According to a theory supported by scientists different countries, each person has his own optimal weight, which the body tries with all its might to maintain. That is why the persistent desire to gain weight causes active resistance on the part of the body, and it will do everything possible to bring the weight back closer to its natural value. That's why 95% of people who lose weight gain weight again. Their new weight is relatively low for a “normal” individual metabolism. For the vast majority of people, the body's resistance to weight loss is stronger than to weight gain, that is, it will always strive to preserve stored fat reserves. The calorie content of food can even slow down the metabolic rate by 45%. Perhaps this is the body's defense mechanism against starvation.

However, not all scientists support this theory. And although they do not contradict the theory of natural optimal weight, they believe that metabolism can be changed by a certain diet and regular physical activity, which increases muscle mass and facilitates the breakdown of fat. But first of all, it is necessary to find out what metabolism is and what are the principles of its action.

Metabolism- these are chemical reactions that occur from the moment nutrients enter the body until they are released into external environment end products of these reactions. This complex process converting food consumed into vital energy. Metabolism involves all reactions occurring in living cells, which result in the construction of tissue and cell structures. That is, metabolism can be considered as the process of exchange of substances and energy in the body.

A living cell is highly organized system, including various structures, as well as special enzymes that can destroy these structures. The macromolecules contained in the cell can break down into small components through hydrolysis. The cell usually has very little and a lot of potassium, while it exists in an environment where there is little and a lot of sodium, and permeability cell membrane is the same for both ions. Hence the conclusion: a cell is a system very far from chemical equilibrium.

To maintain a cell in a chemically unbalanced state, the body needs to perform certain work, which requires energy. Getting the energy to do this work is an indispensable condition in order for the cell to remain in its normal stationary chemically unbalanced state. At the same time, other work is performed in the cells to interact with the environment, for example: conducting nerve impulses in nerve cells, muscle contraction - in muscle, urine formation in kidney cells, etc.

Nutrients, once inside the cell, begin to be metabolized, or undergo many chemical changes and form intermediate products - metabolites. The metabolic process is broadly divided into two categories: anabolism and catabolism. During anabolic reactions, complex molecules are formed from simple molecules through biosynthesis, which is accompanied by the expenditure of free energy. Anabolic transformations are usually restorative. In catabolic reactions, on the contrary, complex components supplied with food and included in the cell are broken down into simple molecules. These reactions are predominantly oxidative, accompanied by the release of free energy.

The main part of the calories received from food is spent on maintaining body temperature, digesting food, and internal processes of the body - this is the so-called basal metabolism.

The direct source of energy used by the cell to produce work is the energy contained in the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Due to some of its structural features, the ATP compound is rich in energy, and the breaking of the bonds of phosphate groups that occurs during the metabolic process is carried out in such a way that the released energy can be used. However, as a result of simple hydrolysis, breaking the phosphate bonds of the ATP molecule will make the energy released for the cell unavailable, since the metabolic process must sequentially consist of two stages with the participation of an intermediate product in each of them, otherwise the energy is released in the form of heat and is wasted. The ATP molecule is necessary for almost all manifestations of cell activity, therefore, it is not surprising that the activity of living cells is primarily aimed at the synthesis of ATP. This process consists of complex sequential reactions using potential chemical energy contained in molecules.

Anabolism is closely related to catabolism, since new substances are obtained from the breakdown products of nutrients. If anabolism is aimed at the formation of composite structures of cells and tissues, then catabolism transforms complex molecules into simple ones. Simple molecules are partially used for biosynthesis (formation organic matter from simple compounds under the action of biocatalyst enzymes), and are partially excreted from the body in the form of breakdown products such as urea, ammonia, carbon dioxide and water.

The speed of the metabolic process varies from person to person. The most important factor influencing the metabolic rate is body weight, or rather the total muscle mass, internal organs and bones. The greater your body weight, the higher your metabolic rate. Metabolic processes in men proceed, on average, 10-20% faster, this is due to the presence of more fat deposits in women, while in men muscle tissue more. According to scientists, the metabolism of women who have crossed the 30-year mark decreases by 2-3% every next ten years. However, not only women, but also men are at risk of decreased metabolism with age. As a rule, this is due to a lack of physical activity and hormonal imbalance. You can speed up your metabolism with the help of fractional meals. with increasing physical activity, it significantly slows down the metabolic process - the body prepares for possible starvation and begins to intensively accumulate fat.

Metabolism is also directly influenced by factors such as heredity and work. thyroid gland. With a lack of the thyroid hormone L-thyroxine, metabolism is markedly reduced, which causes “unexplained” obesity. With an excess of this hormone, on the contrary, metabolism accelerates so much that it can threaten physical exhaustion. It is noteworthy that in both cases there is a catastrophic lack of vital energy.

According to research, the state of the emotional background directly affects the production of hormones. During the stage of excitement or excitement, the hormone adrenaline is released into the blood, increasing the metabolic rate. And in a state, hundreds of calories are burned per day. However, no matter how paradoxical it may seem, chronic stress leads to obesity. The thing is that in a state of stress the adrenal glands secrete into the blood large number the hormone cortisol, which helps increase blood sugar levels and, if sugar is not used, it quickly turns into fat reserves.

Few people manage to maintain their constant weight throughout their lives, so fluctuations in one direction or another are most likely the rule. If you do not attach great importance to short-term minor fluctuations in weight, then the approximate graph looks like this: at 11-25 years of age there is a minimum weight with a high energy requirement; at 25-35 years of age, weight stabilizes and begins to gradually creep up until approximately 65 years of age, and then begins to decline. However, this is a very average picture, since each person is individual and has his own metabolic process unique to him.

Metabolism, or metabolism, is a set of chemical reactions that allow the body to remain alive. Our internal laboratory works hard all the time, and even the simplest action is ensured by coordinated work internal systems. To begin with, the body breaks down the macronutrients we eat - proteins, fats and carbohydrates - into simpler substances. At the same time, a certain energy, measured in kilocalories, is released, and with its help the body builds new molecules.

Molecules are built depending on the purpose: mental activity, physical activity, hair growth, hormone synthesis. After a heavy lunch, when you were unable to expend all the energy that appeared, substances are sent to storage areas - usually to the thighs, buttocks, and stomach. But this whole theory does not move us at all towards understanding - why do some people eat and not get fat, while others literally swell with air?

Metabolism everyone human is unique

The quality of metabolism depends on many factors - weight, age, the ratio of fat and muscle tissue, the state of the microflora of the gastrointestinal tract. But the most important factor is genes. People at the genetic level are 99.9% identical to each other, but the remaining tenth is what changes everything. There are no people with the same metabolism in the world.

Now there are methods that can be used to analyze exactly those genes responsible for the behavior of enzymes and energy expenditure, and based on this data, build nutrition. If you have a bad variant of the FABP2 gene, you will have to limit the fat content of foods. But another person’s body does not digest carbohydrates well - he will have to limit his intake.

Same genetic analysis helps to understand what kind of physical activity is suitable for a person. The body has receptors responsible for the efficiency of spending reserves in response to stress caused by physical activity. People use their fat reserves differently. Some people need a fast, long run to burn fat best. And others will lose weight from walking.

Metabolism could be better

The modern world also affects the human body. Over the past 50-100 years, the human body has been forced to get used to completely new products: fast carbohydrates, canned food, fast food, GMOs, etc. People began to eat more and move less. And the genome, unfortunately, cannot change so quickly.

The body is aimed at storing fats, which is simply incompatible with modern nutrition, which consists of almost 70% fat. This is why there is a real epidemic of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases. But it is possible to normalize metabolism. All you need is to eat better and move more. The basics are still the same: you need to eat fractionally, fully, paying attention to each of the three macronutrients.

10 Rules for a Great Metabolism

Poor metabolism: myth or reality?

There is no such thing as a bad metabolism; it can only be impaired in people with serious thyroid diseases. The metabolic rate can be slow, and it slows down only due to some reasons. Metabolic processes slow down with a serious lack of a vitamin or an unbalanced intake of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. The speed returns to its previous level when conditions return. There is no need to justify your lack of exercise and love of food with poor metabolism.

As you age, your metabolism slows down. This is a fact. After 35 years it is necessary to increase physical activity and reduce portion sizes. Well-trained people eat a lot and don’t get fat. Maintaining muscle tissue requires more energy than maintaining fat tissue. A person with developed muscles spends more calories than a person with fat.

Without proper nutrition and there will be no miracles in sports. Not a glass will help warm water in the morning, no spice in food. Yes, pepper can boost your metabolism by up to 50% by increasing your heart rate and increasing your energy expenditure. But these methods alone will not make you slimmer. You need to exercise and eat right.

More interesting things

Many people believe that metabolism and the speed of food digestion are synonymous, but this is wrong. We give the correct definition of metabolism and understand what its speed depends on and what problems and failures can lead to.

Metabolism (also called metabolism) is the basis of vital important processes occurring in the body. Metabolism refers to all biochemical processes occurring inside cells. The body constantly takes care of itself, using (or storing in reserve depots) received nutrients, vitamins, minerals and trace elements to ensure all body functions.

For metabolism, controlled including by the endocrinological and nervous systems, great importance have hormones and enzymes (enzymes). Traditionally, the liver is considered the most important organ in metabolism.

In order to perform all its functions, the body needs energy, which it draws from proteins, fats and carbohydrates obtained with food. Therefore, the process of assimilation of food can be considered one of necessary conditions for metabolism.

Metabolism occurs automatically. This is what allows cells, organs and tissues to recover independently after the influence of certain external factors or internal failures.

What is the essence of metabolism?

Metabolism is change, transformation, processing chemicals, as well as energy. This process consists of 2 main interconnected stages:

Catabolism (from Greek word"destruction"). Catabolism involves the breakdown of complex organic substances entering the body into simpler ones. This is a special energy exchange that occurs during the oxidation or breakdown of a certain chemical or organic substance. As a result, energy is released in the body (most of it is dissipated in the form of heat, the remainder is later used in anabolic reactions and in the formation of ATP);
Anabolism (from the Greek word for "rise"). During this phase, important substances for the body are formed - amino acids, sugar and protein. This plastic exchange requires large amounts of energy.

In simple terms, catabolism and anabolism are two equal processes in metabolism, successively and cyclically replacing each other.

What affects the speed of metabolic processes

One of possible reasons slow metabolism is a genetic defect. There is an assumption that the speed of the energy burning process depends not only on age (we will discuss this below) and body structure, but also on the presence of a certain individual gene.

In 2013, a study was conducted that found that the cause of slow metabolism may be a mutation in KSR2, a gene responsible for metabolism. If there is a defect in it, then its carrier or carrier will experience not only an increased appetite, but also a slower appetite (compared to healthy people), basal metabolic rate ( approx. ed.: by basal metabolism we mean the minimum amount of energy that the body needs in the morning for normal functioning in a lying position and in a waking state before the first meal). However, given the fact that this genetic defect is present in less than 1% of adults and less than 2% of overweight children, this hypothesis can hardly be called the only correct one.

With much greater confidence, scientists say that metabolic rate depends on a person’s gender.

Thus, Dutch researchers found that men actually have a more active metabolism than women. They explain this phenomenon by the fact that men usually have more muscle mass, their bones are heavier, and the percentage of fat in the body is lower, so that at rest (we are talking about the basal metabolism), that when moving they consume more energy.

Metabolism also slows down with age, and hormones are to blame for this. So, the older a woman is, the less estrogen her body produces: this causes the appearance (or increase of existing) fat deposits in the abdominal area. In men, testosterone levels decrease, which leads to a decrease in muscle mass. In addition - and this time we are talking about people of both sexes - over time, the body begins to produce less and less growth hormone somatotropin, which is also designed to stimulate the breakdown of fat.

Answer 5 questions to find out how fast your metabolism is!

Do you often feel hot? People with good exchange substances, as a rule, are hotter more often than people with poor (slow) metabolism, they freeze much less. If you have not entered the premenopausal period, then a positive answer to this question can be considered one of the signs that your metabolism is in order.

How quickly do you recover? If you are prone to rapid weight gain, then it can be assumed that your metabolism is not functioning quite correctly. With proper metabolism, the energy received is spent almost immediately, and is not stored as fat in the depot.

Do you often feel cheerful and energetic? People with a slow metabolism often feel tired and overwhelmed.

Do you digest food quickly? People with good metabolism usually boast good digestion. Frequent constipation are often a signal that something is wrong with the metabolism.

How often and how much do you eat? Do you often feel hungry and eat a lot? Good appetite usually indicates that the food is quickly absorbed by the body and is a sign of a fast metabolism. But, of course, this is not a reason to refuse proper nutrition and active image life.

Note that too quick exchange The substance that many people dream of is also fraught with problems: it can lead to insomnia, nervousness, weight loss and even problems with the heart and blood vessels.

How to establish exchanges using nutrition?

There are quite a lot of foods that can have a beneficial effect on metabolism, for example:

vegetables rich in coarse fiber (beets, celery, cabbage, carrots);
lean meat (skinless chicken fillet, veal);
green tea, citrus fruits, ginger;
fish rich in phosphorus (especially sea fish);
exotic fruits (avocados, coconuts, bananas);
greens (dill, parsley, basil).

Check to see if you're making any eating mistakes that are causing your metabolism to slow down unnecessarily!

Mistake #1. There are too few healthy fats in your diet

Are you interested in products labeled light? Be sure to make sure you consume enough unsaturated fatty acids, which are found in salmon or avocado. They also help keep insulin levels within normal limits and prevent your metabolism from slowing down.

Mistake #2. Your diet contains a lot of semi-finished and ready-made foods

Study the labels carefully; most likely, you will find that sugar is included in even those products where it should not be present at all. It is he who is responsible for surges in blood glucose. Don't put your body on a food roller coaster. After all, the body regards such changes as a signal that it is time to store more fat.\

Mistake #3. You often ignore hunger pangs and skip meals

It is important not only what you eat, but also when you eat it (you need to eat regularly and at the same time). Anyone who waits until their stomach begins to cramp with hunger cramps (or ignores the body's signals altogether) risks negatively affecting their metabolic rate. Nothing good can be expected in this case. At least, brutal attacks of hunger in the evenings, which cannot be avoided, definitely do not fall into the “good” category.

Causes and consequences of metabolic failures

Among the reasons for the failure metabolic processes can be called pathological changes in the functioning of the adrenal glands, pituitary gland and thyroid gland.

In addition, the prerequisites for failure include non-compliance with the diet (dry food, frequent overeating, morbid obsession with strict diets), as well as poor heredity.

There are a number external signs, by which you can independently learn to recognize the problems of catabolism and anabolism:

underweight or overweight;
somatic fatigue and swelling of the upper and lower extremities;
weakened nail plates and brittle hair;
skin rashes, pimples, peeling, pallor or redness of the skin.

If your metabolism is excellent, your body will be slim, your hair and nails will be strong, your skin will be healthy. cosmetic defects, and health is good.

Text: Olga Lukinskaya

THE WORD “METABOLISM” IS OFTEN USED IN APPROPRIATE AND INAPPROPRIATE, but not everyone fully understands what metabolism is and according to what laws it functions. To get to the bottom of this, we asked a sports nutritionist, member International Association Sports Sciences (ISSA) Leonid Ostapenko and clinical psychologist, founder of the Eating Disorders Clinic Anna Nazarenko, what you need to know about metabolism, and how not to harm your body in trying to change it.

What is metabolism

Metabolism, or metabolism, combines all chemical reactions in the body. They occur continuously and include catabolism - the breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates to produce energy and "building materials" - and anabolism, that is, the creation of cells or the synthesis of hormones and enzymes. Our skin, nails and hair and all other tissues are regularly renewed: for their construction and restoration after injuries (for example, for healing wounds) we need “building blocks” - primarily proteins and fats - and “ labor force" - energy. All this is called metabolism.

Metabolism refers to the turnover of energy necessary for such processes. Its expenses during the main metabolism are calories, which are spent on maintaining body temperature, functioning of the heart, kidneys, lungs, nervous system. By the way, with a basic metabolism of 1,300 kilocalories, 220 of them are spent on brain function. Metabolism can be divided into main (or basal), which occurs constantly, including during sleep, and additional, associated with any activity other than rest. All living organisms, including plants, have a metabolism: it is believed that the hummingbird has the fastest metabolism, and the sloth has the slowest.

What affects metabolic rate

We often hear the expressions “slow metabolism” or “fast metabolism”: they often mean the ability to stay slim without restrictions on food and exercise, or, conversely, the tendency to gain weight easily. But metabolic rate is reflected not only in appearance. In people with fast metabolism, vital important functions, for example, the work of the heart and brain, more energy is spent in the same time than those with a slow metabolism. With equal loads, one person can have croissants for breakfast and lunch, instantly burning all the calories received, while the other will rapidly gain weight - this means that they have different speed basal exchange. It depends on many factors, many of which cannot be influenced.

Metabolic factors that cannot be corrected are called static: heredity, gender, body type, age. However, there are conditions that can be influenced. Such dynamic parameters include body weight, psycho-emotional state, diet organization, level of hormone production, and physical activity. The speed of exchange depends on the interaction of all of the above. If you correctly adjust the factors of the second group, you can speed up or slow down your metabolism to some extent. The result will depend on the characteristics of genetics and the stability of the entire metabolic system.

What is metabolism?

Have you ever wondered why some people eat everything (not forgetting buns and confectionery), at the same time, they look as if they haven’t eaten for several days, while others, on the contrary, constantly count calories, go on diets, visit fitness gyms and still cannot cope with extra pounds. So what's the secret? It turns out it's all about metabolism!

So what is metabolism? And why do people who have high metabolic rates never become obese or overweight? Speaking about metabolism, it is important to note the following that this is the metabolism occurring in the body and all chemical changes that begin from the moment nutrients enter the body until they are removed from the body into the external environment. The metabolic process is all the reactions that occur in the body, thanks to which the construction of structural tissue elements, cells occurs, as well as all those processes thanks to which the body receives the energy it needs so much for normal maintenance.

Metabolism plays a huge role in our lives, because thanks to all these reactions and chemical changes, we get everything we need from food: fats, carbohydrates, proteins, as well as vitamins, minerals, amino acids, healthy fiber, organic acids, etc. d.

According to its properties, metabolism can be divided into two main parts - anabolism and catabolism, that is, into processes that contribute to the creation of all necessary organic substances and to destructive processes. Namely, anabolic processes contribute to the “transformation” of simple molecules into more complex ones. And all these processes are associated with energy consumption. Catabolic processes, on the contrary, release the body from waste products such as carbon dioxide, urea, water and ammonia, which leads to the release of energy, that is, roughly speaking, urine metabolism occurs.

What is cellular metabolism?

What is cellular metabolism or the metabolism of a living cell? It is well known that every living cell in our body is a well-coordinated and organized system. The cell contains various structures, large macromolecules, which help it break down due to hydrolysis (that is, the splitting of the cell under the influence of water) into the smallest components.

In addition, the cells contain a large amount of potassium and very little sodium, despite the fact that the cellular environment contains a lot of sodium, and, on the contrary, much less potassium. In addition, the cell membrane is designed in such a way that it facilitates the penetration of both sodium and potassium. Unfortunately, various structures and enzymes can destroy this established structure.

And the cell itself is far from the ratio of potassium and sodium. Such “harmony” is achieved only after the death of a person in the process of mortal autolysis, that is, the digestion or decomposition of the body under the influence of its own enzymes.

Why do cells need energy?

First of all, cells simply need energy in order to support the functioning of a system that is far from equilibrium. Therefore, in order for a cell to be in its normal state (even if far from equilibrium), it must certainly receive the energy necessary for it. And this rule is a prerequisite for normal cellular functioning. Along with this, other work takes place aimed at interacting with the environment.

For example, if there is a contraction in muscle cells, or in kidney cells, and even urine begins to form, or nerve impulses appear in nerve cells, and in the cells responsible for gastrointestinal tract, did the release of digestive enzymes begin, or did the secretion of hormones begin in the cells of the endocrine glands? Or, for example, did firefly cells begin to glow, and in fish cells, for example, electricity discharges appeared? To prevent all this from happening, this is what energy is needed for.

What are the sources of energy

In the above examples we see. That the cell uses the energy obtained through the structure of adenosine triphosphate or (ATP) for its work. Thanks to it, the cell is saturated with energy, the release of which can flow between phosphate groups and serve for further work. But, at the same time, with a simple hydrolytic cleavage of phosphate (ATP) bonds, the resulting energy will not become available to the cell; in this case, the energy will be wasted as heat.

This process consists of two successive stages. Each such stage involves an intermediate product, which is designated HF. In the equations below, X and Y stand for two completely different organic substances, the letter F stands for phosphate, and the abbreviation ADP stands for adenosine diphosphate.

Normalization of metabolism - this term has become firmly established in our lives today, and has also become an indicator normal weight, since metabolic disorders in the body or metabolism are very often associated with weight gain, overweight, obesity or insufficiency. The rate of metabolic processes in the body can be determined using a metabolic rate test.

What is basal metabolic rate?! This is an indicator of the intensity of energy production by the body. This test It is carried out in the morning on an empty stomach, during passivity, that is, at rest. A qualified specialist measures (O2) oxygen absorption as well as the body's release of (CO2). When comparing data, they find out what percentage the body burns of incoming nutrients.

The activity of metabolic processes is also influenced by hormonal system, thyroid and endocrine glands Therefore, when identifying and treating metabolic diseases, doctors also try to identify and take into account the level of functioning of these hormones in the blood and existing diseases of these systems.

Basic methods for studying metabolic processes

By studying the metabolic processes of one (any) of the nutrients, all its changes (that occur with it) are observed from one form entering the body to the final state in which it is excreted from the body.

Methods for studying metabolism today are extremely diverse. In addition, a number of biochemical methods are used for this. One of the methods for studying metabolism is method of using animals or organs.

The test animal is injected with a special substance, and then possible products of changes (metabolites) of this substance are identified from its urine and excrement. The most accurate information can be collected by studying the metabolic processes of a specific organ, for example, the brain, liver or heart. To do this, this substance is injected into the blood, after which metabolites help detect it in the blood coming from this organ.

This procedure is very complex and carries risks, since such research methods often use the method thin flakes or make sections of these organs. Such sections are placed in special incubators, where they are kept at a temperature (similar to body temperature) in special soluble substances with the addition of the substance whose metabolism is being studied.

With this research method, cells are not damaged, due to the fact that the sections are so thin that the substance easily and freely penetrates the cells and then leaves them. It happens that difficulties arise caused by the slow passage of a special substance through cell membranes.

In this case, to destroy the membranes usually shred tissue, so that a special substance incubates the cell mush. Such experiments have proven that all living cells of the body are capable of oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide and water, and only liver tissue cells can synthesize urea.

Are we using cells?

In terms of their structure, cells represent a very complex organized system. It is well known that a cell consists of a nucleus, cytoplasm, and in the surrounding cytoplasm there are small bodies called organelles. They come in different sizes and consistencies.

Thanks to special techniques, it will be possible to homogenize cell tissues, and then subject them to special separation (differential centrifugation), thus obtaining preparations that will contain only mitochondria, only microsomes, as well as plasma or clear liquid. These drugs are incubated separately with the compound whose metabolism is being studied in order to determine exactly which subcellular structures are involved in the sequential changes.

There have been cases where the initial reaction began in the cytoplasm, and its product underwent changes in microsomes, and after that, changes were observed with other reactions with mitochondria. Incubation of the studied substance with tissue homogenate or living cells most often does not reveal any individual stages related to metabolism. One after another experiments in which certain subcellular structures are used for incubation help to understand the entire chain of these events.

How to use radioactive isotopes

To study certain metabolic processes of a substance, you need to:

use analytical methods to determine a given substance and its metabolites;
it is necessary to use methods that will help distinguish the administered substance from the same substance, but already present in this drug.

Compliance with these requirements was the main obstacle during the study of metabolic processes in the body, until radioactive isotopes were discovered, as well as 14C, a radioactive carbohydrate. And after the advent of 14C and instruments that made it possible to measure even weak radioactivity, all of the above difficulties came to an end. After which, things went uphill with the measurement of metabolic processes, as they say.

Now that the special biological drug(for example, suspensions of mitochondria) a labeled 14C fatty acid is added, then, after this, there is no need to do any special analyzes to determine the products that affect its conversion. And to find out the rate of use, it has now become possible to simply measure the radioactivity of the mitochondrial fractions obtained successively.

This technique helps not only to understand how to normalize metabolism, but also thanks to it you can easily distinguish the molecules of the radioactive fatty acid introduced experimentally from the fatty acid molecules already present in the mitochondria at the very beginning of the experiment.

Electrophoresis and... chromatography

In order to understand what and how metabolism is normalized, that is, how metabolism is normalized, it is also necessary to use methods that will help separate mixtures that contain organic substances in small quantities. One of the most important such methods, which is based on the phenomenon of adsorption, is considered to be the chromatography method. Thanks to this method the mixture of components is separated.

In this case, the components of the mixture are separated, which is carried out either by adsorption on a sorbent or thanks to paper. During separation by adsorption on a sorbent, that is, when such special glass tubes (columns) begin to be filled, with gradual and subsequent elution, that is, with subsequent leaching of each of the existing components.

The electrophoresis separation method directly depends on the presence of signs, as well as the number of ionized charges of the molecules. Electrophoresis is also carried out on one of the inactive carriers, such as cellulose, rubber, starch or, ultimately, paper.

One of the most highly sensitive and effective methods mixture separation is gas chromatography. This separation method is used only if the substances needed for separation are in a gaseous state or, for example, can go into this state at any time.

How are enzymes released?

To find out how enzymes are released, it is necessary to understand that this is the last place in this series: an animal, then an organ, then a tissue section, and then a fraction of cellular organelles and a homogenate that contains enzymes that catalyze a certain chemical reaction. Isolation of enzymes in purified form has become an important direction in the study of metabolic processes.

The combination and combination of the above methods has revealed the basic metabolic pathways of most organisms inhabiting our planet, including humans. In addition, these methods helped to establish answers to the question of how metabolic processes occur in the body and also helped to clarify the systematic nature of the main stages of these metabolic pathways. Today there are more than a thousand different biochemical reactions, which have already been studied, as well as the enzymes that participate in these reactions have been studied.

Since ATP is necessary for the appearance of any manifestation in the cells of life, it is not surprising that the speed of metabolic processes in fat cells is primarily aimed at synthesizing ATP. To achieve this, sequential reactions of varying complexity are used. Such reactions mainly use chemical potential energy, which is contained in molecules of fats (lipids) and carbohydrates.

Metabolic processes between carbohydrates and lipids

This metabolic process between carbohydrates and lipids is otherwise called ATP synthesis, anaerobic (meaning without the participation of oxygen) metabolism.

The main role of lipids and carbohydrates is that it is the synthesis of ATP that provides simpler compounds, despite the fact that the same processes occurred in the most primitive cells. Only in an oxygen-deprived atmosphere did the complete oxidation of fats and carbohydrates to carbon dioxide become impossible.

Even these most primitive cells used the same processes and mechanisms, thanks to which the very structure of the glucose molecule was rearranged, which synthesized small amounts of ATP. In other words, such processes in microorganisms are called fermentation. Today, the “fermentation” of glucose to the state of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide in yeast has been especially well studied.

In order for all these changes to be completed and a series of intermediate products to be formed, it was necessary to carry out eleven consecutive reactions, which, ultimately, included (phosphates), that is, esters of phosphoric acid, in a number of intermediate products. This phosphate group is transferred to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and also produces ATP. Just two molecules accounted for the net ATP yield (for each glucose molecule produced by the fermentation process). Similar processes were also observed in all living cells of the body, as they supplied the much-needed normal functioning energy. Such processes are often called anaerobic respiration of cells, although this is not entirely correct.

In both mammals and humans, this process is called glycolysis, and its final product is lactic acid, not CO2 (carbon dioxide) or alcohol. With the exception of the last two stages, the entire sequence of glycolysis reactions is considered almost identical to the process that occurs in yeast cells.

Metabolism is aerobic, meaning it uses oxygen

Obviously, with the advent of oxygen in the atmosphere, thanks to plant photosynthesis, thanks to Mother Nature, a mechanism appeared that made it possible to ensure the complete oxidation of glucose to water and CO2. This aerobic process allowed a net release of ATP (out of thirty-eight molecules, based on each molecule of glucose, only oxidized).

This process of cells using oxygen to produce energy-rich compounds is today known as aerobic cellular respiration. Such respiration is carried out by cytoplasmic enzymes (as opposed to anaerobic), and oxidative processes take place in the mitochondria.

Here pyruvic acid, which is an intermediate product, after being formed in the anaerobic phase, is then oxidized to the state of CO2 through six successive reactions, where in each reaction a pair of their electrons is transferred to the acceptor common coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated as (NAD). This sequence of reactions is called the tricarboxylic acid cycle, as well as the citric acid cycle or the Krebs cycle, which leads to the fact that each glucose molecule forms two molecules of pyruvic acid. During this reaction, twelve electron pairs are removed from the glucose molecule for further oxidation.

The source of energy is... lipids

It turns out that carbohydrates, just like carbohydrates, can act as a source of energy. fatty acids. The oxidation reaction of fatty acids occurs due to the sequence of splitting off a two-carbon fragment from a fatty acid (or rather, its molecule) with the appearance of acetyl coenzyme A (in other words, this is acetyl-CoA) and the simultaneous transfer of two pairs of electrons to the chain of their transfer itself.

Thus, the resulting acetyl-CoA is the same component of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, whose further fate is not very different from the acetyl-CoA that is supplied by carbohydrate metabolism. This means that the mechanisms that synthesize ATP during the oxidation of both glucose metabolites and fatty acids are almost identical.

If the energy entering the body is obtained practically due to only one process of fatty acid oxidation (for example, during fasting, with a disease such as sugar diathesis, etc.), then, in this case, the intensity of the appearance of acetyl-CoA will exceed the intensity of its oxidation in the tricarboxylic acid cycle itself. In this case, acetyl-CoA molecules (which will be superfluous) will begin to react with each other. Thanks to this process, acetoacetic and b-hydroxybutyric acids will appear. This accumulation can cause ketosis, a type of acidosis that can cause severe diabetes and even death.

Why energy reserves?!

In order to somehow acquire an additional supply of energy, for example, for animals that feed irregularly and not systematically, it is simply necessary to somehow stock up on the necessary energy. Such energy reserves are produced through food reserves, which include all the same fats and carbohydrates.

Turns out, fatty acids can be stored in the form of neutral fats, which are found both in adipose tissue and in the liver . And carbohydrates, when they enter the gastrointestinal tract in large quantities, begin to hydrolyze into glucose and other sugars, which, when they enter the liver, are synthesized into glucose. And then a giant polymer begins to be synthesized from glucose by combining glucose residues, as well as by splitting off water molecules.

Sometimes the residual amount of glucose in glycogen molecules reaches 30,000. And if the need for energy is felt, then glycogen again begins to break down into glucose during chemical reaction, the product of the latter is glucose phosphate. This glucose phosphate enters the pathway of glycolysis, which is part of the pathway responsible for the oxidation of glucose. Glucose phosphate can also undergo a hydrolysis reaction in the liver itself, and the glucose thus formed is delivered to the cells of the body along with the blood.

How does synthesis from carbohydrates into lipids occur?

Do you like carbohydrate foods? It turns out that if the amount of carbohydrates received from food at one time exceeds permissible norm, in this case, carbohydrates go into “reserve” in the form of glycogen, that is, Excess carbohydrate foods are converted into fats. First, acetyl-CoA is formed from glucose, and then it begins to be synthesized in the cytoplasm of the cell for long-chain fatty acids.

This “conversion” process can be described as the normal oxidative process of fat cells. After which, fatty acids begin to be deposited in the form of triglycerides, that is, neutral fats that are deposited (mainly in problem areas) in various parts bodies.

If the body urgently needs energy, then neutral fats undergo hydrolysis, as well as fatty acids begin to enter the blood. Here they are saturated with molecules of albumins and globulins, that is, plasma proteins, and then begin to be absorbed by other, very different cells. Animals do not have mechanisms that can carry out the synthesis of glucose and fatty acids, but plants have them.

Synthesis of nitrogen-containing compounds

In the animal body, amino acids are used not only for protein biosynthesis, but also as starting material ready for the synthesis of certain nitrogen-containing compounds. An amino acid such as tyrosine becomes a precursor to hormones such as norepinephrine and adrenaline. And glycerol (the simplest amino acid) serves as the starting material for the biosynthesis of purines, which are part of the nucleic acid, as well as porphyrins and cytochromes.

The precursor to nucleic acid pyrimidines is aspartic acid, and the methionine group begins to be transferred during the synthesis of creatine, sarcosine and choline. Predecessor nicotinic acid is tryptophan, and from valine (which is formed in plants) a vitamin such as pantothenic acid can be synthesized. And these are just some examples of the use of the synthesis of nitrogen-containing compounds.

How does lipid metabolism occur?

Typically, lipids enter the body in the form of triglycerides of fatty acids. Once in the intestines under the influence of enzymes produced by the pancreas, they begin to undergo hydrolysis. Here they are again synthesized as neutral fats, after which they enter either the liver or the blood, and can also be deposited as a reserve in adipose tissue.

We have already said that fatty acids can also be newly synthesized from previously appeared carbohydrate precursors. It should also be noted that, despite the fact that in animal cells, simultaneous incorporation of one double bond in long-chain fatty acid molecules can be observed. These cells cannot include a second or even a third dual bond.

And since fatty acids with three and two double bonds play important role V metabolic processes animals (including humans), in their essence they are important nutritional components, one might say, vitamins. That is why linolenic (C18:3) and linoleic (C18:2) are also called essential fatty acids. It was also discovered that in cells linolenic acid can also include a double fourth bond. Thanks to the elongation of the carbon chain, another important participant in metabolic reactions may appear arachidonic acid ( C20:4).

During lipid synthesis, fatty acid residues can be observed that are associated with coenzyme A. Thanks to synthesis, these residues are transferred to glycerophosphate, an ester of glycerol and phosphoric acid. As a result of this reaction, a phosphatidic acid compound is formed, where one of its compounds is esterified glycerol phosphoric acid, and the other two are fatty acids.

When neutral fats appear, phosphoric acid will be removed by hydrolysis, and in its place will be a fatty acid resulting from a chemical reaction with acyl-CoA. Coenzyme A itself may appear due to one of the vitamins pantothenic acid. This molecule contains a sulfhydryl group that reacts with acids to form thioesters. In turn, phospholipid phosphatidic acid reacts with nitrogenous bases such as serine, choline and ethanolamine.

Thus, all steroids found in the mammalian body (with the exception of vitamin D) can be independently synthesized by the body itself.

How does protein metabolism occur?

It has been proven that proteins found in all living cells consist of twenty-one types of amino acids, which are connected in different sequences. These amino acids are synthesized by organisms. This synthesis usually results in the formation of an α-keto acid. It is α-keto acid or α-ketoglutaric acid that are involved in nitrogen synthesis.

The human body, like the body of many animals, has managed to retain the ability to synthesize all available amino acids (with the exception of a few essential amino acids), which must be supplied with food.

How does protein synthesis occur?

This process usually occurs as follows. Each amino acid in the cytoplasm of the cell reacts with ATP and then adjoins the final group of the ribonucleic acid molecule, which is specific for this amino acid. The complicated molecule then connects to the ribosome, determined by the position of a more elongated ribonucleic acid molecule, which connects to the ribosome.

After all the complex molecules are lined up, a break occurs between the amino acid and the ribonucleic acid, neighboring amino acids begin to be synthesized and thus a protein is obtained. Normalization of metabolism occurs due to the harmonious synthesis of protein-carbohydrate-fat metabolic processes.

So what is organic metabolism?

To better understand and understand metabolic processes, as well as to restore health and improve metabolism, you must adhere to the following recommendations regarding the normalization and restoration of metabolism.

It is important to understand that metabolic processes cannot be reversed. Substances never decompose the simple way reversal of synthesizing reactions. Other enzymes, as well as some intermediate products, necessarily take part in this breakdown. Very often aimed at different sides processes begin to occur in different compartments of the cell. For example, fatty acids can be synthesized in the cytoplasm of a cell under the influence of one particular set of enzymes, and the oxidation process in mitochondria can occur with a completely different set.
In living cells of the body, there are a sufficient number of enzymes in order to speed up the process of metabolic reactions, but despite this, metabolic processes do not always proceed quickly, thus, this indicates the existence in our cells of some regulatory mechanisms that affect metabolic processes. To date, some types of such mechanisms have already been discovered.
One of the factors influencing the decrease in the rate of metabolic processes of a given substance is the entry of this substance into the cell itself. Therefore, the regulation of metabolic processes can be aimed at this factor. For example, if we take insulin, the function of which, as we know, is to facilitate the penetration of glucose into all cells. The rate of “transformation” of glucose, in this case, will depend on the speed at which it arrived. If we consider calcium and iron, when they enter the blood from the intestines, then the rate of metabolic reactions, in this case, will depend on many processes, including regulatory ones.
Unfortunately, not all substances can move freely from one cellular compartment to another. There is also an assumption that intracellular transport is constantly controlled by certain steroid hormones.
Scientists have identified two types of servomechanisms that are responsible for negative feedback in metabolic processes.
Even in bacteria, examples have been noted that prove the presence of some kind of sequential reactions. For example, the biosynthesis of one of the enzymes suppresses the amino acids so necessary for the production of this amino acid.
By studying individual cases of metabolic reactions, it was revealed that the enzyme whose biosynthesis was affected was responsible for the main step in the metabolic pathway leading to the synthesis of the amino acid.
It is important to understand that a small number of building blocks are involved in metabolic and biosynthetic processes, each of which begins to be used for the synthesis of many compounds. These compounds include: acetyl coenzyme A, glycine, glycerophosphate, carbamyl phosphate and others. From these small components, complex and diverse compounds are then built that can be observed in living organisms.
Very rarely simple organic compounds are directly involved in metabolic processes. In order to exhibit their activity, such compounds will have to join some series of compounds that are actively involved in metabolic processes. For example, glucose can begin oxidative processes only after being subjected to esterification with phosphoric acid, and for other subsequent changes it will have to be esterified with uridine diphosphate.
If we consider fatty acids, they also cannot take part in metabolic changes until they form esters with coenzyme A. Moreover, any activator becomes related to one of the nucleotides that are part of the ribonucleic acid or are formed from which something vitamin. Therefore, it becomes clear why we require vitamins only in small quantities. They are consumed thanks to coenzymes, and each coenzyme molecule is used several times throughout its life, in contrast to nutrients, the molecules of which are used once (for example, glucose molecules).

And the last thing! Concluding this topic, I would really like to say that the term “metabolism” itself, if previously meant the synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates and fats in the body, now it is used to designate several thousand enzymatic reactions, which can represent a huge network of interconnected metabolic pathways.

Metabolism. Metabolic processes.