents at the last stage of sampling.

At the third stage, the questionnaire is justified:

2) justification of the questionnaire regarding the capabilities of the population being surveyed as a source of the information sought;

3) standardization of requirements and instructions for questionnaires and interviewers on organizing and conducting a survey, establishing contact with the respondent, and recording responses;

4) providing preconditions for processing the results on a computer;

5) ensuring organizational requirements for the survey.

In specialized surveys, the main source of information is competent individuals whose professional or theoretical knowledge and life experience allow them to draw authoritative conclusions.

Participants in such surveys are experts who can give a balanced assessment on issues of interest to the researcher.

Hence, another widely used name in sociology for such surveys is the method of expert assessments.

References

sociological public survey survey

1. Volkov Yu.G. Sociology. Textbook for university students; Ed. V.I. Dobrenkova.2nd edition. - M.: Social and humanitarian publication.; R/n D: Phoenix, 2007-572 p.

2. Gorelov A.A. Sociology in questions and answers. - M.: Eksmo, 2009.-316 p.

3. Dobrenkov V.I. Sociology: Short course / Dobrenkov V.I., Kravchenko A.I.. M.: Infra-M., 2008-231p.

4. Dobrenkov V.I., Kravchenko A.I. Methods of sociological research. M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 2009.- 860 p.

5. Kazarinova N.V. and others. Sociology: Textbook for universities M.: NOTA BENE, 2008.-269 p.

6. Kasyanov V.V. Sociology: exam answers._r/nD, 2009.-319p.

7. Kravchenko A.I. General sociology: textbook for universities - M.: Unity, 2007.- 479 p.

8. Kravchenko A.I. Sociology: A textbook for students of non-sociological specialties, natural sciences and humanities universities. / Kravchenko A.I., Anurin V.F. - St. Petersburg, etc. Peter, 2008 -431p.

9. Kravchenko A.I. Sociology: Reader for universities - M.; Ekaterinburg: Academic project: Business book, 2010.-734p.

10. Lawsen Tony, Garrod Joan Sociology: A-Z Dictionary-reference book / Trans. from English - M.: Grand, 2009. - 602 p.

11. Samygin S.I. Sociology: 100 exam answers / S.I. Samygin, G.O. Petrov. - 3rd edition. - M.; R/nD: March, 2008.-234 p.

12. Sociology. Textbook for university students / V.N. Lavrinenko, G.S. Lukasheva, O.A. Ostanina and others / Ed. V.N. Lavrinenko - M. UNITY: 2009- 447 p. (UMO stamp, series Golden Fund of Russian textbooks)

13. Sociology: Brief thematic dictionary/Yu.A. Agafonov, E.M. Babaosov, A.N. Danilov and others / Ed. A.N. Elsukova.- R/nD: Phoenix, 2007.-317 p.

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Introduction to sociological research

2.Methodology of sociological research:

2.1. Sociological research program

2.2.Goals and objectives of sociological research

2.3.Object and subject of sociological research

2.4. System analysis of the research object

2.5. Proposing and testing hypotheses

2.6.Sampling methods

2.7 Data interpretation

3.Methods of sociological research:

3.1.Analysis of existing data. Content analysis

3.2.Observation

3.3.Mass survey. Questionnaire and interview

3.4.Experiment

4.An example of a sociological study

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

In our time, humanity has turned into a fairly highly developed community with a developed structure of power and various social institutions. But, as before, he faces various difficult and important problems. This could be, for example, an assessment of public opinion on a particular problem, etc. The question arises: how and in what way can they be resolved? But to rationally solve the problems, you need to have an idea of the problem and its cause. This is where sociological research comes to the fore.

Sociological research, like any other research in any discipline or science, is very important. It allows the researcher to move forward in his research, confirming or refuting his conjectures and guesses, to collect and evaluate information about the phenomenon being studied.

Sociological research serves as a link between theoretical knowledge and reality. It helps to establish new patterns of development of society as a whole or any of its structural elements in particular.

With its help you can solve very big circle questions and tasks, analyzing the data obtained and making specific recommendations to resolve the problem.

Sociological research is one of the ways to develop and accumulate sociological knowledge, which consists in the conscious concentration of the efforts of an individual researcher on limited, more or less predetermined tasks.

IN at the moment An example of the use of sociological research is a public opinion poll on the distribution of citizens' preferences for candidates for the city council. In principle, the voting process itself is a large state sociological study.

Thus, the role of sociological research in the process of studying society can hardly be overestimated, which is why it will be discussed in this essay.

1. The concept of sociological research.

Sociological research- a system of logical consistent methodological, organizational and technological procedures interconnected by a single goal: to obtain reliable objective data about the phenomenon being studied.

Sociological research includes the following stages:

1. Preparatory: At this stage, the research program is developed.

2. Basic: includes conducting the research itself.

3. Final: data processing, analysis, and drawing conclusions are underway.

Types of research:

1. Intelligence research: a small, simple study that has no large number respondents and a condensed instrument.

2. Descriptive research: A deeper type of research with a larger community of people. Machine processing is used.

3. Analytical research: the most complex and in-depth study. It is not only descriptive, it covers a large number of respondents. Usually considers the dynamics of a phenomenon.

2. Methodology of sociological research.

2.1. Sociological research program.

The place and role of the program in sociological research. Sociological research begins with the development of its program. The results of the study largely depend on the scientific validity of this document. The program represents a theoretical and methodological basis for research procedures carried out by a sociologist (collection, processing and analysis of information) and includes:

Definition of the problem, object and subject of research;

Preliminary system analysis of the research object;

Characteristics of the purpose and objectives of the study;

Interpretation and operationalization of basic concepts;

Formulation of working hypotheses;

Defining a strategic research plan;

Drawing up a sampling plan;

Description of data collection methods;

Description of the data analysis scheme.

Sometimes the program has theoretical (methodological) and methodological (procedural) sections. The first includes program components that begin with the formulation of the problem and end with the preparation of a sampling plan, which second - description methods of collecting, processing and analyzing data.

The program must answer two main questions:

Firstly, how to move from the initial theoretical principles of sociology to research, how to “translate” them into research tools, methods of collecting, processing and analyzing material;

Secondly, how to rise again from the obtained facts, from the accumulated empirical material to theoretical generalizations, so that the research not only gives practical recommendations, but also serves as the basis for the further development of the theory itself.

2.2.Goals and objectives of sociological research

The goal is the general direction of sociological research, determining its nature and orientation (theoretical or applied). The research program should clearly answer the question: what problem and what result is this research aimed at solving?

If the goals are not clear enough to scientists and representatives of organizations that approached them with a social order, then disagreements may arise based on the results of the study. In this regard, it is important that sociological research is comprehensive, for which the program develops a system of main and non-core tasks.

Objectives are a set of specific targets aimed at analyzing and solving a problem.

The main objectives correspond to the purpose of the study. In theoretically oriented research, priority is given to scientific tasks, in practically oriented research, applied ones.

Minor tasks are set to prepare future research, solve methodological issues, and test side hypotheses not directly related to this problem.

With a theoretical or applied orientation of sociological research, it is advisable to solve non-main problems on the basis of the material obtained to find an answer to the central question, to analyze the same data, but from a different angle. It is possible that minor problems will not receive a complete solution, but they can help in formulating a scientific problem when preparing a new study for a new program.

2.3.Object and subject of sociological research

The object of sociological research is a community of people, their activities organized through social institutions, and the conditions in which this activity is carried out, or another phenomenon or process.

The object must be characterized by:

1. Clearly defined phenomena according to such parameters as:

a) industry affiliation;

b) professional affiliation;

c) age;

d) nationality.

2. Spatial limitations.

3. Functional orientation:

a) political orientation;

b) ethnic orientation;

c) production orientation.

4. Time limitation.

5. The possibilities of its quantitative measurement.

If the object of sociological research is independent of the research and opposes it, then the subject of study, on the contrary, is formed by the research itself.

The subject of sociological research is the central issue of the problem.

This is a construction created by thinking, existing only insofar as there is knowledge about the object, determined, on the one hand, by the object of study, on the other, by the conditions of research: tasks, knowledge and means of sociology.

The subject of research is considered to be that side of the object that is directly subject to study, that is, the most significant side of the object from the point of view of sociological theory and social practice. One and the same social object can correspond to several different objects of research, each of which is determined in content by which aspect of the object it reflects, for what purpose, to solve what problem it was chosen.

For example, when studying migration processes, the object of study is the population of various territorial units: republic, region, district, settlement. The subject is migration - the movement of people from one place of residence to another. The purpose of the study is to optimize migration processes in a certain area. The task is to find the best ways of this optimization (for applied research) and to establish patterns of population migration (for theoretical research)

The same object can be described in different ways depending on the problem and purpose of sociological research. The choice of means of fixing them (methodology for collecting and analyzing data) depends, in turn, on what elements and connections will be identified in the object under study.

2.4. System analysis of the research object.

One of the tasks of the initial stage of sociological research is to give a hypothetical detailed description of a social object as a system, that is, to describe it from the position of system analysis. In this way, certain elements and connections characteristic of the object being studied are recorded.

A social object is considered from two sides: as a part of the whole and as a whole consisting of parts. In the first case, it is characterized by external connections, in the second - by internal ones.

The specificity of scientific research lies in the construction of a hypothetical model of an object as a set of its constituent elements and connections. This model becomes a “substitute” for the object under study.

The result of a preliminary systemic analysis of the social object being studied is the subject of research, which has the form of some hypothetical model, which can be presented in the form of a diagram describing the elements and connections of the object being studied.

A systemic analysis of an object allows you to clarify the subject of research, highlight basic concepts and give their interpretation, as well as put forward working hypotheses.

2.5. Proposing and testing hypotheses.

A hypothesis in sociological research is a scientifically based assumption about the structure of social objects, about the nature of the elements and connections that form these objects, about the mechanism of their functioning and development.

A scientific hypothesis can only be formulated as a result of a preliminary analysis of the object being studied.

Hypothesis requirements. A scientifically substantiated hypothesis in sociology must meet a number of requirements.

1. It must correspond to the original principles of the theory of scientific knowledge. This requirement plays the role of a selection criterion scientific hypotheses and screening out unscientific ones, excludes from science untenable hypotheses built on the basis of false theories.

2. A hypothesis that explains social facts in a certain area, as a rule, should not contradict theories whose truth has already been proven for this area. But a new hypothesis can sometimes contradict old theories and at the same time be completely acceptable.

3. It is necessary that the hypothesis does not contradict known and verified facts. If among the known facts there is at least one with which the hypothesis does not agree, then it must be discarded or reformulated so as to cover the entire set of facts for which it is proposed to explain. But it's not always a contradiction known facts should be regarded as a sign of the inconsistency of the hypothesis.

4. the hypothesis must be testable in the process of sociological research. It is checked using a specially developed technique at the disposal of the researcher.

5. The hypothesis must be subjected to logical analysis to establish its consistency. This is done not only through logical rules, but also through operational definitions. The latter allow one to avoid arbitrary interpretation of the empirical terms of the hypothesis.

In order to increase the confirmability of a hypothesis, one should strive to put forward a larger number of interrelated hypotheses and indicate for each hypothesis the possible larger number empirical indicators of the variables included in it.

The first are assumptions about the structural and functional connections of the object being studied. They may also relate to the classification characteristics of a social object.

The second are assumptions about cause-and-effect relationships in the object under study, requiring empirical experimental verification.

In the process of such testing, a distinction should be made between the main hypotheses and their consequences (inferential hypotheses).

2.6. Sampling methods.

Population- the totality of all possible social objects that are subject to study within the framework of a sociological research program.

Sample or sample population- part of the objects of the general population, selected using special techniques to obtain information about the entire population as a whole.

1. Quota sample population.

This method requires at least four characteristics by which respondents are identified.

Typically used for large populations.

2. Main Array Method.

It assumes a survey of 60-70% of the general population.

3. Cluster sampling method.

The respondent is not an individual, but a group.

This method will be representative if the composition of the groups is similar.

4. Serial sampling method.

With this method, the general population is divided into homogeneous parts, from which a unit of analysis is proportionally selected (elements of a sample or survey population: there can be both individuals and groups).

5. Mechanical sampling method.

The required number of respondents is selected from the general list of the general population at regular intervals.

6. Solid method.

Used with a small population.

2.7.Interpretation of data.

After the research results, observational and measurement data are obtained, a theoretical interpretation of the empirical data is carried out. The “language of observation” is, as it were, translated into the “language of theory” - an action opposite to that which was carried out before the study.

This interpretation is carried out in the process of theoretical generalization of empirical data and assessment of the truth of the hypotheses put forward.

3.Methods of sociological research.

3.1.Analysis of existing documents. Content analysis

A significant part of the information necessary for the researcher in his work is contained in documentary sources. In sociology, their study as a stage of sociological research is called analysis of existing data, or secondary data analysis.

A complete understanding of the content of documentary sources in many cases allows one to obtain information sufficient to solve the problem that has arisen or to deepen the analysis of the problem. Thus, when formulating the problem and hypotheses of the study, the sociologist turns to the analysis of such written documents as scientific publications, reports on previous research, various statistical and departmental publications.

In sociology, a document is a specially created human object for transmitting and storing information.

There are different classifications of documents:

1. From the point of view of intended purpose, there are:

a) target documents: chosen by the sociologist himself;

b) cash documents: available.

2. According to the degree of personification:

a) personal: statements, letters, testimonials, etc.;

b) impersonal: for example, statistical data.

3. Depending on the source status:

a) official;

b) unofficial.

4. According to the source of information:

a) primary: compiled on the basis of direct observation or survey;

b) secondary: processing, generalization, description made on the basis of primary sources.

It is the analysis of documents that provides initial information and allows the accurate and targeted use of other research methods.

Of particular interest to sociologists are the summary data of the results of specialized continuous and sample surveys conducted by central statistical organizations and departmental research organizations.

Recently, statistical reference books have begun to appear in Russia and abroad, which include indicators of satisfaction with various spheres of human activity, environmental conditions and other subjective indicators.

In sociology, there are two groups of methods for analyzing document information:

1. Traditional.

2. Formalized.

The first is understood as mental operations aimed at analyzing primary data in documents from the point of view of research of interest. It has the disadvantage of subjectivity.

The essence of the second is that the researcher translates quantitative indicators of text information.

Traditional Document Analysis Methods.

Documentary sources provide unique and diverse information about social phenomena and processes. It is important to find methods that would allow the required information to be retrieved with sufficient reliability. These methods include a whole variety of mental operations aimed at interpreting the content of documents in accordance with the purpose of the study.

Traditional analysis is an adaptation of the content of a document to a research problem, based on intuitive understanding, generalization of the content and logical justification of the conclusions drawn.

It is necessary to make an assessment of the quality of documents, which includes:

1. Clarification of the conditions, goals and reasons for creating the document.

In other words, the reliability factors of a documentary source are clarified in relation to the purposes of the study. Establishing the completeness and reliability of the source regarding the objectives of the study are the main parameters of its assessment before the start of the study.

Quantitative analysis (content analysis).

The most significant limitation associated with the use of traditional methods of analyzing documents such as newspapers and similar sources is the possibility of subjective influences on the results of the analysis, that is, the influence of the researcher’s attitudes, his interests, and existing stereotypical ideas about the subject of analysis. This disadvantage is overcome by formalized analysis techniques, which are based on statistical accounting of various objective characteristics text. For example, the frequency of publications in a newspaper of materials on a certain topic, the number of lines allocated by the editors to individual topics, headings, authors, the frequency of mentions of problems, terms, names, geographical names, etc.

Content analysis is a method of studying messages created in various areas of social communication and recorded in the form of written text on paper or recordings on any other physical media.

The analysis is based on uniform standardized rules for searching, recording and calculating quantitative indicators of the studied characteristics of the text.

Its essence is to find and use for calculation such features of a document that would reflect certain essential aspects of its content.

It is advisable to use content analysis in the presence of large text arrays with a clear structure determined by the communicative intentions of the authors of the text.

3.2.Observation.

Observation in sociology is a method of collecting information by directly studying a social phenomenon in its natural conditions.

There are a number of features of this method:

1. Communication between the observer and the object of observation.

2. The observer is not devoid of a human trait - emotionality of perception.

3. Difficulty in repeated observation.

Depending on the degree of standardization of observation techniques, two main types of this method can be distinguished.

A standardized observation technique presupposes the presence of a previously detailed list of events and signs to be observed; determination of observation conditions and situations; instructions for observers; uniform codifiers for recording observed phenomena.

Non-standardized (unstructured) observation. In this case, the researcher determines only the general directions of observation, according to which the results are recorded in free form directly during the observation process or later from memory.

Forms and methods of recording the results of the observer - forms and observation diaries, photo, film, video and radio equipment.

Depending on the role of the observer in the situation under study, 4 types of observation are distinguished:

1. Full participation of the observer in the situation: involves the inclusion of the observer in the group being studied as a full member. The role of the observer is unknown to the group members.

2. Participant in the situation as an observer: characterized by the observer’s inclusion in the group, but it is understood that his role as a researcher is clear to all participants.

3. Observer as a participant: means that the observer is primarily a researcher and, interacting with participants in the social process, does not pretend to be an actual participant.

4. Completely observer: the researcher performs only the function of an observer, without interacting with the participants in the situation, remaining out of their field of vision.

Observation procedure. The process of studying a social phenomenon using the observation method can be roughly represented as the following sequence of steps:

Formulation of the problem, description of the object of observation, definition of tasks;

Determination of units of observation and indicators of the studied aspects of behavior;

Development of a language and system of concepts in terms of which the results of observation will be described; defining sampling procedures for situations where it is possible to select from many observations;

Preparation of technical documents to record the observed phenomenon (cards, protocol forms, coding forms, etc.);

Recording the results of observations;

Data analysis and interpretation;

Preparation of a report and conclusions based on the results of the study.

Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method. The main advantage is that it makes it possible to capture the details of a given phenomenon, its versatility.

The flexibility of the method is another quality that is of no small importance when studying social phenomena.

And finally, cheapness is a common attribute inherent in this method.

Among the shortcomings, first of all, it should be noted the qualitative nature of the conclusions that can be obtained as a result of observation. The method can rarely be applied to the observation of large populations. However, the biggest drawback is associated with the possibility of introducing a certain amount of subjectivity into the essence of the method and less opportunities than in other cases for a broad generalization of research results.

3.3.Mass survey. Questionnaire and interview

TO this method the researcher turns to him when, in order to solve a given problem, he needs to obtain information about the sphere of people’s consciousness: about their opinions, motives of behavior, assessments of the surrounding reality, life plans, goals, orientations, awareness, etc.

In all such cases, it is people, participants in the social processes being studied, who act as a unique source of information that cannot be replaced by any other. However, the survey method can also obtain information about people’s behavior and various factual information.

The essence of the survey method comes down to communication between the researcher, directly or indirectly through his representative, with a population of people (respondents) in the form of a question-and-answer dialogue. The peculiarity of this communication is that, on the one hand, it must meet the strict requirements of the scientific procedure, and on the other, it must proceed from the fact that the source of information is ordinary participants in the processes being studied, who are aware of these processes within the framework of everyday everyday experience.

Thus, the survey implements cognitive interaction two different levels public consciousness: scientific, the bearer of which is the researcher, and ordinary, practical, the bearer of which is the interviewee, the respondent.

Methodological principles for constructing a questionnaire. The content of the questions, their wording, sequence and relationship in the structure of the questionnaire must meet two requirements.

1. Questions must be necessary and sufficient to provide empirical testing of research hypotheses and to solve its cognitive problems. This requirement is met at the stage of empirical interpretation of concepts through the development of a set of indicators and a corresponding list of units of required information.

In other words, for each question in the questionnaire, its cognitive task, its required information, must be determined.

2. It is necessary to take into account the socio-psychological characteristics of the respondents who are the source of information. This means that the author of the questionnaire must take into account the respondents’ awareness of the subject of the survey, the specifics of their language, communication traditions, ideas about prestige and self-esteem, etc.

IN practical work When designing a questionnaire, both requirements are often suppressed and must be taken into account comprehensively and in conjunction.

When starting to develop a questionnaire, the sociologist solves a problem at a different level - how to formulate a question in order to obtain the required information?

Types of questions. Depending on the purposes for which questions are asked, they are divided into substantive and functional.

Functional questions solve various problems of managing the course of the survey, its psychological atmosphere, and logical rigor. The main types of such questions: filter questions, test questions, contact questions.

The need for filter questions arises when the required information can be obtained not from the entire population of respondents, but only from some of it.

The purpose of control questions is to find out the stability or consistency of the respondent’s answers that he gives on the same topic or problem.

Contact questions serve to establish contact with the respondent and create positive motivation for the survey. They may not be directly related to the topic of the survey, but allow the respondent to speak on the topic that is most relevant and close to him.

Depending on what is being asked, there are:

1. Questions about facts. Their goal is to obtain information about social phenomena or characteristics that can be unambiguously determined. (This could be age, gender, etc.).

2. Questions about knowledge. The purpose of these questions is to obtain information indicating that the respondent is informed. The answers help to more accurately identify the structure of attitudes and interests and indicate the degree of inclusion of the individual in the team.

3. Questions about opinion. The answers to these questions most often contain estimates. Opinions are less stable than knowledge. They are more strongly conditioned by the situation and often depend on personal experiences and moods. The formulation of opinions is determined by the way the individual is included in the process social development, his political activity.

4. Questions about motives. Study of motives social behavior places high demands on survey techniques and indicator construction. It is easier for respondents to talk about facts, behavior, situations than to judge the motives of behavior. This is due to the fact that assessing (or justifying) actions in the past is difficult.

According to the filling technique, they are distinguished:

1. Open questions. They give the respondent the opportunity to independently formulate an answer that reflects the uniqueness of individual consciousness, language, style, stock of information, and circle of associations.

2. Closed questions. It is assumed that there are ready-made answer options that the sociologist develops before the start of the survey, based on his initial ideas about the content of the question and on the data of the pilot study.

Questioning.

Questionnaire- a type of survey in which the respondent fills out the questionnaire independently.

Questionnaire- a questionnaire filled out independently by the respondent according to the rules.

Based on the number of respondents, there are:

1. Group survey.

2. Individual survey.

According to the venue:

1. Questionnaire at home.

2. Questionnaire at work.

3. Questioning of target audiences.

By method of distributing questionnaires:

1. Distribution questionnaire: distributed to respondents by the questionnaire itself.

2. Postal questionnaire: sent by mail.

3. Press questionnaire: published in the press.

The main advantage of group questioning is related to the organizational accessibility and efficiency of the survey. The questionnaires are filled out in the presence of the surveyor and returned to him immediately after completion. This survey form provides an almost 100% return rate and short terms data collection.

When using an individual survey using a handout questionnaire, the surveyor either hands the questionnaire to the respondent, agreeing on the return date at the next meeting, or, having explained the rules for filling out and the purpose of the survey, waits for the questionnaire to be filled out.

A postal survey is a fairly popular method of surveying large populations of people.

Its weaknesses are the low return rate without the use of special techniques (about 30%), the uncontrollable situation of filling out questionnaires and the difficulties associated with these features in justifying the representativeness of the sample of the target population.

The publication of questionnaires in newspapers or magazines is actively used in journalistic practice, however, the cognitive capabilities of this type of survey are limited due to the problem of returning completed questionnaires.

Interview. As a method of collecting information, interviews are largely devoid of the disadvantages listed above, but the price for this is a relatively high cost.

Interview- a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, which involves direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent, and the answers are recorded either by the interviewer or on some storage medium (for example, a voice recorder).

There are several types of interviews, depending on how standardized the conversation situation is.

Standardized interview with closed questions used to survey a large population of people (several hundreds or thousands) when the substantive structure of the problem is determined.

Standardized An interview with open-ended questions gives the respondent more independence in formulating answers and requires the interviewer to record them as detailed and accurately as possible.

Directed (focused) interview. The plan for such an interview provides only a list of questions that must be considered during the conversation. But the sequence and wording of questions may vary depending on the specific situation.

A free interview involves the preliminary development of approximate main directions of conversation with the respondent. The wording of questions and their sequence are formed during the interview and are determined by the individual characteristics of the interviewee.

3.4.Experiment.

Sociological experiment- a method of obtaining information about quantitative and qualitative changes in the activity and behavior of a social object as a result of the influence of certain manageable and controllable factors on it.

In sociology, an economic experiment means the direct influence of specific economic conditions on people's consciousness.

Classical experimental model. It can be boiled down to studying the impact of an independent variable (for example, the performance of a presidential candidate) on a dependent variable (a person’s vote in an election). The purpose of the experiment is to test the hypothesis about the presence or absence of influence of the independent variable on the dependent one.

Of fundamental importance in such a model is the question of selecting experimental and control groups. The main task of the researcher is to achieve maximum similarity (since complete identity cannot be achieved) of these two groups before the experiment. The term “similarity” is understood here in a statistical sense, i.e., the units of the general population from which the groups are selected must have equal chances of falling into both the first group and the second. This selection process is often called randomization. Randomization aims to eliminate systematic biases and errors that may arise during experimental exposure to non-equivalent groups.

Internal and external validity. The problem of internal validity means that there is a possibility that the conclusions a researcher draws from experimental results may not reflect what happened during the experiment itself.

The sources of this problem may be:

The influence of past events on the results of the experiment;

Changes in the experiment participants themselves during the experiment;

The impact of the testing and retesting process on people's behavior;

The influence of the instrument used during the experiment, including the experimenter himself;

Incomparability of experimental and control groups.

External validity refers to the ability to generalize, extend the conclusions of an experiment to real objects. Even if the results are internally valid, is it possible to transfer the conclusions obtained from experimental groups to real social objects and processes?

There are many examples when the results of experiments turn out to be unacceptable at all or not fully acceptable for the phenomenon being studied.

Laboratory experiment involves the researcher creating an artificial environment (for example, a laboratory) in which to conduct it, which allows him to more closely control the environment in which the groups being studied are placed. The artificiality of the environment lies in the fact that the object of observation is transferred from its usual environment to an environment that helps to achieve a high degree of accuracy in observing its behavior. In sociology, one of the most difficult problems associated with a laboratory experiment concerns the external validity of the experimental results.

Field experiment. It is characterized by the most natural situation - it can be classroom, production environment.

Natural experiment. It is understood as an experiment in which the researcher does not select and prepare an independent variable in advance and does not influence the experimental group with it. The researcher assigns himself the role of observer and recorder of processes independently occurring in the area of life being studied.

The results of the social experiment are reflected in the report, which contains the following three sections:

4. An example of a sociological study.

In order to give an example of a sociological study, a hypothetical problem was taken: what determines the productivity of workers, i.e., what motivates them to work with interest.

The object of the study was a group of students (since studying is also a kind of work, and after it the majority will obviously go to work) of 20 people.

The subject of study was the learning process (labor productivity) of these people.

The goal of this study was to find ways to increase motivation and increase productivity (improving educational results).

The task was to find ways to achieve a specific goal, as well as to identify the dependence of motivation and labor productivity on various factors.

Questioning was chosen as a method of sociological research. Respondents were given questionnaires that looked like this:

QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Good chances of promotion

2. Good earnings

3. Pay related to performance

4. Recognition and appreciation for a job well done

5. Work that allows you to realize your abilities

6. Complex and difficult work

7. Work that allows you to think and act independently

8. High degree of responsibility

9. Interesting job

10. Work that requires creativity

11. Work without much strain and stress

12. Convenient work location

13. Sufficient information about what is generally happening at the company

14. Significant additional benefits

15. Fair distribution of work volumes

What factors would you like to add to the proposed list?

Once completed, the questionnaires were collected to process the results, which are presented in the form of an average score for each factor in the following table (Table 1), with the factors arranged in descending order of average score.

Table 1

Average scores of factors contributing to increased productivity

1. Work without much strain and stress

2. Good earnings

3. Interesting work

4. Good chances of promotion

5. Recognition and appreciation for a job well done

6. Convenient work location

7. Sufficient information about what is generally happening at the company

8. Significant additional benefits

9. Pay related to performance

10. Fair distribution of work volumes

11. Work that requires creativity

12. Work that allows you to realize your abilities

13. High degree of responsibility

14. Work that allows you to think and act independently

15. Complex and difficult work

As a result of the survey, it is clear that the strongest motivator for highly productive work is work without great strain and stress, which is explained by the fact that all respondents have actually not yet worked and do not want to start their working career with a job replete with stress and tension (a striking example is their attitude towards learning - all students want a test or exam automatically with a minimum of effort).

Second place in our hit parade was taken by a factor called good earnings, which is not surprising - what kind of person (especially a student) would refuse extra money.

In third place is such a factor as interesting work. Of course, who would like boring and monotonous work and what can we talk about here about increasing labor productivity?

Due to the obvious absence of workaholics in the group, the factor “complicated and difficult work” took only last place.

Among the added factors, we can highlight such as the possibility of parallel or additional work in another organization, the provision of official transport and the provision of a personal secretary (secretary).

This work does not pretend to be a full-fledged sociological study, as it has a number of significant shortcomings. Firstly, the survey was not carried out in a specific situation where a problem related to labor productivity arose (among students, such a problem does not arise at all from their point of view), i.e. there was no specific problem situation, and therefore it was It was decided not to draw specific conclusions for applying them in practice.

Ideally, such a study would be advisable to conduct at an enterprise where there is a problem with labor productivity.

Conclusion

So, the basic principles in preparing and conducting sociological research have been described above. Its main goals and objectives are outlined, the concepts of the object and subject of sociological research are given, and methods for sampling respondents from the general population are given.

Depending on the tasks and conditions of conducting sociological research, various methods were identified, where their positive and negative aspects, difficulties in implementing recommendations for conducting, etc. were also mentioned.

Sociological research is considered as an important and integral part of sociology, as one of the main ways of developing sociological knowledge, knowledge about society, its structural units and the processes occurring in it.

Sociological research also plays an important role in the study and resolution of problems arising in social, industrial and other spheres of human activity.

I think that the material presented above, despite its small volume, made it possible to learn what sociological research is, why it is necessary, and to become familiar with its fundamentals.

References

1. Baskov A., Benker G. Modern sociological theory. - M. - 1996

1. Applied sociology and social practice. Organization and conduct of applied sociological research.

2. Types of applied sociological research.

3. Stages of applied sociological research.

Literature

1. Andreenkov V.V., Kabysha A.V. Structure and process of sociological research // Sociology. - M., 1996.

2: Organization and conduct of specific sociological research // Sociologist’s workbook. - M., 1983.

4. Yadov V.A. Sociological research; methodology, program, methods. - M., 1987.

Topic 2. SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH PROGRAM

1. General characteristics sociological research programs.

2. Methodological part of the sociological research program.

3. The procedural part of the methodological research program.

Literature

1. Sociological Dictionary. - Mn., 1991.

2. Yadov V.A. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods.- M, 1987.

Topic 3. SAMPLING METHOD IN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

1. The concept of general population and sample.

2. Representativeness, efficiency, design and types of sampling.

3. Sampling errors.

Literature

1. Cochran W. Methods of selective research.-M, 1976.

2. Operational sociological research. -Mn., 1997.

3. Paniotto V.I. Quality of sociological information.- Kyiv, 1986.

4. Churilov N.N. Designing a sample sociological study. -Kiev, 1986.

Topic 4. EMPIRICAL METHODS FOR COLLECTING PRIMARY SOCIOLOGICAL INFORMATION

1. General characteristics empirical methods knowledge.

2. Analysis of documents.

3. Survey methods for collecting primary sociological information.

4. Observation and experiment in sociological research.

Literature

1. Andreenkov VT. Methods of data collection and analysis // Sociology / Ed. ed. G.V. Osipova. -M., 1996.

2. Yadov V.A. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods. -M., 1987.

Topic 5. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODS FOR PROCESSING SOCIOLOGICAL DATA. CONSTRUCTION OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Statistical processing and analysis of primary sociological data.

2. Qualitative analysis of sociological data.

Literature

1. Argunova K.D. Qualitative regression analysis in sociology. -M., 1990.

2. Interpretation and analysis of data in sociological research.-M, 1987.

3. Mathematical methods of analysis and interpretation of sociological data. - M., 1989.

4. Statistical methods of information analysis in sociological research.- M, 1979.

5. Typology and classification in sociological research. -M., 1982.

6. Factor, descriptive and cluster analysis. -M., 1989.

Topic 6. SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL TECHNOLOGY

1. Social technologies and management.

2. The role of social technologies in increasing the efficiency of social organization.

3. Social technologies and political life.

Literature

1. Babosov E.M. Sociology of management. - Mn., 2000.

2. Ivanov V.N. Social technologies in modern world. - M., 1996.

3. Meskon M., Albert M., Khedouri F. Fundamentals of Management. - M., 1992.

3.2.4. Forms of seminar classes and their methodological support

Seminar classes got their name from the Latin word “zettapit”, which means a nursery, or seating students and conducting a conversation (dispute) on a given topic. Seminars (conversations, debates) appeared in the ancient world and represented the main form of education. Their essence consisted in messages from students with comments and conclusions from teachers.

In modern higher education, the seminar, along with the lecture, has become one of the main forms of practical acquisition of knowledge in both the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. It is intended for in-depth study of the subject with the active use of the student’s creative abilities. The goals and objectives of seminar classes are very diverse. They stimulate:

Development of professional speech skills;

Development of independent thinking;

Ability to argue and substantiate your point of view;

Study and analysis of primary sources;

Studying additional literature on the topic being studied;

A critical attitude towards your own performance and the performance of your fellow students;

Ability to compare data from different sources and summarize them;

Ability to tie theoretical principles with practical situations;

Developing strong professional beliefs.

A seminar only fulfills its cognitive and educational functions when there is a lively, interested discussion, sometimes leading to heated, heated debate on the issues formulated in the seminar plan. And this is only possible on the condition that all students, or at least most of them, have seriously studied the recommended literature, that they clearly see the theoretical and practical significance of the issues discussed at the seminar. To maintain the creative intensity of student thought, it is also important that the seminars are not conducted according to the established pattern, but differ from each other in one way or another. The possibilities for this are very wide.

In the practice of teaching social sciences in universities, there have been approximately 15 more or less different forms of seminar classes, these include:

Question and answer system;

An extensive conversation based on the seminar lesson plan communicated to students in advance;

Oral presentations by students followed by discussion;

Discussion of written essays prepared in advance by individual students;

Theoretical conference in a group or on a stream;

Seminar-debate;

Seminar press conference;

Commented reading of primary sources;

Solving problems and exercises;

Working with so-called teaching and examining machines;

Seminar on materials from sociological research conducted by students under the guidance of a teacher;

Workshop on production;

Seminar-excursion to museums or memorable places;

Test (written) work on individual questions, topics, followed by discussion;

Seminar-colloquium.

Each of these forms has both its advantages and disadvantages.

Let us briefly characterize each of these forms. The question-answer system comes down to a conversation between the teacher and one student, then another. In this case, questions are asked not to the whole group, but to one student with whom the conversation is being conducted. If the student makes inaccuracies or narrowness of the answer, the teacher himself corrects and supplements it. As a result, the bulk of students remain passive and are often engaged in extraneous matters or feverishly leafing through their notes or textbooks while waiting for their turn in dialogue with the teacher.

The most common form of conducting seminar classes is an extended conversation. This form involves the preparation of all students on the issues of the seminar, their presentations and the teacher’s conclusion on individual issues of the seminar and the seminar as a whole. An extensive conversation allows you to involve a maximum of students in the discussion of the questions posed, activate their attention, and use basic and additional means.

The format of the seminar in the form of an extended conversation does not exclude the possibility of hearing messages from individual students who have received preliminary assignments from the teacher on certain issues of the topic. But in all these cases, such messages do not act as a basis for discussion, but only as an addition to the discussion of the issues facing the plan.

The situation is different in the next form of seminars - in the system of reports. Here, student reports and discussions form the basis of the entire seminar. The reporting system includes a wide variety of options. Sometimes the teacher himself or at the request of the students appoints speakers, as well as co-speakers and opponents. Sometimes the teacher appoints, on the contrary, only opponents for each issue of the plan or for some of them. During the discussion, the opponent speaks with an analysis of the students’ speeches, notes incorrect positions and inaccuracies, supplements the material, and sums up the discussion. In order to cope with this task, he must prepare especially carefully on the relevant issue of the topic. As we can see, the essence of the matter is to instruct individual students from time to time to lead the discussion of a particular issue at the seminar and summarize the results, draw conclusions about its pros and cons. This makes it possible to especially effectively develop teaching skills in students.

Considering an extended conversation and a system of reports as relatively independent forms of conducting seminars, it should be emphasized that they have much in common. And here and there - the main thing in

creative discussion relevant questions. True, in the first case the group prepares completely, and in the second, the initiative is given to the speakers. Experience shows that with a report system it is very difficult to ensure that the entire group is prepared on the issues that are distributed as a report. This leads to two methodological conclusions: 1) using the advantages of each of the forms, pay special attention to overcoming their inherent weaknesses; 2) alternate one or another form in class, avoiding getting carried away by one of them.

The following form conducting seminar classes is the discussion of abstracts. The abstract differs from ordinary reports by greater independence, deepening the elements of one’s own research, creative search, and scientific character. It would be good if the abstract was previously read before the seminar by the rest of the students, but technically this is difficult to ensure. Therefore, the author often reproduces his abstract as an oral communication.

The abstract method helps students develop research skills, activates seminar classes in sociology, and allows them to connect the study of this discipline with major sciences and production, which is ensured by choosing the appropriate topic for abstracts.

A seminar in the form of a theoretical conference is a form very close to seminars at which reports and abstracts are discussed. Its difference lies, on the one hand, in more thorough preparation, and on the other hand, in the fact that it is often carried out not with one group, but with several or even a whole stream. The theme of the conference is not necessarily taken from the general plan of the seminars. More often it is put as such after studying a large topic or after studying the entire course of a given discipline.

A seminar-debate as one of the forms of classes conducted in a group or on a course is recommended by many teachers. The content of the issues brought up for discussion at such a seminar may be problems that have been or are being discussed in our scientific literature. In this case, one speaker is assigned to present one of the existing points of view, and the other - another. It is very important to organize the debate so that students can imagine both the strengths and weaknesses of the disputing parties. If in science the results of the discussion have already been summed up and one of the points of view has become generally accepted, the teacher must make sure that it is recorded at the seminar.

A seminar in the form of a press conference consists of the teacher instructing several students to prepare reports on 190

each point of the seminar plan. At the next lesson, after a short introduction, the head of the seminar presents a word of his choice for the report to one of the students preparing. The report lasts 10-12 minutes. Students should then ask the presenter their questions. Questions and answers form the central part of the seminar. Hence its name: seminar press conference. It is understood that in order to formulate a question, the student must have certain knowledge on the topic and first study the relevant literature. The nature of his question is largely determined by the depth of his independent work. The speaker answers questions first. If the seminar leader considers these answers to be insufficient, he will provide the opportunity for other students to express their opinions. If necessary, the teacher supplements what has been said and makes the necessary adjustments in the final part of the seminar.

Commented reading of primary sources is a type of seminar in which, on behalf of the teacher, one of the students reads aloud a particular work, and then explains how he understood what he read. Other students make corrections and additions to what has been said. Then another student reads the next passage, discusses what has been read again, and so on.

Solving test problems and exercises as a seminar activity is very useful for developing students' active thinking. If until recently problem solving was practiced only in the field of natural sciences, then in recent years it is also beginning to be used in the teaching of social sciences: philosophy, political science, sociology, economic theory.

Working with teaching and testing machines helps consolidate knowledge and develop skills in working with computer equipment. The Internet is now widely used here. Often this form of seminar classes is defined as programmed training.

Seminars based on materials from specific sociological research. Of great interest and high activity among students is the presentation for discussion of the results of specific sociological research carried out by the students themselves under the guidance of a teacher, for example, on the issue of the growth of social activity of young people in universities, enterprises, etc. The use of materials from such research in seminars allows students, when studying sociology, to better feel its practical significance and to more fully connect theoretical principles with practice. And all this contributes to a significant revitalization of seminars and makes them more effective.

One of the forms of conducting a seminar is a lesson directly at production ( industrial enterprise, research institute, company). Such seminars are rarely practiced, as they require a lot of time to prepare. At the same time, conducting them has a significant effect, especially in terms of introducing students to their future work.

Written works make it possible to provide frontal control to students, teach them to clearly formulate their thoughts, and help them figure out what exactly they have not understood enough. The forms and volume of written work are different. Sometimes they are carried out without warning students, based on previously covered material. More often - on the topic planned for this seminar or one of its questions. To avoid students borrowing from each other the material presented in the test, some teachers give each student their own question, typing them in advance. Some teachers devote both hours of the seminar to written work, others - one hour or even half an hour, taking on a narrow issue, and devote the rest of the time to a detailed conversation according to the seminar plan. Long-term practice of conducting written work shows that after it, students begin to prepare much better for classes. As a result, the work of the seminars is intensified, and their effectiveness increases sharply. Of course, you cannot overuse written work; it is advisable to recommend doing written work 1-2 times a semester. Upon completion of the written work, the seminar continues in the form of an extended conversation on the same issues. As for the evaluation of written work, the results are announced at the next seminar. Since checking written work requires additional time from the teacher, it can be included in the load called “supervised independent work” of students.

Seminar-colloquium. Colloquium, i.e. interviews with students are aimed at finding out the depth of their knowledge. In some cases it is carried out by additional topics, which are not provided for by the program, but arouse the interest of one or another part of the students. In other cases, we are talking about additional classes on some complex topics of the course that have not been fully mastered by the group. Finally, most often colloquiums are held with the aim of clarifying the knowledge of students who, for one reason or another, did not speak at the last several seminars or missed them. In this case, the colloquium looks like a kind of test on the topics covered.

With all the abundance of forms of seminar classes, the main and most common among them remain an extensive conversation and a reporting system. As for the rest, they are either variations of these two, or some additions to them, which eliminates the educational process from some of its conventionality.

Each of the forms considered, as already noted, has its positive and negative sides. Therefore, you should vary the forms of seminars, gradually complicating them in the process of studying the course. Considering it expedient to use already established forms of seminars, it is necessary to emphasize the need to constantly search for new forms, conduct pedagogical experiments and wide exchange of experience in pedagogical activities.

From a methodological point of view, it is important for both the teacher and the student to know not only the forms of conducting seminar classes, but also the criteria for assessing their quality. There are several versions of such criteria in the methodological literature. Let us refer to the one proposed by S. Kiselgof and his fellow authors. From the point of view of these researchers, the criteria for assessing the quality of a seminar session can be: 1) the seminar plan; 2) list of recommended literature; 3) organization of a seminar; 4) student activity; 5) style of conducting the seminar; 6) the teacher’s preparedness and skill; 7) the teacher’s attitude towards students; 8) students’ attitude towards the teacher and the subject being studied.

Let's consider these points in more detail.

The seminar plan is determined by the topic to be studied and the program of the course being studied. The plan for a sociology seminar is drawn up by the teacher and depends entirely on his experience and skill. In this case, there are various situations: either the lecturer himself conducts the seminars, or he only gives lectures, and the teacher follows him, or the lecturer gives lectures and conducts seminars in separate groups stream, and in other groups of the same stream the teacher conducts classes.

It is clear that in all these cases there is a need for clear consistency between lecture and seminar topics; between topics that are studied in one group and in parallel ones; it is necessary to identify the number of questions, forms of conducting classes and monitoring classes. All these points are determined by the methodology for preparing the seminar. In this case, it is necessary to coordinate both the creative activity of the teacher (drawing up a seminar plan, which can be spare or extensive, theorized or mundane, consistent with the profile of the specialty or abstracted from it, etc.), and the organizing activity

department, which must carry out diverse methodological work, in particular, approve the work plans of each teacher in order to avoid any arbitrariness in teaching activities.

The quality of recommended literature is determined by the fact that its list can be either too narrow or too broad; it may include either outdated works or those that are not yet in the university library. Therefore, a clear design of the list of recommended literature is an important methodological requirement for preparing a seminar, especially when studying sociology.

Organizing a seminar is a multifaceted criterion. This reflects the degree of readiness of both students and teacher. The organization can be clear, harmonious, or it can be very chaotic. The timing of the seminar must be strictly scheduled and fully correspond to the purpose of the lesson. The teacher should not abuse his right to intrude on the students’ answers; he should skillfully direct the course of the discussion, clearly regulating the

This is discussion time. Only as a result of such coordinated work

The teacher and students manage to fully analyze all aspects of the problem under consideration.

The activity of students is manifested both in their answers and in their attitude to the answers of their friends, to the comments and additions of the teacher, in recording important provisions of the issues under consideration in the form of special notes, etc.

The style of the seminar is characterized by such qualities as high interest from the audience, their lively and interested participation in the discussion of issues, or, conversely, boredom, routine, formalism, and lack of any interest on the part of students.

The next paragraph also reflects professional excellence teacher, his theoretical and psychological readiness to conduct the seminar. Here the difference between a young, novice teacher and a teacher who already has extensive teaching experience is especially noticeable.

A teacher, having a number of professional qualities, is at the same time an individual with a set of his own psychological qualities. The psychological qualities of a teacher must correspond to his profession. Measurement is especially valued here, and measure in everything: both in severity and in liberalism. The teacher’s cynicism and arrogance towards students, especially their shortcomings, indifference to the audience and teaching activities, and his professional ethics do not pass here.

How the response is formed is the attitude of students towards the teacher. This attitude can be put on a scale: respectful, indifferent, critical, hostile.

All forms of seminar classes can be used in the study of sociology as a general discipline. Considering the fact that sociology is clearly divided into two parts - theoretical and applied - several options are possible for determining the topics of seminar classes and the strategy for their implementation, which is determined either by the department or the teacher himself. This strategy is determined by the number of hours allocated to seminar classes in sociology, and the methodological guidelines developed at the department.

First option. The sociology course is entirely based on consideration of issues of theoretical sociology. Topics in applied sociology are omitted. In this case, the seminars cover either the same topics as the lectures, or some additional issues of theoretical sociology.

Second option. Topic general course in sociology, at least one lecture on applied sociology is included (usually at the end of the course). And then this topic is given one lecture and one seminar lesson. The remaining topics of the seminars are devoted, as in the first version, to issues of theoretical sociology.

Third option. The topics of the lecture material are completely devoted to theoretical sociology (18-20 hours), and the topics of the seminars are completely devoted (8-10 hours) to the problems of applied sociology.

Which of these options is the most productive? It's difficult to answer this question. Everything will depend on the decision of the department, and on the preparedness of the teacher and his subjective aspirations, and on the interests of the students, and on the profile of the specialty.

There is an opinion among sociology teachers that the applied part of sociology is less interesting for non-sociology students. Therefore, both in lectures and in seminars within the general course of this discipline, more attention is paid specifically to the problems of theoretical sociology.

However, experience shows that students themselves pay the greatest attention to the topics of applied sociology. And although they understand that they themselves will never professionally engage in applied sociological research, their intuition tells them the importance of this particular material. After all, in no other course do they study in such detail the technology of research activities, the criteria for the reliability of the information obtained, and the logic of their generalization and analysis. And all this is necessary

useful not only to a professional sociologist who obtains sociological information, but also to any user of this information, if only in order to use it correctly. So the third option, from those listed above, could be recommended as a base one, using the others as unique alternatives.

Wider use of applied sociology problems within seminar classes makes it possible to diversify their implementation, use a whole arsenal of practical knowledge and exercises performed both at home and during the seminar itself, which helps to intensify students’ independent work and involve them in real process sociological research into the problems of social life, helps to increase their interest in this discipline itself.

3.3. INDEPENDENT WORK OF STUDENTS

3.3.1. Independent work of students as a form of study at a university

Independent work of students is one of the most important forms educational process in higher education, while its importance has a steady tendency to increase. This is explained by the fact that in the complex of requirements for a specialist with higher education, the ability to independently navigate the flow of information, the ability to self-educate and accumulate knowledge takes an increasing share. In the process of independent work, a person’s abilities are revealed, his qualities as a creative person are formed, therefore the ability to independently obtain and use information is one of the most valuable qualities of a modern specialist.

The formation of independence skills and other qualities of a future specialist is determined not only by goals and objectives high school. In many ways, it is determined by the very socio-psychological nature of a person, his activity, the desire for activity, for self-realization through creative work. This premise is based on the idea of the active nature of man.

The peculiarity of university education is to develop the student’s creative potential. The entire teaching methodology at the university is aimed at activating this potential, revealing the creative potential of each student. That is why independent

The work of students at a university becomes an important part of the learning process and university didactics.

Very often this type of training is carried out spontaneously, but it has its own structure and its own methodological methods of organization and improvement.

The theory of student independent work involves determining the essence of this type of work, analyzing its structure and type differences.

It should be noted that different authors consider the essence of independent work in different ways. Some of them understand independent work as a form of organizing the learning process, others believe that independent work is a means of learning, others believe that this is a special background for university education, complementing classroom lessons, etc. For example, R. Mikelsontud understands the independent work of students completing tasks under the supervision of a teacher, but without his help; B. Esipov - as work without the direct participation of the teacher, but according to his instructions in the time specially provided for this. There are works in which, when determining the essence of students’ independent work, the lack of teacher instruction is emphasized as its important feature. P. Pidkasisty considers this work as a means of involving students in independent cognitive activity. A. Lyndin - as the presence of a situation in which the student is able to demonstrate his own creative abilities, etc.

All these definitions are partially correct and their combination allows us to formulate a general idea of students’ independent work. In this case, two situations can be distinguished. The first is that the student strives to independently find answers (or solutions) to the questions (tasks) that the teacher has posed to him. The second situation involves a broader manifestation of the student’s creative abilities, when he himself creates tasks and problems with a further search for their solutions. The first situation most often manifests itself during lectures and seminars, the second - in the process of preparation scientific works, preparation of course and diploma projects. It is clear that the teacher’s participation here will manifest itself in different ways.

So, a student’s independent work is a manifestation of his creative abilities when mastering the material, filling it out and using it in practical situations.

This process has both objective methodological foundations for its organization and subjective forms of manifestation. That is why it has, on the one hand, its own methods and forms of organization.

tion, and on the other hand, has a spontaneous individual character. The presence of this side of independent work leads some theorists to argue that the presence of a teacher in it should be kept to a minimum. However, this minimization does not relieve the teacher of the need to organize and control the progress of students’ independent studies, which is especially visible in cases where it is necessary to consider specific types of independent work.

By analyzing and summarizing the approaches available in the pedagogical literature to considering the essence of students’ independent work, we can identify features that allow us to classify the types of this work. These types are distinguished: by the nature of the tasks being solved, by the sources of information, by the role of the teacher, by the type of educational and cognitive activity of students, by the place of execution, by the content of the tasks. Let's look at these signs in more detail.

1. The main goals of students’ independent work are
are:

Acquiring new knowledge;

Deepening previously acquired knowledge;

Generalization, systematization and practical application of knowledge;

Formation of practical skills;

Self-control in the process of acquiring knowledge and developing skills to use it in solving practical problems;

Development of students' attention, memory, methods of logical thinking, civic qualities, etc.

2. By the nature of educational and cognitive activity of independent
The work can be divided into:

Reproductive (assimilation educational material);

Productive ( independent acquisition new knowledge and its use in solving specific tasks and situations).

3. Based on the method of execution, independent work is divided
for classroom and extracurricular activities.

In-class independent work of students is determined curriculum and program academic discipline, is regulated by the educational schedule, is conducted under the direct supervision of the teacher and is included in lectures, seminars, laboratory classes, colloquiums, various types of practices, etc.

Extracurricular independent work is various types educational, industrial, research and self-education-198

vocal activity. It is divided into mandatory and additional.

Mandatory extracurricular work is carried out in the form of:

Completing assignments and exercises in preparation for seminars and tests;

Listening to audio materials;

Watching video materials;

Work with reference books (dictionaries, reference books, encyclopedias);

Reading and taking notes of basic literature;

Doing individual homework;

Completing coursework and dissertations;

Preparations for practice.

Additional extracurricular work is associated with a deep and comprehensive study of the subject, improving the student’s intelligence and includes:

Solving homework of a creative nature;

Carrying out research work;

Studying additional scientific, popular science and educational literature;

Preparation for Olympiads, conferences, etc.

4. According to the participation of the teacher in the implementation of independent work of students, it is divided into:

Work under the guidance of a teacher, but without his direct intervention (for example, when conducting tests);

Work under the indirect guidance of a teacher (through completing his assignments);

Completely independent work (satisfying your personal cognitive interests without any participation from the teacher).

The teacher has a central place in the university education system, since he carries out state goals teaching, the improvement of the scientific organization of the educational process and educational work depends on its activities.

The teacher’s task is to provide conditions for independent acquisition of knowledge from various sources (printed word, spoken word, during an experiment, etc.). This requires a certain material base and appropriate methodological support.

The main forms of independent work in the study of sociology are: participation in lectures and seminars, preparation of abstracts and scientific papers.

A lecture is one of the opportunities to enhance student’s independent work. This is manifested in the fact that, following the logic of presentation of the material at the lecture, the student learns to comprehend the main provisions of sociology, independently identifies the main ideas, takes notes on the material presented, often translating it into a system of signs that he understands, while simultaneously comprehending and remembering the information received.

Perception of the lecture and its recording - complex process, which requires constant attention and willpower from the student to assimilate the lecturer’s reasoning, think about what is said, and concisely present the material on paper in an easy-to-read form. That is, the student’s independent work during the lecture is manifested mainly

thinking new information and its brief rational notation. Insufficiently understood parts of the lecture are noted by the student in the margins of the notes. At the end of the lecture, he can ask a question and make clarifications in his notes.